DC Microgrids and Distribution Systems: An

Overview
Ahmed T. Ghareeb, Student Member, IEEE, Ahmed A. Mohamed, Student Member, IEEE, and
Osama A. Mohammed, Fellow, IEEE

AbstractIn this paper, an overview of the most recent

advances in DC power systems is presented. Due to the
significantly increasing interest that DC power systems have been
gaining lately, researchers investigated several of the issues that
need to be considered during this transition interval from current
conventional power systems into modern smart grids involving
DC microgrids. The efforts of these researchers were mostly
directed towards studying the feasibility of implementing DC
distribution on a given application, some DC distribution designrelated aspects such as the system architecture or its voltage level,
or the challenges associated with DC power systems protection.
These research efforts were categorized, presented, discussed and
analyzed in this paper.
Index TermsDC distribution, DC microgrids, DC versus AC,
design, feasibility, protection.

I. INTRODUCTION

HE debate of AC- versus DC-distribution is historical and

as old as the evolution of the first commercial power
systems themselves. This debate, which took place in the
nineteenth century and was mostly led by the two biggest
electrical companies at that time: Edisons and
Westinghouses, apparently led to the implementation of AC
distribution in the vast majority of our power systems due to
reasons that made much sense at that time such as; the
transformers offered a great and simple means to step up the
voltage and consequently widen the area covered by a
distribution system, and the invention of poly-phase AC
machines that helped people find an alternative to DC
machines, which had remained as the only option for some
time. However, there are some exceptions; some distribution
systems employ DC distribution due to some unique features
they have. For instance, in traction power systems, DC
distribution is used due to the fact that series DC motors are
mostly used in traction applications because of its high starting
torque and speed regulation simplicity. Another example is
distribution systems with sensitive loads such as data centers,
in such systems, there are some sensitive loads that cannot be
interrupted even if the main source of power is lost and hence
they are typically supported by uninterruptible power supply
(UPS) systems. It is more economical to distribute the power
in DC form in such systems.
Current power systems encounter changes on both the load

978-1-4799-1303-9/13/$31.00 2013 IEEE

and source sides, e.g. the increased penetration of DC sinks

such as electronic loads, and DC power sources such as most
of the renewable energy sources. The impacts of these changes
lately motivated several researchers to raise a fundamental yet
essential question, is AC distribution still the most convenient
means to distribute electrical power or it is time to reconsider
employing DC distribution systems? There are significant
benefits that can be gained by implementing DC microgrids.
For instance, eliminating the AC-DC conversion stages of the
electronic devices (computers, laptops, electronic lights,
variable frequency drives, etc.), which represent 50% of the
electric load in many buildings today, could lower the losses
on the power going to the device from 15%-40% to 10%-15%.
Another great benefit of DC microgrids is their inherited
capability of facilitating static storage integration. On the other
hand, there are several obstacles against DC systems such as
the lack of federal incentives or utility regulatory practices that
would entice utility companies to invest on improving energy
efficiency. Moreover, for DC microgrids, the National Electric
Code (NEC) does not yet include enough standards and codes
for DC systems, which would definitely lead the electricians
and electric engineers to get concerned if they are involved in
developing one. Fortunately, in terms of standard, there has
been lately an organized and successful movement by the
Emerge Alliance to develop new standards for DC systems.
In this paper, the authors will present an exhaustive
literature survey and overview of the research efforts
conducted on several issues such as the design, control,
operation and protection of DC systems. The objective of the
paper is to give an integrated background about what has been
already achieved in these areas, either by giving details about
the topics or guidance on where to find information about
them. The paper also attempts to develop a simplified
conceptual path to the newly researchers in the field of DC
power systems on what the challenges of DC systems are and
how their formers handled them. The paper is organized as
follows; in section II, a brief description of some of the
currently existing DC power systems and their applications
will be presented, section III discusses some of the feasibility
studies presented in literature, moreover, some of the attractive
factors of utilizing DC in distribution systems will be
provided. In section IV, issues and challenges associated with
the design of DC power systems will be addressed as well as

some of the proposed solutions and design techniques that can

be found in the literature. Finally, in section V, some of the
conclusions that can be derived from this overview will be
listed.
II. EXISTING DC POWER SYSTEMS
There are several power systems that typically employ DC
distribution. Some of these systems include,
A. Spacecraft
Spacecraft systems involve a large number of solar panels,
DC-DC converters, batteries, battery chargers and DC loads
[1], [2]. Hence, DC distribution is employed. A good example
is the NASA International Space Station (ISS) requiring over
100 kW. The ISS is composed of two relatively independent
DC systems with different voltage levels. The American
system runs at 120 V and has solar power modules with a
capacity of 76 kW. Whereas, the Russian system is divided
into two voltage levels; 120 V and 28 V components, and it
has 29 kW solar power modules. The two systems are linked
with bi-directional DC-DC converters to enable power transfer
[1]-[4].
B. Data centers
Some current data center power systems are AC and some
are DC. They store and transfer huge amounts of digital
information such as internet, cellular communications, and
credit card transactions. The main feature that must be
maintained in a data center power system is reliability [5]-[7];
moreover low cost has to be also ac considered since the
energy consumption of data centers is expected to be around
20% of the total cost. The high penetration of UPS systems in
data centers makes DC distribution a more economical and
efficient option because of the eliminated conversion stages
[8], [9].
C. Telecommunication
Telecommunication power systems, similar to data center
power systems, are designed to transfer tremendous amount of
data. They also require high reliability and efficiency at a low
cost. Therefore, DC distribution is used. An example is the
48V power system in the telecommunication central office.
The reliability of that system is five nines [10]-[12].
D. Traction
DC distribution is used in traction power systems, such as
trolleybuses, trams, underground railways, mainly because DC
motors are typically used in this application [13]-[16]. Even
for traction systems that use induction motors (IM) [17],
interfacing with DC supply is much easier and reduces
conversion stages. Consequently, system efficiency and
controllability will be increased. Moreover, using DC
distribution help designers use a single conductor since the
rails can be used as the return path for the current. DC
distribution in traction power systems supplies the vehicles and
other auxiliary loads on them. Their supply voltage ranges
among 600 V, 750 V or even up to 1 kV [18], [19]. Load flow

problem and description of DC traction system are discussed

in [20].
E. Shipboard power systems
Normally, shipboard power systems involve a mechanical
system for propulsion along with an electrical system for
weapons, communication, navigation, hotel and auxiliary
loads. However, in integrated power systems (IPS), these two
energy systems are combined seeking an increased reliability
during normal sailing and battle conditions. One of the options
that are very likely to be commonly used in IPS is the DC
zonal distribution system [21]-[23], which assures several
advantages other than the increased reliability such as the
facilitation of protection since the sources and loads are
distributed into different zones each with its own converters. A
practical implemented example of such system is the 15 kW
Naval Combat Survivability (NCS) zonal DC distribution
testbed setup developed at Purdue University and the
University of Missouri-Rolla with grants from the US Navy to
examine the various aspects related to that system. Medium
voltage DC distribution is another architecture that is also
extensively investigated to be implemented on future
shipboard power systems [21]-[24].
III. FEASIBILITY OF DC DISTRIBUTION POWER SYSTEMS
Recently, much effort was paid to study the feasibility of
using DC in distribution systems by several researchers. Some
of these efforts will be summarized in this section.
D. J. Hammerstrom, presented in [25] a model to compare
between the overall conversion efficiencies of AC and DC
distribution topologies for residential applications. Based on
the authors assertion, each power conversion stage loses about
2.5% of the energy it converts, it was shown that DC systems
incorporating fuel cell or other local DC generation has
favorable conversion losses. This conclusion was assured by
the model presented in [26] by G. Seo et al. They presented a
mathematical model to analyze the losses of power
components of DC distribution systems. It was shown that the
converter efficiency increases as the power capacity and load
becomes high. A study carried out by NTT facility (Japan) to
compare between AC UPS and DC power supply from the
availability point of view show that the reliability of DC
supply is higher [7].
From the angle of system operation, implementing DC
distribution systems with advanced communication-based
control forming DC microgrids is rather promising to be
implemented on smart grids. Several papers have shown that
DC microgrids can play an effective role in solving some
operational issues on the main grid. In [27], a DC microgrid
involving PV and hybrid energy storage system (super
capacitors and Li-Ion batteries) was used for mitigation of
pulsed (large magnitude and short period) Loads. It was shown
experimentally in [28] that a DC micro grid can be used for
voltage assessment by making use of its capability of injecting
reactive power.
There are other factors that directly influence ones decision

about employing AC or DC in a given system. These factors

can be classified into factors related to sources and others
related to loads:
Sources
There is currently a great leap towards the utilization of
alternative energy sources such as photovoltaic panels, fuels
cells, wind turbines and microturbines. Photovoltaic and fuel
cells yield a DC output voltage, and it is easier and more
efficient to connect them to a DC distribution system directly,
or through a controlled DC/DC converter. Microturbines
generating high-frequency AC are also easier to connect to a
DC system than to an AC system, where generating a
synchronized sinusoidal AC current is required.
Loads
Three main categories of loads; lighting loads, electronic
loads and variable speed drives, can be supplied by DC power.
Newer more-efficient technologies such as compact
fluorescent fixtures and solid-state lighting involve a DC stage
and hence it is more efficient to utilize them in a DC
distribution system [29]. It is also more efficient to use
electronic loads, which exponentially increased lately in every
power system, with DC distribution since they typically use a
switching converter at their input. Variable speed drives
involve a DC bus stage to increase the speed control range,
which also guides us to the preference of DC distribution.
IV. DESIGN OF DC DISTRIBUTION SYSTEMS
Several research contributions were presented recently in
the literature also related to the design o`f DC distribution
systems. The design of DC systems is a crucial task as many
factors have to be taken into consideration especially if the
used equipment is originally designed for AC applications.
One of the basic requirements of a reliable design is to obtain
simplified models that express the load behavior under DC
operation. In [30] authors presented steady state and transient
models for large number of loads (63), it was found that
heating loads can be modeled (in steady state) as pure
resistance and lighting loads can be modeled as a temperature
dependent resistance. The steady state model of a universal
machine is a variable current source, I=YoU+Io, while it was
found that electronic loads that use SMPS (Switch Mode
power supply) behave as constant power loads. This means the
load consumes the same amount of power regardless of load
voltage changes. Methods of short circuit analysis and models
for DC system components are provided in [31]. Regarding the
system design, D. Salomonsson et al. discussed in [32] the
general design issues associated with DC power systems and
different grid layouts. They held a comparison of different
cable configurations. It was shown that a DC five wire
installation is slightly better than that of AC, while for three
wire installations, DC is superior to AC in terms of power
transferring capacity. Since DC current does not have natural
zero crossing, protection of DC systems becomes a hard task.
In the same work, it was suggested to use three phase AC
circuit breakers but with connecting the three contact pairs in

Fig. 1. Configurations of data center power system discussed in [34].

series to eliminate the spark. The authors tested the

performance of some typical loads when operated with DC
power, it was demonstrated that supplying the loads with a DC
supply can prevent disturbance to affect the loads.
Furthermore, D. Salomonsson et al. proposed in [33] a
protection scheme for an LV DC microgrid. This scheme was
studied during different fault events located at different points
on the grid. The results showed that it is possible to use
commercial AC protection devices, such as fuses and CBs, to
protect batteries and loads. However, converters using IGBT
modules are very sensitive to over-currents. Therefore, they
require faster protection, which can be provided by an ultrafast hybrid DC CB. Also, a method for coordination of
protection devices was discussed. It was shown that problems
can arise with high-impedance ground faults. Two grounding
architectures (TN-S & IT) for DC systems were compared.
The same authors proposed in [34] an adaptive control system
for DC microgrids installed in data centers. They compared
two configurations for the data center power system (shown in
Fig. 1). According to the authors, configuration (a) is better
than (b) to avoid generator synchronization and for better
control of power flow, while, (b) can be better than (a) in
terms of power losses and converter size. It can be said here
that other advantages can be added to (b) over (a) such as: 1)
Connecting HVAC to the same DC bus not only increases the
converter size but also increases the energy storage capacity
and consequently increases the cost. Also, it increases the
complexity of protection scheme, operation and transition
modes. 2) Practically, its preferred not to connect high power
loads to the same bus of the sensitive loads to minimize
voltage fluctuations. The main focus of the cited paper was on
system operation and control. Among the eight possible
operation modes and twenty-three transitions, the ones of
interest were defined and discussed. Simulation results showed
that continuous supply for sensitive DC load was guaranteed
by coordinating the main two converters. Authors emphasized
on the importance of having fast detection of AC-grid outage
and fast switches. Another study of different operation
situations and transition between interconnected situations and
islanded situation of DC microgrid was presented in [35], but

with more simplifications and limitations.

In [36], A. Sannino et al. proposed a simplified scheme for
DC distribution system, in which much lower number of
converters is needed in order to increase the overall efficiency.
They studied the feasibility of the proposed system by
simulating its implementation on their own research facility at
the university under actual conditions, and with four different
DC voltage levels 48V, 120V, 230V and 326V. Voltage drops
and power losses have been calculated and compared to that of
the existing AC system. The system was economically
evaluated by calculating installation and operation costs. The
final conclusions were: 1) DC supply can lead to big
advantages if a proper voltage level is chosen; results showed
that 326V is the most suitable. 2) By adding battery bank, they
guaranteed emergency backup power for their critical loads for
much longer time than that guaranteed by commercial UPS
with less costs. 3) It was shown that the commercially
available circuit breakers can be adopted to provide adequate
DC protection, even at relatively high current rating and short
circuit capacity.
M. E. Baran et al. investigated in [37] the neutral voltage
shift phenomenon which is associated with DC/AC power
systems by simulating a small scale shipboard system. As a
solution for this phenomenon they proposed using DC/DC
buck converter with an isolation transformer and grounding the
transformer through high resistance (250 p.u).
In [38], K. Techakittiroj et al. carried out an experiment to
demonstrate the possibility of using the available in market
appliances in DC distribution system without modification.
They supplied compact fluorescent lamp, LED lamp,
television, computer and small motor drive with DC power.
Successful results and improved power quality confirmed the
possibility and plausibility of using DC distribution widely.
Authors emphasized on the idea of co-existence of AC and DC
distribution systems for easier migration towards DC.
H. kakigano et al. presented in [39] a DC microgrid for
residential applications. The system consists of cogeneration
systems connected to the DC distribution line (3 wire,
170V), electric double layer capacitors are used as main
energy storage. System operation under interconnected mode
and intentional islanding mode are demonstrated. They
constructed a laboratory scale experimental system. The
system operation was tested under voltage sag in the utility
grid, disconnection and reconnection to the grid. Experimental
results showed that the system can supply high- quality power
continuously to loads under those conditions.
In [40], J. Jeon et al. proposed a solution for the problem of
arc in plug in/out situations of home appliances when supplied
with DC current. Their solution was based on adding a diode
to the plug. M. Amin et al. compared in [41] between low
voltage distribution systems with different voltage levels (24V
and 48V), and 230V AC distribution system when feeding
different household appliances. Different types of losses were
calculated for each system. They presented a principle for
cable cross section optimization based on comparing the

investment cost of the cable and the cable losses. Results

showed that the 48V DC systems with optimized cable area
have the lowest total energy consumption and the 24V DC
system has very high losses (this was highly expected on the
studied power level).
The concept of power buffer was adopted in [42], the
authors integrated power buffer and load shedding to enhance
the transient performance of DC distribution system. The
power buffer was achieved by a boost converter with bus
capacitor. It was shown that power buffer is suitable for short
term transients, while for long term transients load shedding is
mandatory. Load shedding was based on load classifications
according to their priorities. In [43], Logue et al. utilized
power buffering to prevent voltage violations in DC systems
by controlling the input resistance directly. Some
standardization effort in the subject of DC distribution power
systems and standard key points are listed in [7], the authors
provided a grounding scheme for 380V DC distribution system
used in data centers. Regarding grounding of DC system which
is a complex task, important guidelines and limitations are
provided in NEC [44] article 250, clauses160 through 169.
V. CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK
This work presented an extensive survey for efforts done on
DC systems and DC micro grids. This can be considered as a
serious trial to know where we stand and what we need to
continue towards more efficient, smarter, environment friendly
and economic power systems using DC. In light of this
overview, it can be concluded that the feasibility of adopting
DC systems became evident, especially in the presence of the
advanced power electronics technologies. Voltage selection,
modeling and grounding of DC systems have been well
investigated. However, a lot of work needs to be done on this
topic as it represents a very promising research area. A
complete system design has to be comprehensively
investigated with its practical aspects and impacts. A more
detailed study need to be done on DC operation of equipments
that were designed originally for AC operation. Also,
Architecture and topologies for DC power systems to meet
special requirements of certain loads such as pulse loads can
be the main focus for future research.
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