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A computer, in simple terms, can be defined as an electronic device which accepts data, performs the required
mathematical and logical operations at high speed, and outputs the result.
Data and Information
Data refers to some raw facts or figures, and information implies the processed data.
Characteristics of Computers
Speed: Computers can perform millions of operations per second. The speed of computers is usually given in
nanoseconds (ns) and picoseconds (ps), where 1 ns = 110-9 sec and 1 ps = 110-12 sec.
Versatile: Computers can perform multiple tasks of different nature at the same time.
Memory: Computers have internal or primary memory (storage space) as well as external or secondary memory to store
data and programs.
Accuracy: A computer always gives accurate results, provided the correct data and instructions are input to it. If the
input data is wrong, then the output will also be erroneous. This is called garbage-in, garbage-out (GIGO).
Automation: Computers perform a task without any user intervention.
Diligence: Unlike humans, computers never get tired of a repetitive task.
No IQ: Computers do not have any decision-making abilities of their own. They need guidance to perform various tasks.
Economical: Computers are considered as short-term investments for achieving long-term gains. They save time,
money, and energy.
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Q) List and explain the Generations of Computers
The word Generation refers to the different advancements in computer technology.
The focus of every new generation has been on size, speed, power, and efficient computer memory.
First Generation (1940-1956): Vacuum Tubes
Advantage : Fastest calculating devices of their time
Disadvantages : Generated a lot of heat , Consumed a lot of electricity , Bulky in size, Prone to frequent hardware
Required constant maintenance because of the low mean time between failures, Limited commercial use Very
expensive.
Second Generation (1956-1963): Transistors
Advantages : Consumed less electricity , Generated less heat, Faster, cheaper, smaller, and more reliable, Could be
programmed using assembly and high-level languages, Had faster primary memory and a larger secondary memory
Disadvantage : Transistors had to be assembled manually, which made commercial production of computers difficult
and expensive.
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Gaming: Computers are programmed to play games such as chess and checkers. More recent examples of such
gaming systems include PlayStation by Sony.
Natural languages: Computers are programmed to understand and respond to natural human languages.
Neural networks: Systems are programmed to simulate intelligence by reproducing the physical connections
that take place in animal brains.
Robotics: Computers are programmed to look, listen, and react to other sensory stimuli.
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Q ) Classification of Computers
Supercomputers
Used to process large amounts of data and to solve complex scientific problems
Mainly used for weather forecasting, nuclear energy research, aircraft design, automotive design, online
banking, etc.
Some examples of supercomputers are CRAY-1, CRAY-2, Control Data CYBER 205, and ETA A-10
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Mainframe Computers
Minicomputers
Supercomputers
Very expensive
environment
conditioning
Prime Computer
Microcomputers
Desktop PCs
Laptops
Workstations
desktop computer
Single-user computers
touchpad
processing speed
Handheld Computers
environment
Network Computers
storage capacity
Cellular Phones
Input: The process of entering data and instructions (also known as programs) into the computer system
Storage: The process of saving data and instructions permanently in the computer so that they can be used for
processing. A computer has two types of storage areas:
Primary storage (main memory) is the storage area that is directly accessible by the CPU at very high
speeds
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Secondary storage (secondary or auxiliary memory) supplements the limited storage capacity of the
primary memory
Processing: The process of performing operations on the data as per the instructions specified by the user
(program)
Output: The process of giving the result of data processing to the outside world (external to the computer
system)
Control Unit: It is the central nervous system of the computer system that manages and controls all the other
components
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Applications of Computers
Word Processing, Internet, Digital Video or Audio Composition, Desktop Publishing, Government/Administration
Traffic Control,L egal System, Retail Business, Sports, Music, Movies, Travel and Tourism, Business and Industry,
Hospitals, Simulation , Geology ,Astronomy ,Weather Forecasting, Education, Online Banking , Industry and
Engineering,Robotics ,Decision Support Systems,Expert Systems
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Input and Output Devices
An input device is used to feed data and instructions to the computer.
Most keyboards have between 80 and 110 keys, which include the following:
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Typing keys
Numeric keys
Function keys
Control keys
Point Click
Drag
Scroll
Advantages Low-priced , Easy to use and can be used to quickly place the cursor
Disadvantages
Trackball
Advantages
Easier to use as compared to a mouse as its use involves less hand-and-arm movements
Disadvantage The trackball chamber is often covered with dust, so it must be cleaned regularly
Touchpad
A small, flat, rectangular stationary pointing device with a sensitive surface of 1.52
Users have to slide their fingertips across the surface of the pad to point to a specific object on the screen
The surface translates the motion and position of the users fingers to a relative position on the screen
Advantages
Occupies less space , Easy to use , Built in the keyboard so no need to carry an extra device
Handheld Devices
Joystick
A cursor control device widely used in computer games and CAD/CAM applications
Stylus
A pen-shaped device to enter information or write on the touch screen of a handheld device
Touch screen
A display screen that can identify the occurrence and position of a touch inside the display region. The user can
touch the screen by using either a finger or a stylus
Use light as a source of input for detecting or recognizing different objects such as characters, marks, codes, and
images
Some optical devices are: Barcode reader,Image scanner,Optical character recognition (OCR) devices
Barcode Reader
Works by directing a beam of light across the barcode and measuring the amount of light reflected back
Can interpret information using a limited series of thin and wide bars. To interpret other unique identifiers, the
bar display area must be widened
Image Scanner
Captures images, printed text, photographs, etc., and converts them into digital images for editing and display
on computers
Advantages
Any document can be scanned and stored in a computer for further processing
Scanned and stored document will never deteriorate in quality with time
Disadvantages
Scanned documents are bigger in size as compared to other equivalent text files
The process of converting printed materials into text or word processing files that can be easily edited and
stored
Advantages
Disadvantages
Optical Mark Recognition (OMR) The process of electronically extracting data from marked fields, such as checkboxes
and fill-in fields, on printed forms
Advantage
Works at very high speeds. Can read up to 9,000 forms per hour
Disadvantages
Consists of magnetic ink printed characters that can be recognized by high-speed magnetic recognition devices
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Advantage
Disadvantage
Expensive equipment
Enable computers to accept music, speech, or sound effects for recording and/or editing
Used to capture video from the outside world into the computer
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Output Devices
Electromechanical devices that accept digital data from the computer and convert them into humanunderstandable form
Produce an electronic version of an output. For example, a file that is stored on a hard disk, CD, or pen drive and
is displayed on the computer screen
Features :
Monitors
Used to display video and graphics information generated by the computer through the video card
Similar to television screens but they display information at a much higher quality
Cathode ray tube (CRT) monitor , Liquid crystal display (LCD) monitor , Plasma monitor
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CRT Monitor
Thin, flat, electronic visual displays that use the light modulating properties of liquid crystals
Advantages Very compact and lightweight, Consume less power, Little or no flicker of images, Cause less eye fatigue
Disadvantages More expensive than CRTs, Images are not very clear when tried to view from an angle
Plasma Monitor : Thin and flat monitors widely used in televisions
Advantages
The technology used in plasma monitors allows producing a very wide screen
Disadvantages Very expensive , High power consumption ,Since the images are phosphor-based, at times, they may
suffer from flicker visions
Projectors
A device that takes an image from a digital source and projects it onto a screen or another surface
LCD projectors use their own light to display the image on the screen/wall. The room must be first darkened,
else the image formed will be blurred.
Digital light processing (DLP) projectors use a number of mirrors to reflect light. When using a DLP projector,
the room may or may not be darkened because it displays a clear image in both situations.
Hard Copy Output Devices
Produce a physical form of output. For example, the content of a file printed on paper
Features :
Printers
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A device that takes text and graphics information obtained from a computer and prints it on a paper
Impact Printers
Can print only using the standard font, Dot Matrix Printers , Print characters as a pattern of dots
Have a print head (or hammer) that consists of pins representing the character or image
The print head prints by striking an ink-soaked cloth ribbon against the paper, Daisy Wheel Printers
The print head is a circular wheel, To print a character, the wheel is rotated in such a way that the character to
be printed is positioned just in front of the printer ribbon,
Band Printers
The set of characters is permanently embossed on the band, and this set cannot be changed unless the band is
replaced
Line Printers
Non-Impact Printers
Offer better print quality, faster printing, and the ability to create prints that contain sophisticated graphics
Use either solid or liquid cartridge-based ink, which is either sprayed, dripped, or electrostatically drawn onto
the page
Advantages Produce prints of good quality , Noiseless, fast , Can print text in different fonts
Disadvantage
Inkjet Printers
The print head has several tiny nozzles, also called jets. As the paper moves past the print head, the nozzles
spray ink onto it, forming characters and images, Cartridges have to be changed frequently
Laser Printers
Work at very high speeds and produce high-quality text and graphics
A laser beam draws the document on a drum which is coated with a photo-conductive material
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After the drum is charged , it is rolled in a toner (a dry powder type of ink)
The toner sticks to the charged image on the drum and transferred onto a piece of paper
Plotters
Widely used to draw maps, in scientific applications, and in CAD, CAM, and CAE
Drum plotters
Flatbed plotters
The paper is spread on the flat rectangular surface of the plotter, and the pen is moved over it
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Computer Memory and Processors
Introduction : Memory is an internal storage area in the computer, which is used to store data and programs either
temporarily or permanently.
Memory Hierarchy
Processor Registers
1. Fastest memory among all types of
computer data storage
2. Located inside the processor, thus directly
accessible by the CPU
Stores a word of data (either 32 or 64 bits)
3. CPU instructions instruct the ALU to
perform operations on this data
Cache Memory
1 An intermediate form of storage between
the ultra-fast processor registers and RAM
2 Stores instructions and data that are repeatedly
required to execute programs
3 Improves the overall system speed,
thereby increasing the performance of the
computer
Primary Memory
Any data that has to be operated by the CPU is stored in this memory
A volatile storage area that is used to store data temporarily, so that it can be promptly accessed by the
processor
Called random access because any memory cell can be directly accessed if its address is known
Dynamic RAM
Made of D flip-flops
To store a bit of information in a DRAM chip, a tiny amount of power is put into the cell to charge the capacitor
A refresh process is required to maintain the charge in the capacitor so that it can retain the information
One disadvantage of DRAM is that the capacitor leaks energy very quickly and can hold the charge for only a
fraction of a second
A non-volatile memory that retains the data even after the power is switched off
Types of ROM
Programmable ROM (PROM) can be written to or programmed using a special device called a PROM
programmer which uses high voltages to permanently write data in it
Erasable Programmable ROM (EPROM) can be erased and re-programmed by exposing the chip to strong UV
light and then rewriting at a higher voltage
Electrically Erasable Programmable PROM (EEPROM) allows contents to be electrically erased and then
rewritten
Cheaper than primary memory and can be used to store large amounts of data
Magnetic Tapes
Mass storage devices capable of backing up and retaining large volumes of data
Cheap, compact in size, light in weight, can store large amounts of data and use less power
Slow, can be used sequentially, easily susceptible to degradation due to heat, humidity, etc.
Floppy Disks
Consist of thin magnetic storage medium encased in a square plastic shell lined with fabric that removes dust
particles
Data can be lost if the disk is bended, removed, while in use, or exposed to excessive temperature, dust, or
smoke
Hard Disks
Each platter requires two R/W heads, one for each side
The performance of a hard disk depends on its access time, which is the time required to read or write on the
disk
Larger in size and heavier in weight as compared to flash drives and optical disks
Optical Drives
Optical storage refers to storing data on an optically readable medium by making marks in a pattern that can be
read using a beam of laser light precisely focused on a spinning disk
CD-ROM
Uses laser technology to read and write data onto the disk
A single CD-ROM can store a large amount of data, but once the information is stored on it, it becomes
permanent
DVD-ROM
Widely used to store large databases, movies, music, complex software, etc.
Double-sided disks, as they can store data on both the sides of the disk
CD-R (Recordable)
Can be used in any CD-ROM drive and is functionally equivalent to a pre-recorded CD-ROM
Users can continue to store data on other parts of the disk until it is full
CD-RW (Rewritable)
Users can write and over-write data on the CD-RW disk multiple times
The reliability of the disk tends to decrease, each time data is rewritten
Removable, rewritable, and are physically much smaller drives, weighing less than 30 g
Memory Cards
Have higher storage capacity, are completely silent, are less prone to mechanical failures, allow immediate
access to data
Have high data storage capacity, are easily portable, and have low power consumption
Disk Array
Group of one or more physically independent and high-capacity hard disk drives
One or more tape drives to store large amounts of data ranging from 20 terabytes to more than 411 petabytes
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Registers
A computer memory that provides quick access to the data currently being used for processing
When program execution is complete, the result of processing is transferred from accumulator to the memory
through MBR
MAR stores the address of the data or instruction to be fetched from the main memory
Instruction Cycle
To execute an instruction, a processor follows a set of basic operations that are together called Instruction Cycle
Bus Interface
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Provides functions for transferring data between the execution unit of the CPU and other components of the
computer system that lie outside the CPU
Puts the contents of the program counter on address bus
Once the memory receives an address from the BIU, it places the contents at that address on the data bus,
which is then transferred to the IR of the processor through the MBR
Instruction Set Set of commands that instructs the processor to perform specific tasks
For example, tells the processor what it needs to do, from where to find the data, from where to find
instruction, etc.
Can be built into the hardware, or can be emulated in the software using an interpreter
System Clock
Controls the timing of all operations within the computer
Synchronize various operations that take place within computer
Faster the clock ticks, more is the number of operations that can be performed
Pipelining
Pipelining is a technique with which the processor can fetch the second instruction before completing the
execution of the first instruction
Such processors that can execute more than one instruction per clock cycle are called superscalar processors
With superscalar architecture, processors can execute programs faster by replicating components such as ALUs
Parallel Processing In parallel processing, multiple processors can be used simultaneously to execute a single program
or task
A complex and large task is divided into smaller tasks in such a way that each task can be allocated to a
processor
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CISC Computers
In CISC, hardware bear more responsibility than the software so that the software can be simple and easy
Less effort is required by the translator to convert the program into machine language, thus faster execution
RISC Computers
Although RISC machines are less complex and less expensive, they place extra demand on programmers to
implement complex computations by combining simple instructions
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Binary Number System : Computers are electronic machines that use binary logic. This logic uses two different values to
represent the two voltage levels (value 0 for 0 V and value 1 for +5 V).
The binary number system uses only two digits, 0 and 1.
Binary Subtraction
Binary Multiplication
0+0=0
00=0
00=0
0+1=1
10=1
01=0
1+0=1
11=0
10=0
1 + 1 = 0,
0 1 = 1,
11=1
significant bit
significant bit
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Symbols 09 represent values zero to nine, and A, B, C, D, E, F (or af ) represent values 1015
Decimal
number = 3 163 + 1 162 + 2 161 + B 160
= 3 4096 + 1 256 + 2 16 + B 1
= 12288 + 256 + 32 + 11
= 12587
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Pad the binary number with leading zeroes (if necessary), so that it contains multiples of 4 bits
Ex. Convert the binary number 01101110010110 into its hexadecimal equivalent
Substitute the appropriate hexadecimal digits for a group of four binary digits
(Left pad if required) and convert each group into hexadecimal number. Thus, we have (177)16
= 1 82 + 2 81 + 7 80 . 3 81 + 5 82
= 1 64 + 2 8 + 7 1 . 3 1/8 + 5 1/64
= 64 + 16 + 7 . 0.375 + 0.078125
= 87.453125
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Can represent characters (including punctuation marks, mathematical symbols, technical symbols, and arrows)
as integers
Has several character encoding forms:
UTF-8: Uses only 8 bits to encode English characters. This format is widely used in email and on the Internet.
UTF-16: Uses 16 bits to encode the most commonly used characters. It can represent more than 65,000
characters.
UTF-32: Uses 32 bits to encode the characters. It can represent more than 100,000 characters.
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