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Abstract
The limitations of current mutual coupling compensation methods in antenna arrays are thoroughly reviewed. The
theory of mutual coupling compensation is unified in such a way that efficient methods can be employed for calibrating both transmit and receive systems having arbitrary geometries. The theory leads to methods that can evaluate mutual coupling using either theoretical or experimental means. Reciprocity is studied through the careful
comparison of receive and transmit analytical formulations. Examples involving various applications are presented
for the validation of the theory. This theory has numerous applications and contributes to the areas of antenna
theory, mutual coupling analysis, complex structure modeling, and antenna measurements.
Keywords: Antenna arrays; mutual coupling; calibration; direction of arrival (DOA) estimation; beam steering; reciprocity;
retrodirective arrays
1. Introduction
104
IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine, Vol. 57, No. 2, April 2015
V1
6 V2
6
6 ..
4 .
Z11
7 6 Z21
7 6
7 6 ..
5 4 .
Z12
Z22
..
.
ZN1
ZN 2
VN
2. Background
It was recently observed in [1] that although very different coupling mechanisms for transmit and receive systems
have existed for quite some time in the literature, many
researchers still prefer to analyze receive systems using concepts that better characterize transmit systems. More specically, array analysis is very commonly performed using the
concept of mutual impedances. Let us consider an antenna
array of N radiating elements. The mutual impedance between the ith array element i 1; . . . ; N and the jth array
element j 1; . . . ; N is determined as
Zij
Vi
Ij
(1)
Z11
6 Z21
6
Z 6 ..
4 .
Z12
Z22
..
.
ZN 1
ZN 2
..
.
Z1N
Z2N
..
.
ZNN
32
I1
76 I2
76
76 ..
54 .
3
7
7
7:
5
(6)
IN
(7)
where is the wavelength of the signal; xi , yi , and zi are the
physical coordinates of element i; and o and o are the azimuth and elevation angles describing the direction in which
the radiation pattern is steered. The impedance seen at port i
is the ratio
ZDi
Vi
:
Ii
(8)
(2)
ZNN
Z1N
Z2N
..
.
3
7
7
7:
5
..
.
N
X
Ij
Zij
Ii
j1
N
X
2
Zij e j fsin oxi xj cos o yi yj sin ozi zj cos og:
j1
(3)
(4)
(5)
IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine, Vol. 57, No. 2, April 2015
(9)
This impedance is known as the active driving impedance [2]
or scan impedance [3]. In the absence of mutual coupling, it
is simply equal to the self-impedance, i.e., ZDi Zii , and is
independent of the element excitations. However, in the presence of mutual coupling, (9) indicates that the active driving
impedances are dependent on the element excitations and
will vary as the radiation pattern is scanned in various directions. The impedances of the array elements can then only be
matched for a given direction. It is possible that the radiated
or received power is signicantly reduced when scanning in
other directions while the generator or load impedances remain xed. Ultimately, it may even yield to a phenomenon
known as scan blindness at angles where the impedance mismatches result in no power being radiated or received. It
should be pointed out however that scan blindness implies
that all the active driving impedances of the array are purely
imaginary. This is generally only possible in innite regular
arrays [25] of identical elements since all the elements have
to experience similar electromagnetic interactions. Many
105
Figure 1. Equivalent circuits of (a) transmit and (b) receive antenna systems.
antenna arrays do not satisfy this condition, and (7)(9) are
therefore of little use in the evaluation of electromagnetic
coupling in systems of arbitrary geometries.
The impedance matrix given in (2), however, is very
useful in the analysis of these systems. In a transmit system,
the impedance matrix is easily integrated in an equivalent
circuit, as illustrated in Figure 1a. Voltages vtx1 ; . . . ; vtxN and
generator impedances ZG1 ; . . . ; ZGN can be arranged into column vector vtx and diagonal matrix ZG to model a set of applied transmitters, which are connected in series with matrix
Z that models the antenna array. By circuit theory, the port
currents and voltages can be determined based on knowledge
of the transmitter voltages, i.e.,
I ZG Z1 vtx
(10)
(11)
106
(12)
where
2
C11
6C
6 21
C6
6 ..
4 .
2
CN 1
e
C12
C1N
C22
..
.
..
.
C2N
..
.
CN 2
CNN
3
7
7
7
7
5
j2
sin x1 cos y1 sin z1 cos
(13)
3
7
7
7:
7
5
(14)
IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine, Vol. 57, No. 2, April 2015
(15)
(16)
Therefore, it is implicitly assumed that the open-circuit voltages voc in Figure 1b are free from mutual coupling. This is,
in general, incorrect, as pointed out in [8, 9, 57]. The assumption is only valid for arrays of electrically small elements in
the absence of external scatterers. The full-wave method was
introduced in [57] to improve the estimation of C for more
common array elements, namely, vertical half-wave dipoles.
This was done by judiciously summing up the entries of the
method of moments [58] admittance matrix to give a square
matrix. A generalization of this method to arbitrary numerical
techniques was presented in [8, 9] and gives similar accuracy.
Although very accurate, a limitation of the method is that
the elevation angle of incident signals needs to be known
a priori. Furthermore, it is better suited to theoretical evaluation. Depending on the complexity of the antenna system at
hand, it is sometimes preferable to perform experimental
estimation of the coupling matrix. The calibration method
employed in [5961] facilitates experimental estimation by
mapping measured vectors to ideal vectors in a least squares
sense for several incident directions, resulting in a square
coupling matrix estimate. A disadvantage of this method is
that a large number of measurements may be required to obtain an accurate estimate. The receiving mutual impedance
method was more recently used in [6266], where, instead of
determining the mutual impedances by exciting the elements
at their ports as conventionally done, the mutual impedances
are determined by exciting the elements by external plane
waves. Although this method has the practical advantage of
being suitable to experimental implementation, it cannot be
expected to provide an accurate estimate of the coupling matrix for arbitrary frequencies and array congurations due to
the assumptions that the current distributions on the elements
remain unchanged by the elevation angle, the presence of
more than two elements in the array, and the azimuth angle
IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine, Vol. 57, No. 2, April 2015
107
predominantly a theoretical approach, and a more experimental approach can be found in [47], [84], and [85], where measurements were used to estimate a nonsquare coupling
matrix. However, these references only considered very specic system geometries and therefore failed to provide a complete approach for the experimental evaluation of mutual
coupling.
Although the undesired effects of mutual coupling appear to be unavoidable in practical systems even by careful
antenna design [86], a unied theory for the evaluation of
mutual coupling and the subsequent compensation of its undesired effects is still missing. The coupling matrix concept
appears to be helpful for developing this theory, but a systematic approach needs to be devised to minimize the dimensions of the coupling matrix estimates for systems that are
better described by nonsquare matrices. The experimental estimation of these matrices also needs to be generalized with
a view to minimizing the number of required measurements.
Finally, the evaluation of coupling matrices in transmit systems needs to be studied since coupling matrices have only
been used in receive systems. The remainder of this paper
achieves this with complete theoretical analysis of receive
and transmit systems demonstrated with practical applications of antenna arrays.
2)
Compute the equivalent electric and magnetic currents according to (17) from the fields obtained in
step 1.
3)
4)
5)
3. Theoretical Foundations
3.1 Receive System
Receive quantities of an antenna can be derived using
~ y; z for
knowledge of transmit near-elds ~
Ex; y; z and Hx;
the same reciprocal antenna [87]. By Love equivalence principle [88], equivalent electric and magnetic currents can be
formed using
~
~ y; z
Jeq ^
n Hx;
~eq ^
M
n~
Ex; y; z
(17)
where ^
n is a unit vector normal to a closed surface enclosing
the antenna. This surface has an arbitrary shape but must
enclose the antenna completely. To minimize the surface of
integration in subsequent equations, however, it is recommended to reduce the shape of the closed surface to that of
the antenna. For example, the closed surface enclosing a
wire antenna could simply be the metallic surfaces on the
wire. By circuit analysis, if the equivalent currents are determined for a unit-voltage source directly at the antenna port,
the port voltage when the antenna is excited by an external
electromagnetic eld is given by
vrx YL Y
1
~eq H
~i dS
~
Jeq ~
Ei M
(18)
108
(19)
3
Jx T
6 Jy 7
7
6
7
6
~ rx sYL Y 1 6 Jz 7
C
6 Mx 7
7
6
4 M 5
y
Mz
2
(20)
IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine, Vol. 57, No. 2, April 2015
~ rx generally has
square coupling matrix of (13). The matrix C
a nonsquare structure and constitutes a generalization of the
coupling matrix to antenna systems of arbitrary geometry and
composition. As such, it can be used for compensating mutual coupling accurately and to predict the received port voltages using
3
Ex
6 Ey 7
7
6
6 Ez 7
7
6
~
C rx 6
7
6 Hx 7
4H 5
2
~ rx videal
vrx C
The column vector on the right side of (21) then takes the
following form:
videal
(21)
3
E
cos
cos
E
sin
vi
Ex
7
6
6 7 6 E cos sin E cos vi 7
7
6 Ey 7 6
7
6 7 6
E sin vi
7
6 Ez 7 6
7
6 7 6
E cos cos E sin
6 76
7
v
i
7
6 Hx 7 6
7
6 7 6
E cos sin E cos
7
6 7 6
vi
7
4 Hy 5 6
5
4
E
sin
Hz
vi
3
2
(26)
Hz
where the vector vrx contains the port voltages. Note that the
column vector on the right side of (21) allows for excitations
in arbitrary incident directions as well as arbitrary polarizations. The complete response of an array can therefore be
predicted using this method.
(22)
where is the intrinsic impedance of the propagating medium, and ^r is a unit vector in the radial direction. Carrying
out this vector product gives
~i ^ E ^ E
H
(23)
3
sin
6 7 6
7 E
4 Ey 5 4 cos sin cos 5
E
sin
0
Ez
2
3
E cos cos E sin
6
7
4 E cos sin E cos 5
E sin
2 3 2
3
cos cos sin " E #
Hx
6 7 6
7
4 Hy 5 4 cos sin cos 5
E
sin
0
Hz
2 E cos cos E sin 3
Ex
cos cos
j!
~
Etx
4
j2R
I
1
e
~
~
dS
Jeq ^r Meq
R
S
j!
~
Etx
4R
I
1 ^
^
~
Jeq M
M
S
2
(24)
(27)
(28)
~eq . The
where M and M are the and components of M
spherical wave propagates in the radial direction ^r, and its
electric eld is orthogonal to this direction. Therefore, ~
Etx
^ tx E
^ tx in the far-eld, and the radial component of ~
Jeq
E
in (28) can be ignored. The following expression is then
obtained:
j!
~
Etx
4R
6
7
6 E cos sin E cos 7
6
7:
4
5
E sin
I
M
M
^
^
J
J
S
ej sin x cos y sin z cos dS:
2
(29)
(25)
IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine, Vol. 57, No. 2, April 2015
109
E
j!
~
ZG Z1 Z
Etx
4R
I
M
M
^
^
J
J
S
ej sin x cos y sin z cos dS:
2
(30)
J
J
2 3
Jx
cos cos cos sin sin 6 7
4 Jy 5
sin
cos
0
Jz
Jx cos cos Jy cos sin Jz sin
(31)
2
3
Mx
M
cos cos cos sin sin 6
7
4 My 5
M
sin
cos
0
Mz
Mx cos cos My cos sin Mz sin
:
Mx sin My cos
(32)
Substituting these quantities into (30) gives
j!
~
ZG Z1 Z
Etx
4R
I
^ Jx cos cos Jy cos sin
S
Mx sin My cos
Jz sin
^ Jx sin Jy cos
Mx coscosMy cossinMz sin
Mx coscosMy cossinMz sin
2
j sin x cos y sin z cos
e
dS:
(36)
The discrete form of (36) can be expressed as
j!
ZG Z1 Z
4R
3
2
3 E cos cos E sin vi
2
Jx T
7
6
6 Jy 7 6E cos sin E cos vi 7
7
76
6
E sin vi
7
6 Jz 7 6
E sin E cos cos
7 (37)
7
6
6
6
vi
7
7
6
M
x7 6
7
6
E cos E cos sin
7
4M 5 6
vi
y 4
5
E sin
Mz
v
i
E s
3
Jx T
6 Jy 7
j!
Jz 7
1 6
7
~
ZG Z Z 6
C tx s
7
6
M
4R
4 Mx 5
y
Mz
2
(34)
(35)
where the scalar parameters E and E specify the polarization of the distant receive system. The total electric eld at
110
(38)
where
(33)
This radiated electric eld is seen to consist of two orthogonal components and can be expressed as
^ tx E
^ tx :
~
Etx E
(39)
and
2
videal
3
E cos cos E sin vi
6 E cos sin E cos vi 7
7
6
7
6
E sin vi
7
6
E sin E cos cos
6
7:
v
i
7
6
E cos E cos sin
7
6
v
5
4
i
E sin
vi
(40)
IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine, Vol. 57, No. 2, April 2015
IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine, Vol. 57, No. 2, April 2015
introduced. Their diagonal entries are simply the input impedances and admittances of the array elements. Case 1 corresponds to the approach employed in [9] and [89], where the
current distribution and input impedance of each element are
computed through the separate excitation of the element by a
unit-voltage source, whereas all the other elements are terminated with the load impedances of the receivers. The input
impedance of an element is then given by the inverse of the
input current when this element is excited. It is important to
note that the voltage source is directly applied at the excited
port without any load. For a single antenna or for an array in
the absence of mutual coupling, ZANT Z, and YANT Y ;
otherwise, ZANT 6 Z, and YANT 6 Y . The three different formulation cases have their advantages. Since the matrices ZL
and ZANT are both diagonal matrices, the rst two formulation
cases allow the estimation of complete rows of coupling matrices without having to excite all of the elements. This may
be useful in complex antenna systems where only the performance of a subset of the system must be evaluated. The third
formulation case does not have this feature due to the offdiagonal entries of matrix Z but is valid for arbitrary loads, unlike the two rst cases. This may be useful for optimization
purposes since the current distributions do not have to be recomputed for various loads. It also gives a very general relationship between receive and transmit formulations, i.e.,
~ tx j! ZG Z1 ZL ZZ 1 C
~ rx :
C
L
4R
(42)
If ZL ZG , (42) reduces to
~ tx j! Z 1 C
~ rx :
C
4R L
(43)
The matrix ZL in (43) is a diagonal matrix whose diagonal entries are the values of load impedances at the system ports. If
all of these have equal values, we note the following relation
between the two formulations:
~ tx j! C
~ rx
C
4RZ1
(44)
111
(45)
This has important consequences because it implies that transmit and receive formulations can be used interchangeably for
compensating mutual coupling when the load and generator
impedances are all equal. In general, only the relative amplitudes and phases are required, and therefore, the scaling factor
has little importance in the compensation. For systems where
the load impedances are not equal, a correction must be made
before interchanging the two formulations. The latter is embodied in the following equation:
~ tx / Z 1 C
~ rx :
C
L
(46)
This important relationship can be very useful in the compensation of transmit arrays and in retrodirective systems. The theory presented here will be used in Section 5 in these two
applications.
4. Efficiency of Mutual
Coupling Compensation
The analytical formulations in Table 1 generally give
matrices that have a number of rows equal to the number of
array elements and a number of columns governed by the
discretizations of closed surfaces. Hence, in general, we are
dealing with nonsquare matrices that have signicantly more
columns than rows. However, it is possible to reduce the
number of columns through careful consideration of the system physics [89].
The case of a system consisting entirely of a perfect
electric conductor (PEC) is an interesting example. Since the
closed surfaces of integration can be dened at the surfaces
~eq vanish by
of PEC, the magnetic equivalent currents M
boundary conditions, and the sizes of the coupling matrix es~ rx and C
~ tx are reduced by half.
timates C
The case of thin-wire elements, such as monopoles or
dipoles, is another interesting example. If the wires are vertically oriented and consist of a PEC, horizontal electric currents Jx and Jy and all magnetic currents vanish, leaving only
~ rx and C
~ tx . Furthe electric currents Jz in the evaluation of C
thermore, if we are only interested in one elevation angle ,
the current matrix can be rearranged to (47),
3
2 K
K1
P
P1
j2
zk cos
j2
zk cos
Jzk1 e
JzkN e
7
6
k1
7
6 k1
7
6 P
K2
K
2
P
2
7
6
j2
z
cos
j
z
cos
Jzk1 e k
JzkN e k
7
6
7
6
I s6 kK1 1
kK1 1
7
7
6
..
..
..
7
6
.
.
.
7
6 KN
KN
P
5
4 P
2
2
Jzk1 ej zk cos
JzkN ej zk cos
kKN1 1
kKN 1 1
(47)
112
where Jzkn is the entry of Jz at its kth row and nth column, zk
is the vertical location of the kth wire segment, and K1 to KN
are the last segment numbers for elements 1 to N . The ideal
signal vector then takes the following form:
2
videal
3
2
ej sin x1 cos y1 sin
2
6 ej sin x2 cos y2 sin 7
7
..
E sin 6
4
5
.
2
j sin xN cos yN sin
e
(48)
vrx2
vrxM
(49)
videal2
videalM :
(50)
(51)
IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine, Vol. 57, No. 2, April 2015
(52)
where Videal 0 contains the ideal signal vectors whose dimen~ rx . The reader is referred to [89]
sions are consistent with C
for more details on this methodology.
5. Applications
5.1 Retrodirective Systems
The reciprocity relationships derived in Section 3 can be
used to explain and extend the theory of retrodirective arrays.
These arrays operate in such a way that incident signals are
retransmitted in the same directions that they are received
without sophisticated signal processing equipment in the
front-end. Although various techniques are available for
achieving retrodirectivity, the most popular is the Pon array
[92], which exploits the heterodyne technique where a frequency mixer is connected at each of the array elements to
perform phase conjugation of the received signals. Using the
Schwarz inequality, [93] and [94] proved that this phase conjugation gives optimal performance even in the presence of
strong mutual coupling. The theory presented in Section 3
certainly supports this conclusion. However, to consider the
case of nonuniform loads, the conventional circuit model of
Pon arrays can be extended to that in Figure 2, where the signals at the elements are scaled by the inverse of the conjugated load impedances.
Figure 2. Compensated circuit model of a Pon retrodirective array consisting of four elements. Received signals at
frequency f are passed through circulators and are mixed
with a local oscillator whose frequency is 2f . The signal
components at frequency f at the output of the mixers
are complex conjugates of the input signals. These signals
are then amplied before being returned to the antennas
through the circulators. Amplication is scaled by 1=ZLn
to take into consideration nonuniform loading.
add sensitivity to horizontally polarized signals. Since the
horizontal and vertical dipoles are individually terminated,
the system provides polarization agility and can handle signals of arbitrary polarizations. This kind of array is therefore
very useful for verifying the theory presented in this paper,
which has been generalized for arbitrary polarizations.
Two approaches are available for verifying the theory.
The rst approach is more straightforward and involves the
excitation of the numerical model in receive-mode by an incident plane wave. The complex conjugates of the received
voltages are then used as the values of voltage sources in
transmission, and the resulting radiated electromagnetic elds
are computed. If the theory is correct, radiation should be
maximized in the direction of the incident plane wave
IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine, Vol. 57, No. 2, April 2015
113
assuming an active implementation of the retrodirective system where scattered elds can be ignored. The second approach avoids a simulation in the receive-mode and computes
the coupling matrix of the system using the theory applicable
to receive systems in Section 3. This approach is favored
here since it will be reused in Section 5.2. Using the equations in Table 1, the current matrix required in the computation of the coupling matrix estimate takes the following form:
22
I11
I21
66
6 4 I31
6
"
#
6 I41
Iz
6
I Ix 6 I
6 51
Iy
6 I61
6
4 I
71
I81
I12
I22
I32
I42
I52
I62
I72
I82
33
I18
I28 7 7
I38 5 7
7
I48 7
7
I58 7
7
I68 7
7
I78 5
I88
(53)
3
3
2
ej 4 sin sin z1 cos
6 j24 sin sin z2 cos 7
7
6
6e
7
7
6
E
sin
6 j2 sin cos z3 cos 7
7
6
4
4
5
e
7
6
7
6
j2
sin
cos
z
cos
4
7
6
e 4
"
#7
6
6
j2
sin
x
cos
sin
7
4
7
6
e 5
6 E cos cos E sin j2 sin x6 cos sin 7
4
7
6
e
6
"
#7
7
6
j2
4
sin 4 cos y7 sin 5
e
E cos sin E cos j2 sin cos y sin
8
4
e
(54)
where the column vectors xn , yn , and zn contain the physical locations of the segments of the nth dipole. It is implicitly assumed in this formulation that the vertical and horizontal
dipoles are centered at x1 ; y1 ; z1 x5 ; y5 ; z5 0; =4; 0,
x2; y2; z2 x6; y6; z6 0; =4; 0, x3; y3; z3 x7; y7; z7
=4; 0; 0, and x4 ; y4 ; z4 x8 ; y8 ; z8 =4; 0; 0,
respectively.
The dipoles were discretized using 11 segments per di~ rx is
pole; hence, the coupling matrix estimate in reception C
114
an 8 88 matrix. The computation by NEC required approximately 65 kB of storage and 0.1 s of runtime to obtain
each column of (53). The received voltages can be estimated
for an arbitrary illumination using
~ rx videal ; ; E ; E
vrx ; ; E ; E C
(55)
(56)
where denotes the complex conjugate operation. To conrm that this is correct, (55) is used to estimate the received
voltages for a vertically polarized signal arriving from azimuth angles 0 , 30 , 60 , and 90 for elevation angles
90 and 45 . This is done by computing videal 0 ; 90 ;
1; 0, videal 30 ; 90 ; 1; 0, videal 60 ; 90 ; 1; 0, videal 90 ; 90 ;
1; 0, videal 0 ; 45 ; 1; 0, videal 30 ; 45 ; 1; 0, videal 60 ; 45 ;
1; 0, and videal 90 ; 45 ; 1; 0 using (54) and substituting this
into (55). These results are then substituted into (56) and
used directly in a numerical simulation in transmission. Voltage sources having the values contained in vtx are applied at
the element ports, while including generator impedances
ZG 50 , and the -component of the radiated electric elds
are calculated using NEC. Note that the horizontal dipoles do
not contribute to radiation for 90 due to the vertical polarization of the incident signal, but they do for 45 because a horizontal incident eld exists for vertically polarized
signals arriving from 6 90 . The results are shown in
Figure 4. For comparison, the results of a Van Atta implementation are also presented [96]. In this case, phase conjugation is attempted using vtx vrx2 vrx1 vrx4 vrx3 vrx6 vrx5 vrx8 vrx7 T .
It is seen in Figure 4 that the use of (56) gives very satisfying
performance in all the plotted scenarios since the transmitted
power is maximized in the directions of the incident signals.
By comparing the radiation patterns for 0 and 90 ,
it is veried that the radiation patterns repeat in each quadrant
due to the symmetry of the system. As discussed in [97] and
[98], the performance of the Van Atta implementation is seen
to be suboptimal due to mutual coupling effects with reduced
power levels in the directions of incident signals.
IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine, Vol. 57, No. 2, April 2015
The currents in (57) were computed using NEC, which required approximately 54 kB of storage and less than 0.1 s of
runtime to obtain each column of matrix I with each of the elements discretized into 11 segments. Noting that the array elements only respond to vertically polarized signals, the
parameters E and E can be ignored, and the ideal signal
vector is given by
2
3
2
ej 0:3 sin cos z1 cos
2
6 ej 0:6 sin cos z2 cos 7
7:
..
videal ; sin 6
4
5
.
j2
2:1 sin cos z7 cos
e
(58)
For a similar system used in transmission and having generator impedances given by ZG ZL , the values of the voltage
sources are determined using
~ rx videal ; :
vtx ZL 1 vrx ; ZL 1 C
(59)
The -component of the radiated electric eld of the transmit system is plotted in Figure 6 for an incident signal arriving from azimuth angles 0 , 60 , 120 , and 180 for
elevation angles 90 and 45 . For comparison, the results are also shown when the nonuniform loading is ignored. This is equivalent to simply assuming that ZL is
proportional to the identity matrix in (59). It is observed
here that the consideration of nonuniform loading is critical
IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine, Vol. 57, No. 2, April 2015
Figure 6. Retrodirective radiation patterns of the nonuniform linear array of seven vertical dipoles in Figure 5 illuminated by a vertically polarized signal arriving from
0 , 60 , 120 , and 180 , respectively (top
to bottom plots). The radiation patterns on the left are
for an elevation angle of 90 , and those on the right are
for an elevation angle of 45 . It is seen that the nonuniform loads must be carefully considered to obtain optimized radiation with a main beam directed toward the
incident signal.
115
6
X
videal i ; i ; Ei ; Ei
i1
H
#
~ H 2 I N
C
o
(60)
(61)
Using these voltage sources in the numerical model in transmission, the radiated electric eld components E ; and
E ; are computed with NEC. The radiation patterns in
transmission at an elevation of 45 for the four different
polarizations of the signals are plotted in Figure 7. These patterns are obtained through the following combinations of the
two orthogonal eld components:
Ev ; E ;
116
Eh ; E ;
ERHCP ; jE ; E ;
ELHCP ; E ; jE ;
(62)
where the subscripts v, h, RHCP, and LHCP stand for vertical, horizontal, right-hand circular, and left-hand circular
polarizations, respectively.
The results in Figure 7 are very satisfying since nulls
are formed in transmission not only in the directions of the
ve interferers but also with the correct polarizations and,
thus, conrm that coupling matrices are effective in mutual
coupling compensation of both receive and transmit
IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine, Vol. 57, No. 2, April 2015
determine the required voltage sources in transmission. However, nonuniform loading must be accounted for as follows:
h
H 1 i1 1
1
~
ZL Cvideal 120 ; 45
vtx ZL Rxx ZL
H 1
~ ideal 120 ; 45
ZL Rxx Cv
(63)
Figure 8. Radiation patterns in transmission of the nonuniform linear array of seven vertical dipoles in Figure 5
for receivers at an elevation of 45 using a 7 35 coupling matrix estimate. Radiation needs to be maximized
at 120 and minimized at 60 , 30 , 0 , 30 , and 60 .
It is seen that the nonuniform loads must be carefully
considered to obtain optimized radiation with properly
directed main beam and deep nulls.
beamforming systems. By reciprocity, it is expected that antennas both transmit and receive with the same polarizations.
These results suggest that a wireless network can be optimized when signals are transmitted and received using the
same antennas, and proper mutual coupling compensation is
implemented. Note that if the desired signal waveform is
known and all signals are being transmitted by distant systems, vtx in (61) can also be determined through adaptive
~ and the desired signals
techniques without knowledge of C
direction and polarization. The theory presented in this paper
conrms that both deterministic and adaptive approaches can
be effective in the optimization of wireless networks.
IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine, Vol. 57, No. 2, April 2015
117
3 3
I18
.. 5 7
..
. .
7
I88 37
7
Jz98 7
.. 77
..
. 77
.
7
7
JzK8 7
77
Jy98 77
7
.. 7
..
. 55
.
JyK8
(64)
where z and s are the dipole segment length and conducting plate patch area, respectively, Iij is a column vector containing the electric currents on the segments of element i due
to the excitation of element j, and Jyij and Jzij are the y- and
z-directed electric current densities on patch i of the conducting plate due to the excitation of element j. The ideal signal
vector of this problem takes the following form:
videal ; ; E ; E
2
2
3
j2
sin x1 cos y1 sin z1 cos
e
..
7
6
7
6
7
6
.
7
6
7
6
6 j2sin x8 cos y8 sin z8 cos 7
7
6
e
7
6
7
6
sin
E
7
6
j2
7
6
y9 sin sin z9 cos
7
6
e
7
6
7
6
..
7
6
5
4
6
7
.
7
6
2
j
y
sin
sin
z
cos
K
7
6
K
e
6
2 2
37
6
j y9 sin sin z9 cos 7
e
7
6
..
6
6
77
5
4E cos sin E cos 4
5
.
ej yK sin sin zK cos
(65)
2
118
min
1
AH A1 AH E
N EN
i
A
(66)
where
~ videal ; ; 1; 0 videal ; ; 0; 1;
AC
(67)
IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine, Vol. 57, No. 2, April 2015
Figure 10. 2-D DOA estimation using the eight-dipole linear array in front of a rectangular conducting plate for two circularly polarized signals from ; 30 ; 60 and 0 ; 45 using
MUSIC. Mutual coupling compensation implemented with an 8 180 coupling matrix estimate is
seen to give very satisfying performance and efciency with sharp peaks toward the two signals.
~ matrix
It is important to note here that the 8 180 C
can also be determined with measurements using (51), where
the matrix V is lled with measured steering vectors. In the
case studied in this section, 648 measured steering vectors
~ This is a substantial reduction
are necessary to obtain C.
compared with the number of measurements required for 2-D
operation using conventional means. More details on this are
available in [89].
presented theory. This theory can be veried in a straightforward fashion using proven electromagnetic codes, and the
examples given in this paper on retrodirective systems, beamformers, and DOA estimation can be followed by the reader
for validation. Finally, this theory will likely nd several other
applications than those presented and contributes to the areas
of antenna theory, mutual coupling analysis, complex structure modeling, and antenna measurements.
6. Conclusion
7. Appendix
Derivation of Analytical
Formulations in Table 1
IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine, Vol. 57, No. 2, April 2015
(68)
vocL ZL
(69)
voc
ZILT videal
ZIscT videal :
(70)
119
8. References
(71)
ZL ZL Z1 vocL
(72)
1
ZL ZL Z voc :
(73)
ZL ZL Z
(74)
(75)
1
ZIscT videal :
(76)
(77)
120
IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine, Vol. 57, No. 2, April 2015
IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine, Vol. 57, No. 2, April 2015
121
122
IEEE Antennas and Propagation Magazine, Vol. 57, No. 2, April 2015