WANG, ZHAO - Modeling and Analysis of Gear Rattle in Automotive Transmissions

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ABSTRACT
Title of dissertation:
Modeling and Analysis of Gear Rattle in

Automotive Transmissions
Weijie Zhao, Doctor of Philosophy, 2002
Dissertation directed by:
Professor Yu M. Wang
Department of Mechanical Engineering
In recent years, attainment of high quality in automotive vibration and sound

has become a major effort in automotive vehicle refinement programs. In Europe
and Asia, the vast majority of passenger cars are equipped with manual trans
missions and diesel engines. Compared with automatic transmissions, manual
shifts offer lower cost, better fuel efficiency, and more a greater sense of being in
control of the car. However, unlike automatic transm issions, manual transmis
sions do not have the high viscous damping inherent to a hydrodynamic torque
converter to suppress the impacting of gear teeth oscillating through their gear
backlash. Therefore, a significant level of noise can be produced by the gear
rattle and tran sm itte d both inside the passenger compartment and outside the
vehicle. Gear rattle, idle shake, and other noise generated by low frequency vibra
tion phenomena in the automobile driveline have become an important concern
to automobile manufacturers in their pursuit of an increase in perceived sound

quality.
Gear rattle is produced by the impacting of gear teeth through their un
loaded mesh backlash as a response to engine torque fluctuations. Not only is
rattle noise audibly objectionable, but it may also be misconstrued as an impend
ing transmission failure leading to warranty returns. The complexity of torsional
vibrations and various nonlinearities of the manual transmission present many
challenges for the analysis of torsional vibration characteristics and gear rattle
behavior. Despite intensive research in the past, numerical difficulties in handling
nonlinearity have prohibited the development of general criteria in transmission
design to alleviate the rattle.
The objective of this dissertation is to investigate and develop a complete
modeling method considering all the components of the powertrain, with robust
numerical techniques for study of the gear rattle phenomenon. The aim of the
modeling and analysis effort is to conduct parametric studies and provide design
guidelines for powertrain development and refinement. The dissertation focuses
on the following:
First, based upon a comprehensive understanding of the powertrain sys
tem, a decoupled torsional vibration model is developed. This model separates
the system into two parts with a baseline model and a rattle model to simplify
the analysis. The validity of the decoupled model is determined by implementing
and comparing it with a full model.
Second, a numerical technique based on Finite Elements in Time domain

(FET) is derived and implemented for the analysis of rattle dynamics. The
numerical integration algorithm is a key component for efficient and accurate
numerical investigations. The FET algorithm is compared with the Stiff ODE
algorithms of MATLAB to show its efficiency and effectiveness.
Third, with the developed decoupled model and numerical tools, a para
metric study is conducted for design applications. These parametric studies yield
the effects of the key design parameters on the effective indices of rattle dynam
ics. This allows the designer to evaluate trade-offs among various designs without
resorting to expensive and inefficient palliative measures.
MODELING AND ANALYSIS OF GEAR RATTLE IN AUTOMOTIVE

TRANSMISSIONS
by
Weijie Zhao
Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the

University of Maryland, College Park in partial fulfillment
of the requirements for the degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
2002
Advisory Committee:
Professor
Professor
Professor
Professor
Professor
Yu M. Wang, Chair/Advisor
Balakumar Balachandran
Amr Baz
Sung W. Lee
Gregory Walsh
UMI Number 3055646
Copyright 2002 by
Zhao, Weijie
All rights reserved.
___
(B)
UMI
UMI Microform 3055646
Copyright 2002 by ProQuest Information and Learning Company.
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Copyright by
Weijie Zhao
2002
DEDICATION
dedicated to my wife, mom, and Katherine
ii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I would like to express my most sincere gratitude to Dr. Yu Wang, my advisor.
His advice, guidance, and ability have helped me throughout this four year period
of study and research. I will remember well the strong example he has set as a
teacher, researcher, and advisor.
I would also like to thank Daimler-Chrysler for funding this project. Per
sonally, I am thankful to Denis C. Wieczorek, Jeff Ward, and Ray Shaver, for
supplying the transmission data and allowing us to use the facilities of DaimlerChrysler Corporation. The summer internship of 1998 was of great help for the
progress of this project. I would also like to thank Basil Joseph of New Venture
Gears, for his consistent help from modeling stage to analysis stage.
I would like to take this opportunity to thank Dr. Lee, Dr. Baz, Dr.
Balachandran, and Dr. Walsh for being member of my advisory committee. Their
professional, insightful advice and direction make this dissertation be integrated.
I would also like to extend my thanks to all my fellow colleagues who
provided a wonderful work environment and all my friends for their support.
1U
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Dedication
ii
Acknowledgments
iii
List o f tables
vi
List of figures
vii
1 Introduction
1.1 Introduction.........................................................................................
1.2 Literature review for gear rattle study ............................................
1.3 Numerical algorithms for stiff p ro b le m ............................................
1.4 Scope of dissertation w o r k .................................................................
1
1
1
8
9
2 M odeling For Powertrain Gear Rattle

2.1 Introduction.........................................................................................
2.2 System modeling and problem form ulation......................................
2.2.1 The powertrain components and rattle sources..................
2.2.2 Torsional vibration for rattle analysis..................................
2.3 Dynamics of a gear pair with b a c k la sh ............................................
2.4 Vibration and rattle analysis..............................................................
2.4.1 Baseline torsional vibration .................................................
2.4.2 Gear rattle m odeling .............................................................
2.5 Model verification................................................................................
2.5.1 Equations of motion for full and decoupled m o d e l
2.5.2 Analysis re s u lts......................................................................
12
12
12
13
16
21
25
26
27
28
28
32
3 Numerical Algorithms for Gear Rattle Analysis

3.1 Introduction.........................................................................................
3.2 ODE stiff s u i t e ...................................................................................
3.2.1 The ODElSs P ro g ra m ..........................................................
3.2.2 The ODE2Ss P ro g ra m ..........................................................
3.3 Finite element in time d o m ain ...........................................................
3.3.1 Formulation of Finite element in time d o m a in ..................
38
38
38
39
40
41
41
iv
3.3.2 Primal form of F E T .............................................................

3.3.3 Mixed form of F E T .................................................................
3.3.4 Finite element approxim ation...............................................
3.3.5 The evaluation of G and Jacobian Matrix .........................
3.4 Strategy for choosing numerical algorithm s....................................
42
43
45
48
50
Application to NT350 T ransmission

4.1 Introduction.......................................................................................
4.2 Flexible shaft model versus rigid shaft m odel.................................
4.3 Time-varying meshing stiffness function..........................................
4.3.1 Stiffness function of one helical tooth p a i r ..........................
4.3.2 Synthesized meshing stiffness of a meshing gear pair . . . .
4.4 Effect of time-varying meshing stiffness............................................
4.5 Gear rattle indices ...........................................................................
4.6 Analysis for the first speed configuration.......................................
4.6.1 Baseline torsional v ib r a tio n ..................................................
4.6.2 Rattle analysis for unladen pairs of g e a r s .............................
4.7 Comparison of rattle results: ODEs vs. F E T .................................
52
52
52
55
55
56
58
61
63
64
64
68
Parametric Studies and Design Application

5.1 Introduction.......................................................................................
5.2 Characterization and reduction of gear r a ttle .................................
5.3 Rattle m o d e s ......................................................................................
5.4 Effect of drag torque and backlash on r a t t l e ..................................
71
71
72
73
76
6 Sum m a ry and Discussion

6.1 S u m m a ry ..........................................................................................
6.2 C ontributions....................................................................................
6.3 Future w o rk .......................................................................................
82
82
83
84
BIBLIO GRAPHY
86
LIST OF TABLES
2.1
Rattle Indices : Decoupled model vs. Full model
VI
LIST OF FIGURES
2.1
Illustration of Dodge Neon powertrain with NT350transmission .
13
2.2
Engine excitation torque fluctuation................................................
14
2.3
Time-varying gear meshing stiffness................................................
16
2.4
The powertrain model for the first s p e e d .......................................
17
2.5
The cause and effect diagram of gear rattle system ........................
18
2.6
Torsional vibration model for the first s p e e d .................................
19
2.7
Various stiffness characteristics of powertrain parts
.....................
20
2.8
A meshing gear p a i r ........................................................................
21
2.9
Geometric relation of a meshing gear pair with backlash
23
............
2.10 The physical model of a pair of unladen gears withbacklash . . .
27
2.11 Powertrain model with 4 D O F s ......................................................
29
2.12 The force characteristics of c lu tc h ...................................................
30
2.13 The motion of driving gear from decoupled m o d e l........................
33
2.14 The motion of driving gear from full m odel....................................
33
2.15 The motion of driven gear from decoupled model
.......................
34
2.16 The motion of driven gear from full m o d e l....................................
35
2.17 Rattle result from decoupled model a n a ly s is ..................................
36
vii
2.18 Rattle result from full model a n aly sis.............................................
37
4.1
The baseline response with flexible s h a f t .......................................
54
4.2
The baseline response with rigid sh a ft.............................................
54
4.3 Time varying stiffness with contact ratio = 1 . 8 8 ............................
57
4.4 Time varying stiffness with contact ratio = 2 .7 9 ............................
58
4.5 The baseline response with constant contact stiffn e ss...................
59
4.6 The baseline response with time-varying contact stiffness.............
60
4.7 The rattle response with constant contact stiffness.........................
60
4.8 The rattle response with time-varying contact stiffness
................
61
4.9 Baseline response: Angular displacem ent........................................
64
4.10 Baseline response: Angular v elocity.................................................
65
4.11 Rattle response of Gear pair 2 for the first speed (ODE15s) . . . .
66
66
67
67
4.15 Rattle response of Gear pair 2 for the first speed (F E T )..............
68
69
69
70
5.1
Double side impact rattle m o d e .......................................................
73
5.2
Single side impact rattle m ode..........................................................
74
5.3
Irregular rattle m o d e ........................................................................
75
5.4
Rattle indices versus drag
t o r q u e .............................................
77
5.5
Rattle indices versus b a c k la sh .......................................................
77
5.6
Rattle response with drag
torque = 0.0 Nm ...........................
78
5.7
Rattle response with drag torque = 0.05N m ..................................
78
5.8
79
5.9
79
5.10 Rattle response with drag torque = 0.20N m ..................................
80
ix
Chapter 1
Introduction
1.1
Introduction
Transmission rattle has long been an issue th at draws the attention of researchers
in automotive industry. In this chapter, a literature review for transmission rattle
modeling and analysis will be conducted, followed by a brief introduction to the
development of the Finite Element in Time Domain algorithm. Finally, modeling
and analysis methods for the powertrain rattle will be presented.
1.2
Literature review for gear rattle stu d y
The power transmission system of an automobile is highly nonlinear. The dy

namics of gear rattle is affected by a number of design parameters: amount of
backlash, mesh frequency, stiffness and damping of clutch, and load and inertia in
the transmission [1, 2]. However, no comprehensive analytical models and solu
tions exist which can facilitate the design process. Traditional tuning of clutch
torsional stiffness has been adopted as a means of reducing idle rattle. Without
an appropriate driveline system model, such a tuning can be time consuming.
Furthermore, it becomes difficult to consider both neutral and in-drive rattles

[3].
A common solution procedure for dynamic analysis of a nonlinear system is
numerical time integration. However, there are some difficulties in this approach.
For example, it is usually very time consuming to obtain the system response
with respect to a system parameter or parameters, especially in parameter re
gions where multi-valued response exists. Furthermore, integration with digital
computers may encounter numerical difficulties for some types of integration al
gorithms, particularly when the nonlinearity becomes very strong [2].
An alternative solution procedure for dynamic analysis of a nonlinear sys
tem is harmonic balance method. The approach is known to be limited by its
ability of solving the resulting nonlinear algebraic equations [4]. It is found that
the strength of nonlinearity, the number of harmonics sought in the solution,
and the relative magnitudes of higher harmonics with respect to the fundamental
are, among others, the major factors that are instrumental for the success of the
method. If an impulse-like force, for example, generated by a rigid stop is applied
to the system, a large number of higher harmonics are inevitably required, giving
rise to a large number of system equations. In this case, it is usually difficult to
achieve convergence in numerical solution.
Many researchers have tried to overcome the nonlinearity issue by making
assumptions and approximations that linearize the system equations. Y. Cai
and T. Hayashi [5] made linear approximations for the vibration of a pair of
2
spur gears. They have achieved this by treating the variable portion of the timevarying stiffness as an equivalent exciting force. With this linearization, analytical
solutions to the equations are obtained. R. Singh, et al. [6], while analyzing
the neutral gear rattle in a powertrain, has also linearized the nonlinearities to
facilitate the problem solving and the avoidance of the numerical difficulties. The
powertrain is approximated to a 4 degrees of freedom system.
K. Umezewa, et al. [7], has made many studies on vibrations of helical gear
pair. The torsional vibration of the system was considered as a one DOF system.
While, C. Padmanabhan and R. Singh [8] gave cases in which two degree of
freedom systems could be approximated to two single degree of freedom systems.
Research has also been conducted to get nonlinear response of a system.
G.W. Blackenship and A. Kahraman [9] have tried to deal with clearance type
of nonlinearities in studying the forced response of a system. They also dealt
with the periodic stiffness variation. Newton-Raphson and Gaussian elimination
methods are used to solve the system equations. Experimental validation using
a rattling gear pair is provided. R.J. Comparin and R. Singh [10] have studied
nonlinear response of a gear pair with clearance type nonlinearity. They have
identified single and double sided impact modes. It is also shown that piecewise
linear assumption is not adequate. As an extension of previous work, R. J. Com
parin and R. Singh [12], have studied coupled nonlinear response of a multi-degree
of freedom system. In this study, only the first harmonic is considered.
Computer simulation is used to obtain rattle produced by gear pairs. Y.
3
Cai [13] has analyzed vibrations of helical gears. A computer simulation for
torsional vibration for a pair of helical gears is developed. Both nonlinear tooth
separation and time varying mesh stiffness are considered. A simply modified
stiffness function is employed for his calculations. The results of simulation agree
well with experimental and theoretical calculations. A. Laschet [14] has provided
a computer simulation method to evaluate gear noise. Results in both time and
frequency domains are illustrated. He attributes a peak in frequency domain to
a high noise level at that frequency. A. Szadkowski [15] has also developed a
mathematical model and a computer simulation for idle gear rattle.
The powertrain model has also been a favored area of research in the past.
Steve Meisner and Brian Campbell [3] have outlined the development of a power
train modeling. The model for various components of the powertrain is discussed,
and also verified with experimental data. C. Padmanabhan, et al. [16], has de
tailed three different stages of a powertrain modeling.
F. Pfeiffer has done a lot of work on gear rattle analysis. He along with
W. Prestl [17] has proposed a model for gear rattle by considering the impact on
a tooth of a rattling gear. They have found that rattle noise could be explained
by impact theories. F. Pfeiffer and A. Kunert [18, 19] have proposed rattling
models based on deterministic and stochastic processes. This probabilistic view
has reduced the computational time but further research is required. The main
drawback of this approach is that it cant be easily extended to multi-degree of
freedom systems. F. Pfeiffer, along with K. Karagiannis [20] has investigated
4
gear rattle phenomenon theoretically and experimentally.

The interaction of various nonlinearities of powertrain is another interest
ing area for research and study. A. Kahraman and R. Singh [21] have studied
the interaction between time varying meshing stiffness and backlash in a geared
system. The existence of a strong correlation between these two nonlinearities
has been found. They have also studied resonance associated with forced excita
tion. The excitation force they have used consists of a mean torque with periodic
fluctuation. Digital simulation techniques are employed to solve the equations.
They have also studied the nonlinear dynamics of a spur gear system with mul
tiple clearances. They have considered both backlash and radial clearances and
studied the interactions. They [22] have also tried to give insights on chaotic
behavior.
T.E. Rook and R. Singh [23] also have studied rattle noise in gear pairs
with multiple clearances, such as idle gear. They have analyzed spectral interac
tions and proposed the concept of effective stiffness to simplify the solution. C.
Padmanabhan and R. Singh [24] have studied the influence of mean and varying
load components on an oscillator with clearance type nonlinearity. They conclude
that mean load has greater influence when the system has time varying nonlinear
parameters. They also notice a coupling effect between amplitude of response
and mean load. C. Padmanabhan and R. Singh [8] have investigated two degree
of freedom systems and possible resonance interactions.
Some research has also been done on the effect of a particular parameter
5
on actual rattle noise. C. Padmanabhan and R. Singh [25] have studied the
influence of clutch on rattle noise. A. Szadkowski [15] also has observed a strong
link between clutch and rattle noise. N.N. Powell and S.A. Amphlett [26] have
studied the transmission rattle using a suitable model. Their main objective is to
establish a relationship between backlash and gear noise. They have found that
there exists a critical backlash above which that noise actually reduces.
K. Umezewa, et al. [27], has analyzed the effect of contact ratio on vi
bration of a helical gear pair. Experimentally, they have determined that rattle
performances are good if contact ratio is greater than 2. I. Nakagawa, et al. [28],
has also proved that contact ratio plays an important role in gear noise. They
determine that pressure angle and bias contact also have influence on gear noise.
A. Kahraman and R. Singh [29] have studied impact of nonlinearities due to back
lash on vibrations of a spur gear pair. They have considered both external and
internal excitations. Harmonic balance method and digital simulation techniques
are used to solve the nonlinear equations. Furthermore, they have observed cases
of no impacts, single, and double sided impacts.
Some researchers have specifically concentrated on actual noise reduction
and have come up with suggestions to improve rattle performance of a powertrain.
Amo Sebulke [30] has detailed the advantages of dual-mass flywheel over the
conventional flywheel. It is suitable to counteract rattle noise and behaves as a
low pass filter. It isolates the rotational irregularities and vibrations from the
complete driveline. A. Laschet [31] has listed various causes of rattling noise
6
and operation ranges when each of them becomes serious. He also outlines a
construction of a vibration model and a computer simulation. He has observed
that major contributor to noise comes from powertrain and hence it characterizes
overall noise of the system.
H.
J. Drexl [32] has discussed the role of conventional torsional dampers in
noise reduction and also presented alternative methods. The alternative methods
suggested are a twin mass flywheel system with a torsional damper between
the masses and hydrodynamic couplings for decoupling torsional vibrations by
means of a slip. M. Ill [33] has studied the possible ways to reduce gear noise by
changing contact ratio, pressure angle, gear finish etc. He also considers vibration
of housing, bearing, and their transmission characteristics. C. Padmanabhan, R.
Singh [25], and A. Szadkowski [15] have come up with the clutch spring values
to be used in order to reduce rattle noise.
Efforts have been made in the past to set up rattle criteria for rattle severity
evaluation. R. Singh, H. Xie and R.J. Comparin [6] have come up with a rattle
criterion based on the angular acceleration of the input gear. 0 . Johnson and
N. Hirami [34] have made experimental setup to determine the sources of gear
rattle and tried to objectively measure noise. Analysis of gear motion and casing
vibrations is deemed to be a good basis for rattle evaluation. C. Padmanabhan,
Todd E. Rook and R. Singh [16] have proposed various rattle indices to objectively
evaluate noise level. F. Pfeiffer and W. Prestl [17] have proposed a rattle index
based on the coefficient of restitution of the teeth impacts.
7
1.3
Numerical algorithm s for stiff problem
In this paper, besides the ODE stiff-suite algorithms from MATLAB, an alterna
tive numerical integration algorithm, Finite Element in Time domain (FET),
is implemented for solving of transient and steady state response of gearedtransmissions with backlash. The method employs the technique by describing
the system as a boundary value problem. This requires solution of a set of highly
sparse algebraic equations, which describe response in terms of a set of temporal
nodes with all spatial degrees of freedom of the system.
The ODE stiff algorithms are suitable for the n o nlinear system with stiff
characteristics, which is defined by the high ratio of maximum and m inim um
eigenvalue of the system matrix [35]. Conventional ODE algorithms fail to eval
uate solutions for stiff system. Powertrain system is highly nonlinear, and in
evitably is a stiff system [36, 37].
The Finite Element in Time domain (FET), based on Hamiltons principle,
can be employed to solve the dynamic response of system in which solution for
all spatial degrees of freedom at all time steps within a given time interval of
interest is sought via a set of algebraic equations [38, 39, 40, 42]. Some recent
development has shown that this approach offers several potential advantages over
the numerical solution of ordinary differential equations in time domain, such as
the flexibility in formulating the problem directly from system energy expressions,
the greater accuracy at specific time points of interest, and the use of adaptive
finite elements to improve computational efficiency and accuracy [38, 41, 42, 43].
Previously, the application of FET using primal form has been studied by
Y. Wang and his group [44, 45, 46] for periodic response prediction as well as for
modeling and analysis of automotive transmission rattle.
FET provides several potential advantages over finite difference based nu
merical methods. Through propagation of the time elements within the period of
the steady-state response, or with given initial state for transient case, a possible
solution for both cases exists. In addition, it is possible for the usage of adaptive
finite elements to improve computational efficiency and accuracy.
The periodic solution can be readily available by assembling a number of
time elements and imposing the appropriate periodic boundary constraint rela
tions, in contrast with time-stepping methods, which require initial conditions to
start the integration procedure but cannot impose periodic boundary conditions.
The second advantage is the straightforward determination of stability of
periodic solution. Since the corresponding transition matrix for analysis of the
stability of small perturbations about the periodic solution is a by-product of the
FET procedure, Floquets theory of stability can be readily applied without any
special effort.
1.4
Scope o f dissertation work
The object of this dissertation is to develop a suitable modeling method as well as

the robust numerical algorithm, thus to provide a powerful tools for parametric
study and application to powertrain design.

In chapter 2, a decoupled model for powertrain system is developed based
on the understanding of powertrain components characteristics. This system
model must be well defined before any analysis can be implemented.
The decoupled model of powertrain system includes two parts: (1) baseline
model, which is a multi-DOF system including all parts of powertrain system,
even unladen floating gears yielding rattle noise whose equivalent moment of
inertia is added to their meshing splines; (2 ) rattle model, which includes several
pairs of unladen gears meshing, and can be solved independently. The responses
of spline gears from baseline model will be fed to the rattle model as inputs and
will thus attempt to seek rattle responses.
MATLAB ODE stiff algorithms and/or FET method could be used for
solution of both baseline multi-DOF model and SDOF rattle model. Chapter 3
discusses ODE stiff suite algorithms briefly. Major efforts have been put on to
the derivation of FET mixed form algorithm and software implementation under
MATLAB environment.
By using this model with ODE stiff-suite and FET algorithm, it is possible
to identify transmission problems before manufacturing, and to achieve an opti
mal design of powertrain for rattle performance. In chapter 4, after discussion of
several related issues, such as shafts rigidity and time varying meshing stiffness
of unladen gears, analysis for one of speed configurations has been performed.
It can be noticed that several elements introduce nonlinearities into the
10
system, within baseline and rattle models. They come from the multi-stage stiff
ness and dry friction of clutch, time-varying meshing stiffness of pairs of laden
and unladen gears, as well as backlash of unladen meshing gears. The effects of
backlash as well as drag torque on rattle are studied in Chapter 5 with decoupled
model developed and numerical algorithms implemented. The analytical results
allow designer to evaluate trade-offs of various designs without recourse to ex
pensive or inefficient palliative measures. These benefits are the motivations for
development of this gear rattle simulation methodology. Such a simulation tool
entails a reliable numerical technique for solving the dynamic response for gear
rattle.
This dissertation has developed the capability for modeling and simula
tion of the rattle dynamics in manual transmissions. The work in this disserta
tion provides comprehensive understanding of torsional vibration and gear rattle
characteristics with respect to major design parameters. Furthermore, modeling
and numerical algorithms can be integrated into vehicle powertrain development
programs. It is expected to make a significant contribution to shortening the
development cycle of new powertrain models.
11
Chapter 2
M odeling For Powertrain Gear
R attle
2.1
Introduction
Gear rattle has long been a main concern in refinement of vehicle powertrain sys
tem. Many efforts have been put on to this issue. Other than previous modeling
and analysis methods, a new methodology is developed here.
In this chapter, system modeling is covered in detail before vibration and
rattle analysis can be performed, so as to implement modeling and analysis for
rattle.
2.2
System m odeling and problem formulation
Without an adequate system model, any analysis would be impossible. Based

on the und erstanding of powertrain components as well as their characteristics,
a new modeling method is proposed here.
12
Gear Pairs
Ry Wheel
Input Shaft
Synchronizers
Figure 2.1: Illustration of Dodge Neon powertrain with NT350 transmission
2.2.1
T h e pow ertrain com ponents and rattle sources
Before the modeling method is discussed, the components of the powertrain are
worthy of a detailed look.
The powertrain contains many parts. It consists of input/output shafts,
pairs of gears, synchronizers, clutch, and some other necessary parts, as illustrated
in Figure 2.1. For a certain speed, all pairs of speed gears are meshing together,
but only a specific pair is engaged to transmit power through the function of
synchronizer.
It is obvious that it could only be modeled as a multi-DOF system, and in
evitably with high nonlinearity due to the nonlinearity of the clutch. Nonlinearity
of unladen gear pairs in meshing will be considered in rattle m odeling .
For a typical powertrain layout, the essential elements in powertrain dy-
13
X,
One Engine Revolution
Figure 2.2: Engine excitation torque fluctuation

namics include the following:
E n g in e E xcitation: The engine is the principal source of torsional exci
tation in driveline. Rotational fluctuations of the engine crankshaft are m ain ly
caused by the firing pulses, combustion non-uniform ity, and unbalanced inertia
forces [49]. The dominant component of the engine torsional signature is the
ignition firing, which shows up twice per engine revolution in a standard fourcylinder engine, or in the second-order. At wide open throttle, the engine torque
fluctuation is nearly constant regardless of engine speed at a special amplitude
of about 10% (25% for diesel engine) of the mean engine torque, as illustrated in
Figure 2 .2 .
C lu tc h : The clutch plays an important role in transm ission rattle behavior
and also in drivability. It typically consists of several strong nonlinearities: multi
stage torsional spring rate, dry friction damping, and preloads on the torsional
14
springs.
Currently, critical clutch characteristics are often evaluated by a timing
process using audible subjective rations by experienced engineers in order to de
termine the best combination of the nonlinearities which will dampen particular
rattle/vibration problems. It is a practical yet limited approach.
T ransm ission: The transmission includes three major types of compo
nents: input and output shafts, speed gears, and synchronizers. In modem trans
missions, all forward speed gears are helical gears with spline pinions. At any
speed shift, e.g., the
st shift, all the pinions are in rotation and are continu
ously meshing with their respective gears; but only a particular pair of gears of
the shift (e.g., 1 st shift) transmit power, when engaging the respective synchro
nizer. Three synchronizers are used in New Venture Gears NT350 transmission
for achievement of high gear shift quality.
These power-transmitting gears are laden gears and, together with the
shaft-synchronizer assemblies, they provide the baseline torsional vibration char
acteristics. The shaft-synchronizer assemblies are essentially linear with torsional
stiffness and the moment of inertia. The laden gear pairs exhibit a time-varying
meshing stiffness shown in Figure 2.3, due to the conjugate action of the involute
helical gear teeth. The details of contact stiffness function for a pair of meshing
gears will be covered later in Chapter 4.
In the in-drive mode, 4 pairs of unladen gears, however, cause the rattle
problem. Without transmitting any load but in meshing, the gear and the spline
15
300
Average Stiffness
Single-pair meshing
200
CB
Two-pair meshing
00
Meshing Period
Meshing duration
Stan of meshing
End of meshing
Figure 2.3: Time-varying gear meshing stiffness
teeth may be driven across the backlash, causing impacts and rattle noises. The
unladen gear pairs are all potential rattle sources. Rattle may also occur at idle
when the vehicle is at rest, the transmission is in neutral, while the clutch is
engaged. In the T350 transmission, gears for the 1st and 2nd speeds axe driven
by their spline pinions on the input shaft idle, becoming potential neutral rattle
sources.
2.2.2
Torsional vibration for rattle analysis
Gear rattle phenomena of a manual powertrain is typified by complex interactions

between the torsional vibration characteristics of the driveline and the coupled
vibro-acoustic response of unladen gears. The first step of our research effort is
to determine an appropriate model for efficient simulation while retaining all of
16
Figure 2.4: The powertrain model for the first speed

the essential dynamic characteristics. The primary objective is to examine the
dynamic interactions between the rattle gears and the key driveline components.
An insight into this process can be gained by examining the path of torque
transmission in the system. Again taking the 1st gear shift as an example as
shown in Figure 2.4.
The engine power is transmitted to the input shaft through the flywheel
and the fully engaged clutch. Then after velocity reduction through the firstspeed gears, the power is transmitted to the output shaft and subsequently to
the differential. The engine torque fluctuation generates torsional vibrations in
the components on the power transmission path. The speed-reduction gears are
continuously loaded and their teeth maintain continuous meshing in spite of the
17
ENGINE
Vss^ ~ Toque RmhaSan
CLUTCH
AMhStege
Springs
Torsional
Vbraton
aton
\
INPUTSHAFT
BacUashi
Tme-Va/yngSffiess
_______ \
UNLADEN \
GEARS
LADENGEARS
Torsional Vbrafon
Tm-Varying
UeshSShass
OUTPUT SHAFT
Figure 2.5: The cause and effect diagram of gear rattle system
presence of backlash. Therefore, the laden components of the power path are
largely linear, except for the multi-stage stiffness of the clutch, which is piecewise
nonlinear. On the other hand, with the employment of all spline pinions and
synchronizers, other 4 gear pairs axe also meshing but without loading. Through
their backlash, the unladen gears will yield vibro-impact motions and rattle noise.
The relationship between the torsional vibration and gear rattle is illus
trated in the cause-and-effect diagram of Figure 2.5. The laden components of
the transmission form the b a s e l i n e s y s t e m , while the unladen gears become
a p p e n d a g e s to the baseline system. The engine torque output excites the laden
baseline system, which in turn vibrates the unladen gears. Thus, gear rattle phe
nomenon is the result of the interaction between the baseline torsional vibrations
and the vibro-impact characteristics of the unladen gears.
18
PwerTrjnsmiwon Pith
"
Figure 2.6: Torsional vibration model for the first speed

Therefore, a physical model of the transmission system is obtained accord
ing to the gear configuration of each shift. Figure 2.6 demonstrates the model
for 1st shift, or speed.
The baseline laden system consists of several degrees of freedom, with linear
torsional stiffness in drive shafts, time-varying contact stiffness between laden
gears, and piecewise linear torsional stiffness in the clutch, and the 4 unladen
appendages are strongly nonlinear because of the backlash, as shown in Figure
2.7. The number of degree of freedom of the system model depends on the model
chosen and whether it is a rigid shaft or flexible shaft, which will be covered later.
In the model, the inertial properties of the differential, CV joints, and drive shafts
are lumped to the end of the output shaft.
19
Clutch
U n la d en
G e a r B ack lash
G e a r B ack lash
Figure 2.7: Various stiffness characteristics of powertrain parts

An engine torque applied at the flywheel is of the form,
r { t ) = r m + Tf ( t )
(2 . 1)
with a fluctuation period T m r j .

In general the fluctuation amplitude is about 10% of the mean torque for
gasoline engine, while at 25% for diesel engine. The mean torque is crucial for
the baseline system, because the clutch stiffness value depends on it, thereby
affecting the dynamics of the system.
20
Driving Gear
Base Circle 1
Pitch Circle 1
Line o f Action
Pitch Circle 2
Base Cricle 2
b2
Driven Gear
Figure 2.8: A meshing gear pair
2.3
Dynam ics o f a gear pair w ith backlash
Before starting the discussion of the gear rattle model, the geometry and dynam
ics of a meshing gear pair with backlash will be covered first.
The basic structure of a meshing gear pair is shown in Figure 2.8. The
shafts of the two gears are assumed to be rigid and the only compliance considered
in this model is the compliance of the gear teeth. The measurement of mesh
compliance, teeth contact stiffness, will be examined later. The effect of backlash
between two meshing gears is considered in this section.
Backlash is the gap between mating teeth measured along the circumfer
ence of the pitch circle. Manufacturing tolerances preclude a zero backlash, as
21
all teeth cannot be exactly the same dimensions, and all must mesh without
j am m ing.
So, there must be some small difference between the tooth thickness
and the space width. As long as the gear set is run with a non-reversing torque,
the backlash should not be a problem. However, whenever the torque changes
sign, or amplitude, the teeth will move from contact on one side to the other.
The backlash gap will be traversed and the teeth will impact with noticeable
noise and vibration. As well as increasing stresses and wear, backlash can cause
undesirable position error in some applications.
Backlash, causes discontinuous phenomena and impact effects on dynamics,
brings one uncertainty to the dynamic model of the gear pair system.
Backlash, 6, is defined as the clearance measured along the line of action
of a gear pair as shown in Figure 2.9. The clockwise direction of 0\ on the pinion
is defined to be positive, while the counterclockwise direction of 02 and on the
driven gear be positive.
The neutral position of a gear pair is defined as the position where the
centerline of a tooth in the drive gear 1 and the center of a tooth space on the
driven gear 2 are both coincident with the centerline of the two gear centers. The
approach portion is the part from the first point of contact to the pitch point on
the line of action and the recess portion is the part from the pitch point to the
last point of contact. Front side contact occurs when the leading edge of gear 1
meshes with the trailing edge of gear 2, and back side contact occurs when the
trailing edge of gear 1 meshes with the leading edge of gear 2, shown in Figure
22
Driving Gear
Base Circle 1
Pitch Circle 1
Line o f Action
Ba< klash
Pitch Circle 2
Base Cricle 2
b2
Driven Gear
Figure 2.9: Geometric relation of a meshing gear pair with backlash

2.9.
The dynamics of such a system can be divided into three cases according to
whether the two meshing gears are under front side contact, separation, or back
side contact. What follows is that the frictional forces at the point of contact
and at the journal bearings are neglected. The normal forces along the line of
action for meshing gears will be modeled as a combination of linear elastic and
damping forces.
Front side contact
When r^iOi ^
2 ^2
> b, the leading edge of gear 1 contacts with the trailing
23
edge of gear 2. The equations of motion can be written as,

hQ_\ = n - Fnrbi
I 22 = 12 + Fnrb2
( 2 .2 )
Fn = k (q -b )+ c q
(2.3)
{
where
denotes the normal contact force with,
<7= rbiOi - rb202

q = rbxdi - r b2&2
(2.4)
denote the relative motion between the gears and the relative speed along the
line of action, respectively.
Separation
When b > rb\0\ - rb2 Q2 > - b, separation occurs and there is no contact
force between two gears. Therefore, the equations of motion are given by
{& :;
Back side contact
When rb\ 6 \ r 1,262 < b, the trailing edge of gear 1 meshes with the
leading edge of gear 2. The equations of motion are given as
hQ\ = Ti - Fnrbi
I2 2 = t 2 + Fnrb2
( 2 .6 )
Fn = k(q + b) + cq
(2.7)
where
24
denotes the normal contact force with,
/ q = rw 0i - rb262
1 q = r j l - r b2e2
ft>
denote the relative motion between the gears and the relative speed along the
line of action, respectively.
For all these three cases, the contact stiffness k will be covered later. While
damping coefficient c is selected as proportional damp with a known damping
ratio.
2.4
V ibration and rattle analysis
The physical models of the powertrain with manual transmission described above
consist of 5 separate models for the 5-speed in-drive modes and a neutral model
for the at-idle mode. The second phase of the research development is the numer
ical modeling and analysis of the dynamics of each model. The specific goal is to
understand (i) characteristics
of the baseline torsional vibration of theladen sys
tem, (ii) rattle vibrations of unladen pairs of gears, and (iii)interactions between
the baseline system and the rattling appendages.
It has been widely recognized in the literatures of the field of study that
the unladen gears undertake the main role of rattle impacts [3]; Their vibration
have little effects on the motion of the baseline system. This fact can be utilized
to study the overall system behavior more effectively.
By an appropriate lumping of unladen gear inertia, vibration of the laden
system can be characterized by its response to the engine excitation. The result25
ing baseline torsional response then becomes the excitation to the unladen gears.
By focusing on the dominant effects, the suitable model for effective numerical
analysis will be obtained. This would also greatly facilitate the tasks of paramet
ric studies and design optimization. These analyses will be accomplished through
the use of a powerful numerical method proposed in the following chapter.
2.4.1
B aselin e torsional v ib ration
The first goal of numerical analysis is to characterize the baseline vibration, i.e.,
the response of the laden system to engine excitation. This is an important under
standing for clutch design, in which torsional springs are employed to attenuate
the baseline vibration response. As shown in Figure (2.4) for the
st shift, the
baseline system is essentially linear, except for the multi-stage stiffness of the
clutch and the time-varying meshing stiffness could be described as
MQ + CQ + KQ + F( 6 ) = r
(2.9)
where 0 is rotation vector representing the n degrees of freedom of the baseline

system. M, K , C denote the mass, stiffness, and damping matrix of the system
respectively. While F(9), denotes the nonlinear force due to the multi-stage
spring of the clutch.
Here, it should be pointed out th a t the gear meshing stiffness of laden pair
of gear k(t) is of the dimension of linear stiffness, which requires concern when
it is assembled into the stiffness matrix K , in which the entries are all of the
dimension of rotational stiffness. The effect of the time-varying meshing stiffness
26
'/
X(t
(a) Rattle gear pair model
Time-Varying-Piecewise-Linear
Figure 2.10: The physical model of a pair of unladen gears with backlash
of the laden pair of gears will be studied in the later chapter.
The equation of the baseline system can be solved by several different ways,
such as the ODE method, or the numerical method which will be fully discussed
later, finite element method in time domain of course.
2.4.2
G ear ra ttle m odeling
The unladen gears are the sources of rattle noise and their vibro-impact behavior
is the focus of our dynamics study. Any pair of the unsynchronized gears with
backlash is modeled as a SDOF system with the motion of driving gear being
known, as shown in Figure 2.10. For the most general case, the gear backlash is
defined by a piecewise meshing load between meshing gear teeth, and the meshing
stiffness is time-varying.
From the previous derivation, equation of motion for driven gear I 2 with
27
respect to the linear relative displacement q x(t) X (t) = d2 r 2 6 \ri,

" ^ 9 + fn (t, q) = - \ h r \ - Td/ r 2
r 2J
r 2z
(2.10)
where rd denotes the drag torque applied on the driven gear, and f n{t,q) refers
to the nonlinear force between the pair of meshing gears due to backlash, which
is defined as,
U (t, q) =
k(t) (q b) + cq if q b > 0 ;
0
ii b < q <b]
k(t) (q + b) + cq if q + b < 0 .
(2 . 11)
Thus the independent variable is q, with the given Q\. It becomes the
equation of motion for SDOF system that could be solved by various numerical
methods.
2.5
M odel verification
The decoupled model neglects the effect of the backlash for the baseline model
analysis first. Then, the responses of the driving gears of the rattle pairs are
fed as the input for the rattle analysis. This treatment simplifies the model
by solving them in two steps, which dramatically reduces the computation time
and maintains the necessary accuracy. The validation of the decoupled model is
provided by comparing the results from this decoupled model with th at of the
so-called full model.
2.5.1
E quations o f m otion for fu ll and decoupled m od el
The layout of the physical model used for the illustration of modeling verification
is shown in Figure 2.11. It consists of the flywheel, input and output shafts, laden
28
94
Wheel
Clutch
Input Shaft
2nd
Output Shaft
Figure 2.11: Powertrain model with 4 DOFs

gears, as well as one pair of rattle gears with the driving gear on the input shaft.
As for the purpose of illustration and simplicity, the rigid shaft model is
employed. The configuration and parameters are of the first speed, and rattle
pair of gears is the 2 nd pair.
By carrying out the free body diagram analysis, the equations of the
motion for this system without any simplification is given below,
h \Q \ + Td =
Tel + k i T b u ( ^ i ll *02 ~ 7*621 *0 3 )

73303 k\ Tin (fill ' 02 7*621 ' 03) = 0
72202
_ fn
*7*612
7 t40 4 + / n 7*622 = Td
where ra denotes the clutch torque.

The clutch is piece-wise linear due to the multi stage springs. Its charac
teristics are illustrated in Figure 2.12,
29
Coast side
-13
Degree
Drive side
Figure 2.12: The force characteristics of clutch

Thus the clutch torque can be expressed as,
K \ (0\ 02Pi) + K 2 Pi
rd =
K 2 (0i 62)
Kz
(01 02 0 2 ) + ^ 3 * 0 2
K 4 (01 02 ^ 3 ) + K 2 0 2 +
Kz
(0 3 0 2 )
if 0\ 6 2 > Pi ;
if 0 i > 0i 02 > 02]
if 0 2 > 01 02 > 0 3 ,
if 0 3 > 01 ~ 02-
(2.13)
where K \ to K 4 denote the rotational stiffness corresponding to the different
stages of the clutch spring and of the rotational stiffness dimension.
By introducing the linear difference, q, between the rattle pair of gears,
9 r b22 04 r 612 02
(2.14)
The contact force, / between the rattle pair of gears, can be given as,
k(q b)+ cq if 9 6 > 0 ;
fn = { 0
if 6 < q < b;
k{q + b) +cq ifg + 6 < 0 .
(2.15)
Where k and b are the contact stiffness, and the backlash of the rattle pair of
30
gears respectively. Here the effect of the time-varying stiffness is put aside, and
the constant meshing stiffness is considered.
By neglecting the backlash between the rattle gears, the equations of
motion (2 . 12 ) for the full model above could be simplified, which then yields the
decoupled model.
The contact force / would be independent of backlash, of the form / =
k q + cq. With the fourth equation of eqn.(2.12), considering no drag torque,
(2.16)
Assuming that the deformation between the rattle gears is small compared
to the motion of themselves, the gear law holds here, which is r 612 02 = r b22 04It could be extended, and yield,
(2.17)
7-612 * @2 = 7*622 * 04
Thus 04 could be expressed as,

(2.18)
7*622
with this, the second equation of the equ.(2 . 12),

72202 Td + k\ rb11 (rb 1 02 7*621 *#3) + 744
7*#,oo
02 = 0
(2.19)
The equations of motion then can be written,

7 ll0 1 + T d = T
( j
%2 + 7m
02 T d
fci r b11 ( f ill *02 7*621 03) = 0
73303 k \ Till (r ill 02 7"i21 03) = 0
7m04 + (kq + cq) rb22 = 0
31
(2 .20 )
The second equation of the equ.(2.20) is now decoupled from the 4th DOF,
04. Thus the first three equations coupled together could be solved individually,
which has nothing to do with the backlash.

The fourth equation, including the effect of backlash, is of the form,
^4404 + fnTva 0
( 2 . 21 )
This is the single DOF system with the solution of 02 decided from the
first three equations.
Through these procedures, the system is decoupled into two independent
parts, in which the first part is represented by the first three equations, reflecting
the baseline, and the second part, the SDOF equation, reflecting the rattle pair
of gears.
2.5.2
A n alysis results
Simulation has been performed with the geometric parameters and material prop
erties of powertrain provided by Chrysler Corp. and New Venture Gear Inc. The
results of the 2nd rattle gear pair for Speed 1 configuration are given and dis
cussed in detail to demonstrate the side by side comparison between the full and
decoupled model.
Figure 2.13 and Figure 2.14 show the driving motion of the rattle pair,
from the decoupled model and full model, respectively. The difference is that
the acceleration of driving gear from the decoupled model does not have the
hit back effect which is indicated from full model analysis. This difference
32
Motion of 01
6
2
0
0.1
02
03
0.4
0.7
Time Sec
20
5 10
fa 0
>
-1 0
0.1
0.4
02
0.7
Time Sec
4000
2000
0.4
0.1
0.6
0.7
Time Sec
Figure 2.13: The motion of driving gear from decoupled model

Motion of 81
0.1
02
03
05
0.4
0.6
0.7
Time Sec
20
-20
0.1
02
0.4
05
0.7
Time Sec
-4 0 0 0 '------------1----------- 1_______ 1_______ 1------------ 1------------1_______ 1_______ i

0
0.1
02
03
0.4
05
05
0.7
05
i_______
05
1
Time Sec
Figure 2.14: The motion of driving gear from full model

33
Motion 02
0.4
0.1
0.5
Time Sac
0.6
0.7
0.6
0.7
5 10
-5
0.1
02
0.4
0.9
Time Sec
10000
5000
mu
-5000
0.1
03
0.4
0.6
0.7
Time Sec
Figure 2.15: The motion of driven gear from decoupled model

comes from the neglect of the backlash, which causes the absence of impact force
from the beginning of impact, at either drive side or coast side. All the while,
displacement and the velocity of the driving gears are quite similar. Additionally,
The hit back effect is very small compared to the driving gear acceleration itself.
Thus, the premise that the effect of the rattle gear on the baseline torsional
vibration can be neglected still stands.
Figure 2.15 and Figure 2.16 show the responses of driven gear from de
coupled model and full model respectively.
By studying the rattle, it can be seen from Figure 2.17, and Figure 2.18,
as the decoupled model neglecting the backlash for the stage of evaluation of
driving gear motion, the effect of hit back of driving gear would not be taken into
34
Motion of 82
2
3
0.1
03
03
0.4
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.7
0.8
0.9
0.7
0.8
03
Time Sac
20
cc
*
5
-10
eg
0.1
02
03
OS
0.4
Time Sec
x 10*
-1
0.1
02
03
0.4
OS
0.6
Time Sec
Figure 2.16: The motion of driven gear from full model

account, when unladen pair of gears are hitting. This effect causes the contact
force between the rattle pair to be somewhat amplified. It is evidenced in the
figures of the contact forces for two models. By checking the rattle indices defined
in Chapter 4 for both cases, the rattle index from the decoupled model is about
10% higher than that from the full model which represents the real case.
In order to check whether this amplification effect is consistent for the

different speed configurations and different pairs of rattle gears, by neglecting
the backlash for the decoupled model, the side by side comparison has been
carried out for the different speeds. The rattle indices, which will be covered in
Chapter 4, are shown in the Table 2.1.
35
x 10"*
Displacement rgeart
02
0.4
0.6
Veiodty rgeart
0.8
Time Sec
02
0.4
0.6
0.8
Time Sec
Contact force
Excitation
100
o 4
z
c
u.
-5 0
-100
0.4
0.6
Time Sec
0.4
0.6
0.8
Time Sec
Figure 2.17: Rattle result from decoupled model analysis
Rattle Indices
Speedl,pair2
Speed2,pairl
Speed3,pairl
SpeedA,pair\
SpeedS, pairl
Decoupledmodel
0.8741
0.5130
0.4387
0.3525
0.6932
Fullmodel
0.7904
0.4672
0.3948
0.3202
0.6325
Ratio
1.1059
1.0980
1.1112
1.1007
1.0959
Table 2 . 1: Rattle Indices : Decoupled model vs. Full model
36
x 10
Displacement gearl
Velocity: gearl
III
0.4
02
0.6
0.8
Time Sec
Contact force
5 3
r irr r
0.4
0.6
0.4
Time Sec
0.6
Tm eSec
Figure 2.18: Rattle result from full model analysis

From these results, it can be said that the rattle index from the decoupled
model is 9.8% to 11.1% higher than that from the full model. Also, it can be
evident that the amplification factor is consistent. This makes the decoupled
model available for the rattle evaluation.
The introduction of the decoupled model simplifies the analysis and saves
the computation time of the simulation dramatically. The hourly computation
with the full model is reduced to minutes with the introduction of the decoupled
model. This modeling method is adequate and efficient.
37
Chapter 3
Num erical Algorithms for Gear
R attle Analysis
3.1
Introduction
The numerical algorithms employed for baseline and rattle model solution are
the stiff suite of Ordinary Differential Equation, as well as the Finite Element in
Time Domain.
In this chapter, the characteristics of ODE stiff suite are discussed and
the formulation and derivation of FET are covered in detail.
3.2
ODE stiff suite
Any initial value problem can be expressed as,

y = F{t,y)
(3.1)
on a time interval [to, t/\, given initial values y(t0) = yoFor many years, MATLAB has had only two ODE solvers available, ode23
and ode45 [37]. Even though they employ fairly simple algorithms, they have
38
proved remarkably effective. SIMULINK provides some additional methods, but

they are not easily accessible to MATLAB users.
When the system equation is claimed as stiff, it means that the ratio of
maximum and minimum eigenvalue of the system matrix is very high [35]. The
algorithm used for the solution of this kind of system must be adapted for this
stiff problem. The special ODE suite algorithm is aimed for this issue.
MATLAB presented their ODE stiff suite recently. A new family of for
mulas for the solution of stiff problems called the numerical differential formulas,
NDFs, are devised. These formulas are more efficient than the backward differ
entiation formulas, BDFs, although the higher order formulas are somewhat less
stable. There are two formulas available now, 0DEl5s, and ODE23s [36].
3.2.1
T he ODE15s Program
The code ODE15s is a quasi-constant step size implementation of the NDFs

in terms of backward differences. Options allow integration with the BDFs and
integration with a maximum order less than the default of 5. It is natural to form
and factor the iteration matrix every time the step size or order is changed. The
rate of convergence will not be achieved in four iterations. Should this happen and
the Jacobian not be current, a new Jacobian matrix will be formed. Otherwise
the step size is reduced.
The scheme for reusing the Jacobian means that when the Jacobian is con
stant, 0DE15s will normally form a Jacobian only once in the whole integration.
39
Also, the code will form very few Jacobians when applied to a problem th a t is
not stiff. This ensures its efficiency, compared to the other codes, for non-stiff or
stiff problems.
3.2.2
T h e ODE23s Program
Meanwhile the code of ODE23s uses the linearly implicit formulas for stiff
systems rather than the ODE15s, which employs the implicit formulas for stiff
systems.
The code ODE23s provides an alternative to ODE15s for the solution of
stiff problems. It is especially effective at crude tolerances, when a one-step
method has advantages over methods with memory, and when Jacobians have
eigenvalues near the imaginary axis. It is a fixed order method of such simple
structure that the overhead is low except for the linear algebra, which is relatively
fast in MATLAB. The integration is advanced with the lower order formula, so
ODE23s does not do local extrapolation.
The current version of ODE23s forms a new Jacobian at every step for
several reasons. A formula of order 2 is most appropriate at crude tolerances. At
such tolerances solution components often change significantly in the course of a
single step, so it is often appropriate to form a new Jacobian. In MATLAB the
Jacobian is typically of modest size of sparse and its evaluation is not very tim e
consuming compared with the evaluation of F. Lastly, evaluating the Jacobian
at every step enhances the reliability and robustness of the code.
40
For non-autonomous problems ode23s requires an approximation of dF/dt

in addition to the approximation of dF/dy. For the convenience of the user and
to make the use of all the codes the same, approximating of this partial derivative
numerically is always chosen.
3.3
Finite elem ent in tim e domain
The details of the formulation of FET are discussed. The equations of motion
are the most general ones, which could be applied to any case. From this point
of view, it can be seen that the formulation is suitable for any kind of problem,
Single DOF or Multi DOF systems, linear or nonlinear systems.
In general a /V-DOF system with non-linear forces applied can be described
as the following equation of motion,
Mq + Cq + Kq + g{q) = f(t)
(3.2)
where M, C, K, denote the mass, damping and stiffness matrix of the system,
respectively, g(q) represents the non-linear forces applied to the system, and
/(t), the external excitation forces. If the linear system is considered, g(q) term
will be deteriorate into linear form and can be considered by adding one more
term onto system stiffness matrix.
3.3.1
Form ulation o f F in ite elem ent in tim e dom ain
The finite element method in time domain is based on a weak form of Hamiltons
law. Commonly known as Hamiltons weak principle, it can be expressed in its
41
general displacement form as

f tf (6 L + 6 W)dt = 5qr -p\
3.3.2
(3.3)
Prim al form o f FET
A displacement formulation may be devised by resorting to the principle of virtual

work, thus requiring a displacement field compatible with the deformations. This
implies that the equation
(3.4)
is satisfied, and that the displacement boundary conditions are satisfied as well.
When this relationship is enforced, it leads to the following displacement form,
where only x is the independent field. If the position vector x is stated as a

function of a suitable number of generalized coordinates q and of time t, it yields,
where L denotes the Lagrangian function, and Q are in general non-conservative

generalized forces.
This equation is well known as Hamiltons law of varying action, which
becomes Hamiltons principle if the test functions axe chosen so as to vanish
at the boundaries. In the following, this form is referred to with the name of
primal form, since it deals only with one independent and thus the primal field
[38, 42, 44).
42
It is shown that the analogies between these weak forms and the wellknown weak forms of elastostatics, are not restricted to a slight resemblance.
Particularly, the locking phenomenon [42]which may be observed in solid me
chanics in pure displacement formulations, has a corresponding analog even in
pure displacement formulations for dynamics, namely the primal form.
This remark sets forth the need to develop an alternative weak form where
the independent fields are represented by generalized coordinates and momenta,
thus establishing what will be referred to as a mixed form. This second approach
seems to be much more alluring even from the point of view of Hamiltonian
mechanics: the phase space of a system is represented giving the same dignity
and the same order of approximation to its two components, the generalized
coordinates q and momenta p. A single field formulation has not this kind of
parallelism in the treatment of q and p since the momenta are introduced by
means of the time derivatives of the generalized coordinates, thus negatively
affecting its numerical behavior [42].
3.3.3
M ixed form o f FE T
The form employed for the formulation of finite element model in this thesis is
the mixed form, which has some advantages, as discussed before, over the primal
form.
A Legendre transformation can be applied to the Lagrangian function L,
transforming the velocities into momenta and the Lagrangian function into the
43
Hamiltonian function, thus leading to the sought-for mixed form.

There are several kinds of mixed forms available. The one employed here
is
" ( i f p + t f q - S H + 6 f Q ) d t = S f ? |!T*
(3.7)
The independent fieldsin this case axe p and q.Prom definition, p and q
are
9L
P = -gr = Mq
q = M ~lp
(3.8)
respectively. While the Hamiltonian function

= pTq - L
= \ j F M ~ lp + \qTKq
(3.9)
and,
Q
= F -C q
= F C M ~ lp
(3.10)
thus,
dK.
__
m = a^p+V ?
=
pTM -1Sp + qTKSq
(3.11)
Substituting into equation 3.7 yields,

Su+1 [ ^ P + SjFq jF M ~ l 8 p - qTK 8 q+
SqT (F - C M ~ lp)\ dt = 5qTp6 |+l
44
(3.12)
3.3 .4
F in ite elem ent approxim ation
In order to develop a finite element approximation, the time interval (U, U+1) is
subdivided into a certain number of time nodal points, which is the order of the
element, k.
This procedure gives rise to two different possibilities. One is an implicit
step-by-step self-starting integration formula; the other is an assembly process
developed to obtain a solution over a time period of interest.
Let the trial functions be
q = N-{q}
p = N -{p}
(3.13)
while the test functions

Sq = N {}
5p = N - { S p }
(3.14)
5q = N {?}
5p =
{5p}
(3.15)
where N, N axe the shape functions. They can be with the same ordifferent
order.
Here the form of polynomials is employed.
The order k of the shape
function could be chosen according to the accuracy required, considering the

computation time it would take.
Substituting the trial and test functions into the mixed form formula, Equa45
tion (3.12) becomes

J
^8 qTN T Np + 8 pTN TNq pTM 1 N T N 8 p ( f K N TN 8 q

+8 f (F - C M - 'p ) J\Tr tf] dt = S f j f N1"|+1 (3.16)
where denotes the right Kronecker product of two matrices or vectors, and
(3.17)
F = f(t) ~ 9 (q, t)
includes the excitation force as well as the nonlinear force.
Furthermore, it yields,
J
p[ ( - M
N TNpi + N TNq i) dt +
f ti+l Sqf {[Nt N - C M - 1 N TN) p i - K I ^ N q ^ j dt +

[ + dgf /() NTdt - [ + 8 q f g{q, t) N Tdt = 8 qTpb N T |j+1
Ju
Ju
1
(3.18)
It could be rearranged into matrix form as follows,

(SpJjg)
/ +l -A / ' 1 f F N d t
+l - J ^ N d t
f i +l ( N N - C M ' 1 JS^N) dt +1 - K I ^ N d t
{ * J + { /*' m
if*
J + { S i? ' - 9 (1 , t) i T d t }}
= ( 8 p J , 8 qJ) | 5 . } (3-19)
Since \ 8 p{, 8 (g) are arbitrary, the finite element approximation at the
element level is given as,
A n A 12
A 21 A 22
{ * } + { g, } + { p<}
s,
46
<3 20>
where
Au =
[
Jk
Au
r +l N r Ndt
Ju
+1
- M ~ l N TNdt
( N N - C M ' 1 J ^ N ) dt
^421 =
A 22 = J
" '1
K N TNdt
(3.21)
and
Gi =
Pi =
f + - g(q, t) N Tdt
Ju
f(t ) N Tdt
Jti
(3.22)
From the previous equation, it can be derived that

AnPi + Ai2? = 0
(3.23)
Pi = - A n 1Ai2ft
(3.24)
By substituting into the previous equation, we have

[A22 A2iAnJA12 ] {ft} + Gi + Pi = Bi
(3.25)
Introducing the new matrix notation At- = [A22 A21 Ajj1A 12 ] , it yields
Ai{qi} + Gi(qi) + Pi = Bi
(3.26)
Through the system matrix assemblage for the Ne elements, the system equation
for the whole period of interest will be,
A{q} + G(q) + P = B
47
(3.27)
where
A =
p
C= C (
i=l
t=l
Ne
= , = *
i=l
=1
(3.28)
and
^
{ ft I
PATwi+lt
Pi; 0
PNc*N*k+N }
PNen*k+i
* = No. o / D O F
(3.29)
As for the solution of Equation (3.27), the standard Newton-Raphson

procedure is employed. The solution for either the initial value problem, or
steady state problem can be carried out, by imposing the corresponding boundary
conditions.
3.3.5
T h e evaluation o f G and Jacobian M atrix
G matrix, and Jacobian matrix, J , are required for the solution sought proce
dure of Newton-Raphson iteration.
For simplifying of the derivation, here only a SDOF system is considered.
The general formulation for any kind of system, single or multiple non-linear
DOFs, backlash type of non-linearity or other type, could be expanded with the
similar derivation.
For a single DOF system with non-linear force depicted as in the previous
chapter,
g(q, t) = -
' kc {q - b) + cq if q - b > 0 ;
0
if - b < q < 6;
fcc (q + b) + cq if q + 6 < 0 .
48
(3.30)
the G matrix could be evaluated as,

G = Y^G i
t=i
(3.31)
with Gi
AfU+i
Gi = [ 1 -g(q, t) N Tdt,
u
(3.32)
For an interval [<j, t2\ within fo, ii+1], if g > 6,

INTGGj =
=
N 7' [kc { q - b ) + cq] dt,
- J N T kcNqdt + j
N TkJ)dt - J + N TcNqdt (3.33)
and if 6 < q < b, then

IN TG G j = - [ ^ l N t -0dt = 0
(3.34)
if 9 < ~b,
IN T G G j = - [ +l N 7"[kc (q + b) + cq] dt,
(3.35)
Jti
r^t+1 m
r^+i m
r^i+1 m 7
= N kcNqdt /
N Tkcb d t N TcNqdt (3.36)
Jti
Jti
Jl
For all the intervals, the Gt could be computed as the summation of the
INTG Gj, as
Gi =
IN TG G j
(3.37)
i=i
While for the Jacobian matrix J ,
N,t
J =
i=1
49
(3-38)
For certain element i,
Ji =
^
dq
(3-39)
(3.40)
dq
Similarly, for an interval [ti, Z2] within [f,-, k+i]>

if \q\ > b,
IN T G Jj = -
r+lN TkcNdt - Ju
Jti
N Tctidt
(3.41)
and if b < = q < = b, then

IN T G J j = 0
(3.42)
Ji of element i, over the [i? ,+i] time span could be evaluated as,
Ji = j r i NTGJj
j=i
(3.43)
With the G and J matrix ready, the Newton-Raphson iteration algorithm could
be performed for the solution from this FET formulation.
3.4
Strategy for choosing numerical algorithms
From previous study, it can be seen that ODE stiff suite, as well as FET are
suitable for attle, clearance type computation. By considering efficiency and
availability, ODE stiff suite is employed for both baseline and rattle analysis,
while FET algorithm is employed for rattle analysis only.
Due to the advantage of adaptive step in ODE suite, the input for rattle
evaluation has already been adaptively stepped from baseline responses. This
50
makes the following rattle analysis be free of step choosing burden. Either ODE
stiff suite or FET algorithm works very well for the solution of rattle model.
Because of the adaptive time step of ODE stiff algorithm, it is suitable for
the baseline model, which is of multi-DOFs. As the baseline response will be
fed to rattle model, with this adaptive time step, both ODE stiff algorithm and
F E T algorithm can be used. It can be seen from later analysis, results from both
algorithms agree very much.
51
Chapter 4
Application to NT350
Transmission
4.1
Introduction
Before the analysis can be carried out, several issues related to rattle analysis are
covered. They are rigidity of shafts, contact stiffness function of a meshing gear
pai and indication of rattle severity. Based on the methods of modeling and
analysis, simulation for the powertrain with NT350 transm ission is performed.
All simulations are carried out with the geometric parameters and material
properties of powertrain provided by Chrysler Corporation and New Venture Gear
Inc.
4.2
Flexible shaft m odel versus rigid shaft m odel
The baseline model consists of shafts, gears, and other components. Compared
with other parts of the powertrain, shafts are the most rigid ones. Thus for the
modeling, we are given the choice between rigid shaft and flexible shaft, for the
baseline model.
52
Before any decision can be made, these two kinds of models are built and
studied. With rigid shaft, the number of DOF for the system equation is 3. While
for flexible shaft, it is cut into number of segments and a total of 29 DOFs are
employed for the system model.
Since shafts are the parts only included in the baseline model, the analysis
is carried out with the baseline model. For the rigid shaft model, the responses
are solved with the system equation directly. While for the flexible shaft model,
the responses of the baseline are computed with the superposition of the first
several modes of the system, rather than all modes. This is due to the fact that
only first several modes are significant, and the solution of a 29 DOFs system
equation could take days to get.
By studying the frequencies of the modes found from the flexible shaft
model, it can be convinced that only first three modes are necessary for the
response calculation. As for the fourth mode, its frequency is too high compared
to the 3rd mode, and unlikely to be excited.
Figure 4.1 and Figure 4.2 illustrate the baseline responses of one driving
gear. It can be said that the responses from these two different models are fairly
close by checking the figures.
With this conclusion of the availability of the rigid shaft model, the model
of the baseline could be simplified, becoming easy to use for the analysis. Nev
ertheless, modal analysis is always available for the analysis, if the flexible shaft
model should be presented. With the first several modes considered for the re53
0J3
05
0.6
0.7
08
09
05
0.6
0.7
08
09
0.6
0.7
08
>
-2
01
20
c
Ol
0.3
Figure 4.1: The baseline response with flexible shaft
1
0
1
-20
01
-3
01
04
05
0.6
0.7
05
0.6
0.7
0.6
0.7
08
I
>
09
10
-20
-30
08
09
Figure 4.2: The baseline response with rigid shaft
54
sponse calculation, the analysis time will be lowered dramatically, and close to
the time required for the rigid shaft model.
Within the rattle modeling and analysis software package, both of the rigid
and flexible shaft models are implemented. For the flexible model, the number
of modes employed for the response calculation can be selected. The user can
choose either one for the analysis, or both for the verification purpose.
4.3 Tim e-varying m eshing stiffness function

It is well known that helical gears can transmit power quietly with low levels
of vibration compared to spur gears. The meshing stiffness function of a helical
tooth pair as proposed by Y. Cai [13] is employed for the evaluation of the time
varying meshing stiffness of a gear pair.
4.3.1 Stiffn ess function o f one h elical to o th pair

The stiffness function of a helical tooth pair k(t), can be calculated as follows,
k(t) = kp exp(Ca
t-(etz )2
1.125 x
(4-1)
where kp represents the stiffness of the pitch point, which will be discussed later;
t is the total contact ratio, while q* is the transverse contact ratio; and tz is
the meshing period passing one transverse base pitch. Especially since, t is the
meshing time from the start to the end of the meshing on the line of action, it is
clear that t equals from 0 to etz.
55
The coefficient Ca has a linear relationship with the helix angle /3q,
Ca = 0.322 (A) - 5) + [0.23(6/H) - 23.26]
(4.2)
where b is the face width, and H the total tooth depth.

For a pair of meshing helical teeth, kp could be evaluated as,
***
co + C7i ( i r + i ) + c 2( ^ - + ^ )
where Zy\ and Zy2 are equivalent numbers of teeth, and coandc2 are coefficients.
Specifically, Cq is the deflection of a helical rack pair which can be obtained as,
= ______________ 2i25______________
00 [-0.166 x (bH) + 0.08] (ft - 5) + 44.5
And the coefficients ci,C2, and C3 are obtained by a least-square approximation,

which are of the value,
ci
= -0.00854
c2
= -0.11654
c3
= 2.9784
(4.5)
Equation (4.1) is called the modified stiffness function for a helical tooth pair,
which is derived from the function of a helical rack tooth pair.
4.3.2
S ynthesized m eshing stiffn ess o f a m eshing gear pair
The meshing stiffness of a meshing gear pair is needed for the analysis. With the
stiffness function of a pair of teeth ready, the meshing stiffness function for a pair
of meshing gears could be computed by synthesizing the pairs of m esh in g teeth.
56
Time wytng corteti sttffnm
250
200
150
Tooth par's stiffness

100
SO
EndatMMhjng
Start of
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
6md
0.25
0.3
Figure 4.3: Time varying stiffness with contact ratio = 1.88

Two cases are studied, for a pair of meshing gears, with different contact
ratio, while having the same other parameters, such as face width 6, normal
module rim, etc. The total contact ratio for the first pair of gears is less than 2,
approximately at 1.88. While for the second pair of gears, it is larger than 2, at
2.79 for this case.
Figure 4.3 and Figure 4.4 illustrate the time varying m eshing stiffness over
the m eshing position, or time, for two different pairs of gears. With the low con
tact ratio e = 1.88 , the contact stiffness function demonstrates more fluctuation
of its amplitude, as Figure 4.3 shows.
The meshing stiffness for the higher contact ratio, e = 2.79, shown in
Figure 4.4, varies less than its amplitude compared to that of the lower contact
ratio case. Thus, it can be seen that the helical gear pairs with high contact ratio
57
250
200
150
Tooth
100
50
Start o(
ling
0.1
0.3
d rad
0.4
0S
Figure 4.4: Time varying stiffness with contact ratio = 2.79

possess the attribute of less fluctuation of stiffness over the meshing period. This
could explain why the pair of helical gears with high contact ratio transmits the
torque and motion quietly.
4.4
Effect o f tim e-varying meshing stiffness
The contact stiffness of a pair of meshing gears changes throughout its rotation
cycle. While the meshing of pair of gears continuous until the meshing ends, the
meshing stiffness of the teeth is not a constant. This phenomenon is also known
as parametric excitation.
The effect of this time-varying contact stiffness is studied with the meshing
stiffness function discussed previously. For the baseline system, as the backlash
does not contribute anything to the response, the result from the averaged contact
stiffness and th a t from the time-varying contact stiffness are almost the same, as
58
DOF3
04
0.3
0.1
0.1
02
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
as
0.6
0.3
0.4
0.5
06
07
0.8
07
0.8
OJ
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
3001
.100^------1___ t
0
0.1
02
i0.3 l
0.4
____i
____I
____I
____0.9l___ 1
0.6
0.7
0.8
05
Tim*
Figure 4.5: The baseline response with constant contact stiffness

shown in Figure 4.5 and Figure 4.6.
The effect of the time-varying contact stiffness as well as the backlash on
the rattle model has been studied. A pair of meshing gears with backlash is
used for the evaluation of the effect of the time-varying meshing stiffness. The
responses for the average contact stiffness and the time-varying contact stiffness
are shown as in Figure 4.7 and Figure 4.8.
When comparing these two figures, it is evident that the responses of the
driven gear, either for the one with constant contact stiffness, or for the one with
time-varying contact stiffness, are quite similar. The conclusion can be drawn
that the effect of the time-varying contact stiffness on the rattle responses is quite
limited for this speed configuration, with high contact ratio.
As all five pairs of gears of NT350 transmission are helical gears with the
59
OOFS
0.4r
fOJ-
0.2 50.1 0.1
02
0.1
02
0.3
0.1
02
0.3
05
0.6
07
0.6
0.9
0.5
0.6
07
0.6
0.9
05
0.6
0.7
0.6
0.9
0.4
0.3
0.1
300
3 200
M 100
- to o 1
04
Tim*
Figure 4.6: The baseline response with time-varying contact stiffness
x iq*-4
Vetocty gear
Dtoptacernam Qaar
0.2
*
-2
0
0.1
I
f
3
0.1
02
0.3
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.1
Time Sac
Time Sec
PirMlmi
Contact force
0.3
0.4
0.3
04
1.5
TJ
c
L
L
0.5
0.1
0.3
0.1
Time Sec
Figure 4.7: The rattle response with constant contact stiffness
60
K10 "*
Otaptactmanl :gmr
Vtocty m
0.1
>-ai
o
o.i
0.2
0.3
0.1
0.3
0.4
0.3
0.4
Tim* See
Exctotion
Contact fare*
19
c
u.
-10
0.5
-2 0
0.1
0.3
0.4
01
0.2
Figure 4.8: The rattle response with time-varying contact stiffness

contact ratio higher than 2.5, the time-varying contact stiffness has much less
effect on the rattle responses. Yet for spur gear with low contact ratio, it could
be a completely different scenario.
4.5
Gear rattle indices
The main concern of this thesis is to study the effects of various components or
system designs on the rattle reduction. Thus, the measurement of rattle severity
is required, which is known as the rattle indices. Previously, various rattle indices,
in order to evaluate the transmission and drive-train design, have been developed
based on intuition.
Due to vibro-impacts, impulsive transients occur in a periodic fashion over
one cycle of the acceleration time history. An increase of noise level caused by
61
this phenomenon is a strong function of the acceleration peak amplitude and the
decay rate.
Using the time response signals, the indices, E\ based on the ratio of meansquare values of the accelerations, and E? based on the ratio of the peak to peak
values, are developed to measure the effectiveness of any design from the rattle
point of view,
(4.6)
(4.7)
Where,
(4.8)
(4.9)
denotes the mean square value of the acceleration of the driven gear, and the
flywheel, respectively, with T = 27ru;, corresponds to the period of the flywheel;
while
62
,P, and 0/iP are the peak to peak value of the accelerations.
Further, two more indices, based on the response signals, are developed
specifically to assess the sound perception. One is based on the mean-square
energy, Es, and the other is based on the energy contained within the initial
sharp pulse, 4 ,
(4.10)
62
ea
= 8& t
(4.11)
where i refers to the position of the gears, p refers to the peak pulse, and St, the
pulse duration.
The index E\ is chosen for analysis within this paper. Prom the rattle
analysis, the angular velocities of all the rattle gears can be obtained. Then the
accelerations are computed by a forward difference method. The same procedure
is carried out for the acceleration of the flywheel. The ratio of the mean square
value of the driven gear to that of the flywheel is the rattle index for that specific
gear pair. The overall rattle index for certain speed could be calculated as the
root square value of all the unladen pairs of gears at that speed.
4.6
Analysis for th e first speed configuration
With the modeling method proposed, and several related issues studied, the
modeling and analysis procedure is performed for the speed 1 configuration. The
shafts are considered flexible. Thus the baseline model is of 29 DOFs, with the
multi-stage spring clutch. The first three modes of the system are included for the
response calculation. At this stage, the proportional Raleigh damping is applied
for the model.
The torque excitation is of the form as,
r() = 150 + 40sin(38.8f) N m
(4.12)
where torque fluctuation is about 25 percent of the mean torque. The system is
63
25
S p M d l Gm t 2
SpM dl Gm t 3
20
-5
Tim*
SpMdl Gmt4
SpMdl GmiS
o
-8
-8
Tim*
Time
Figure 4.9: Baseline response: Angular displacement

assumed at rest for the initial condition. The backlash of unladen pairs of gears
is 1.25 x 10-4m.
4.6.1
B aselin e torsional vibration
The responses of the baseline for the 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th pinion positions are
illustrated as Figure 4.9 and Figure 4.10.
The rigid model is also studied, and gives the consistent result with that
of the rigid shaft model. It is evident that both models are available.
4.6.2
R a ttle analysis for unladen pairs o f gears
For speed 1 configuration, other 4 unladen pairs of gears in meshing without

transmitting any load yield the rattle. For the 2nd pair of gears, the driving
pinion is on the input shaft, while for the rest 3 pairs of unladen gears, the
64
g -0.5
-1 0
Tim*
-3
Figure 4.10: Baseline response: Angular velocity

pinions are all on the output shaft. The corresponding excitations for rattle
analysis can be taken from the input shaft response for the 2nd pair, and the
output shaft for the remaining 3 pairs, with the baseline response evaluation.
The responses of the rattle pairs from MATLAB O D E lb s are shown in
Figure 4.11, Figure 4.12, Figure 4.13, and Figure 4.14, respectively. Each figure
consists of 4 sub plots, they are the linear displacement between gears, relative
velocity, rotation of the pinion, as well as the contact force between gears.
It is evident, from the rattle responses, that all pairs of unladen gears
undergo drive-coast rattle, while the 2nd pair of gears undergoes the rattle more
severely. This could be explained from the responses of the pinion position on the
input or output shaft. The torsional vibration of the pinion on the input shaft is
more severe, compared to that of the pinions on the output shaft.
65
x ^q-*
Dtoptaoement :geer2
Vetocty 9ar2
Eii.Uthjn
Nonlinear force
20
^ V W r iV iV,sv
10
1.5
2
Time See
zs
Figure 4 . 11: Rattle response of Gear pair 2 for the first speed (ODE15s)
*10
Velocity .gears
Di^tacomoft :gaar3
0.005
0.005
-
0.01
-0 015
Noofinear force
0
.1
-2
z
-5
-6
-2
Time See
0.5
15
2
Time See
2.5
Figure 4.12: Rattle response of Gear pair 3 for the first speed (ODEl5s)
66
f 0.005
> -0.005
-0.015
1
Excftatton
1.5
2
Tima Sec
Nonlinear force
T)
so
e
(L.
Tima Sac
0.5
1.5
2
Tima Sac
2.5
Figure 4.13: Rattle response of Gear pair 4 for the first speed (ODE15s)
Vetodty :QearS
0.005
0.01
Tuna Sac
Exctatbn
Nonfinear force
4
3
2
-2
Z 1
c
0
-1
-5
-2
-6
0
-3
1
0.5
Tima Sac
1.5
2
Tima Sac
2.5
Figure 4.14: Rattle response of Gear pair 5 for the first speed (ODEl5s)
67
Vtocty :gMr2
Emfritfan
Nonflneer farce
20
10
0.5
1.5
2
Time See
Z5
Figure 4.15: Rattle response of Gear pair 2 for the first speed (FET)
As the fluctuation of engine excitation is about 25% of the mean torque,
the rattle level is somewhat high. Ii is interesting that rattle level is proportional
to the fluctuation of engine excitation.
4.7
Comparison of rattle results: O D E svs. FET
For the rattle evaluation, both algorithms of FET and ODE stiff suite are em
ployed. Figure 4.15, Figure 4.15, Figure 4.15, and Figure 4.15, show the responses
of gear pair 2 to gear pair 5 from FET algorithm.
From the side to side comparison of the results from ODEs and FET, it
can be seen that they agree very well. Taking a close look at the graphs for rattle
gear pair 2 of speed 1 configuration, Figure 4.11 and Figure 4.15, there is a slight
deviation from one to another. This slight difference is due to different algorithms,
68
VModty :qm i 3
Diaptaeameft
0.005
0.01
4.015
1
1.5
2
Time See
NonOnaar force
3
2;
1
0
-3
Time Sac
0.5
2
1.5
Time Sac
2.5
xIO
Dtaptacamert rgaar*
Vetoctty :gaar4
0.015
0.5
-0.005
0.5
1.5
Tima Sac
-0.015
2.5
Exctatton
Nonlinear force
1
-2
-3
0
-6
-6
1
Time See
0.5
15
2
Tima Sac
2.5
69
I
-
0.01
Time S*c
ExdMion
Nonlinear force
-i
1.5
2
Time Sec
2.5
in which different schemes of convergence and time steps are employed. This
difference can also be noticed from the contact force graphs.
Checking with other three sets of response graphs for same rattle gear
pairs, similar observations can be made. The responses agree very well from two
different rattle analysis algorithms with very slight differences.
It is noteworthy that FET algorithm runs about 10% faster than ODE
stiff suite for the same time period simulation.
With the responses from baseline model and rattle model, the rattle indices
can be computed, for each pair of the unladen gears, as well as overall rattle
indices for a specific speed.
70
Chapter 5
Param etric Studies and Design
Application
5.1
Introduction
With ODE stiff-suite and FET algorithms developed, it is possible to perform

parametric study. The numerical algorithms allow us to examine the influence of
key parameters of the transm ission on gear rattle. Subsequently, it provides the
guidance to achieve a quiet transmission design.
The key parameters of a drivetrain include backlash, clutch characteristics,
drag torque, inertia and rigidity properties of driveline, engine angular accelera
tion signature, etc. It is not possible to study all of these effects on rattle. In this
chapter, the characteristics for rattle reduction, issues about clutch design, and
powertrain design are discussed. Additionally the detailed parametric studies are
performed on the parameters of drag torque and backlash.
71
5.2
Characterization and reduction of gear rat

tle
The primary interest of the parametric study is rattle noise level. The rattle noise
intensity is known to be directly related to the kinetic energy loss during meshing.
The energy loss index neglects the effect of the noise transmission path and gives
no indication of the potential customer annoyance by gear rattle. However, an
investigation of the effect on meshing energy index of changes to various design
parameters is a useful first step that provides an interesting insight into possible
different rattle mechanism.
First, unsynchronized gear pairs will be studied, focusing on their major
design parameters: backlash and drag torque. Past theoretical and experimental
works have identified some general effects with these parameters. For instance,
the energy index increases with increasing backlash until a given threshold value
of backlash, at which the energy index may reduce significantly. The drag torque
can prevent impacting at the meshes, but breaking mesh does not always give
rise to an audible noise.
A reason for the complex relationship is that the complex motion possible
in the rattle gears demonstrates different modes of rattle behaviors. In one mode,
alternating impacts occur with the drive and coast sides of the unladen gear
periodically. This is typical for low backlash and low drag with an impact contact
at every engine firing event. In another mode, impacts occur with only the drive
of mesh due to an increased drag. Other modes of motion including irregular
72
xW*
15
as
-as
in
-1.5
2
2.1
2.2
2.4
2.6
2.7
2.6
2.9
Figure 5.1: Double side impact rattle mode

motion are also known to exist.
5.3
R attle modes
The gear rattle shows some certain patterns called rattle modes under differ
ent configurations or operating conditions. It is helpful to have the potential
rattle modes studied, and to familiarize ones self with them before a complete
understanding of gear rattle characteristics can be achieved.
In general, rattle modes can be categorized into following types, from
previous study, as well as modeling and analysis performed in this paper.
Double side impact
This is the most popular mode of rattle. The gear rattles are mainly of this mode.
Figure 5.1 shows the characteristics of this rattle mode.
73
x 10"4
1.5
0.5
-1.5
0.55
0.6
065
0.7
075
Tims. See
0.6
0.85
0.9
0.95
Figure 5.2: Single side impact rattle mode

The meshing unladen pair of gears bounce within positive and negative
backlash range. The impact demonstrates the multiple impact characteristics.
After several impact on one side, for example during driving or coast side, the
driven gear is pushed back to the other side. This shows why a restitutive model
for the rattle is not adequate enough.
Single side impact
This is another mode of rattle, which is likely to occur. Figure 5.2 shows this
kind of rattle mode.
This rattle mode is more likely to happen when the powertrain is engaged
at low speed, or when the drag torque applied on driven gear of unladen pair of
gears is high, holding back the driven gear from coast side impact. Under this
rattle mode, the rattle index is low.
74
j c I O -*
1.5
0.5
-1.5
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.9
Figure 5.3: Irregular rattle mode

Irregular mode
This is not the mode likely to occur during steady state operation of the vehicle.
It usually occurs dining vehicles starting period. Figure 5.3 illustrates this rattle
mode.
As reflected by its name, the irregular characteristics of this mode are
demonstrated from the previous figure. The driven gear penetrates between pos
itive and negative clearance very fast, with even greater momentum compared
to that of the double side impact mode. The deflection of the meshing teeth is
greater. And within one impact, the meshing gears are separated all the way to
the opposite side impact. This causes a lot of rattle, at relatively high levels.
The rattle modes discussed here are the first of their types to be presented.
Although there are a few published papers that discuss rattle modes and give
75
some illustrated patterns, such detailed rattle characteristics have not been given
before.
5.4
Effect o f drag torque and backlash on rattle
In order to check the effect of some key parameters on rattle indices, the analysis
is performed by changing drag torque and backlash within a certain allowed range.
The change of rattle behavior and rattle indices is tracked, so as to determine in
which way that rattle phenomenon can be alleviated.
A very detailed analysis is provided for the first speed configuration. The
drag torque applied is changing from 0 to 0.2JVm. While the backlash changes
from 90 % to 110% of the current value.
Figure 5.4 shows rattle indices versus change of drag torque, and Figure
5.5 shows rattle indices versus change of backlash. It can be seen that rattle level
decreases when drag torque increases, while the effect of backlash change is not
monotonic. As evident in the figure of rattle indices versus backlash, the change
of rattle indices is not as great as that of drag torque change. It can be seen that
100 % percent of backlash is corresponding to the lowest rattle index.
Rather than only looking at the rattle indices which is a scalar value, it
is important to examine the rattle in detail. The rattle indices figures for fixed
backlash, while changing drag torque from 0 Nm to 0.2 Nm, are shown from
Figure 5.6 to Figure 5.10.
The figures tell us that rattle pattern is affected upon increase of drag
76
Raffle index vs. Drag Torque

1.4
105% Backlash
110% Baditah
02
01
0.08
0.12
Drag Torque N.m
0.02
0.14
0.16
Figure 5.4: Rattle indices versus drag torque
Rattle index vs . Backlash

0.5 N
1.2
5 0.
06
0.2
0.9
0.92
0.96
096
1
1.02
Backtab, (1 - I25e-4m )
1.06
1.06
Figure 5.5: Rattle indices versus backlash
77
02
04
06
Time See
as
02
a4
as
as
Time Sac
frucftaton
Contact force
S
S
DC
02
04
06
Time Sec
08
Figure 5.6: Rattle response with drag torque = 0.0 Nm
10-
Veiodty :geart
OUptenement rqae rl
02
04
OS
Time Sec
OS
02
ExdtMlon
0.4
OS
Time Sec
08
Contact foroe
100
1
9
02
08
02
0.6
Time See
08
78
Veiocty g**rt
Eicftfoon
Contact fora*
SO
z
e
u.
-60
-100
02
04
06
Tim* See
06
06
Tkn*S*e
08
Vtiodty Q**fi
Dtsptaoement rg w l
04
0.6
Tbn*S*e
EicltMton
0.8
Contact fora*
02
06
Tim*S*e
79
Valocty g n r l
Dispteovnofit
EiatMton
r
02
04
06
Tims Sac
08
02
04
06
Urn* Sac
08

torque. When drag torque is not presented, the driven gear of the unladen mesh
ing pair of gears bounces within the backlash, which is so called a double-side
impact mode. This is the mode that corresponds to the high rattle indices. As
drag torque increasing, rattle mode gradually changes to that of a driving side
mode, which yields low rattle indices. If the drag torque reaches a certain value,
there will be no rattle. The separation of unladen pair gears is not likely to hap
pen. This is not the case for the real application because drag torque is related to
the viscosity of lubricant oil directly. There are many concerns about the choice
of its attributes, like the power and efficiency of transmission, etc.
From the results presented, there is significant proof that certain amount
of drag torque is quite helpful in alleviating rattle. But, due to the limitation of
other aspects, it is not feasible to apply great amount of drag torque onto the
80
unladen driven gears.

The effects of backlash do not behave like that of drag torque. Given the
curves derived from the evaluation, its effect on rattle changes less, compared
to the change resulted by drag torque, which demonstrates a non-monotonic
behavior.
By looking through other configuration of speeds, similar behaviors are
observed. But due to the different rattle mode possessed of different speeds,
they demonstrate different ways of rattle mode changing, and thereby the rattle
indices. Manojs paper [47] has discussed the details of all five speeds rattle
analysis results.
81
Chapter 6
Summary and Discussion
6.1
Summary
A decoupled model for powertrain torsional dynamics analysis is developed in

this dissertation. It includes the major powertrain components, such as flywheel,
clutch, transmission and other parts. The concept of separation of the baseline
and rattle model significantly simplifies the process of numerical analysis simula
tion. This decoupled model has been verified with a comparison to a full model.
The numerical results have shown that the decoupled model is effective for rattle
analysis with high efficiency and decent accuracy.
The effects of the shaft rigidity have been investigated. It can be seen that
the rigid shaft assumption reduces the computation time of numerical integration
for the baseline model simulation dramatically.
A mixed form formulation of Finite Element in Time domain has been
derived and implemented. From the simulations performed, it turns out that
FET mixed form runs about
By introducing a time-varying meshing stiffness function into the rattle
82
model, the effect of interaction of backlash and time varying meshing stiffness is
shown to be insignificant.
Different rattle modes are identified for a specific speed configuration. Our
findings verify the modes provided from previous research. During one rattle
period multiple impacts may occur for either double or single side mode.
A parametric study has been performed with two major parameters of the
powertrain: drag torque and backlash. With drag torque increasing, a rattle
index decreases as drag torque prevents impacts on the coastal side. This may
change rattle mode from double side impact into single side impact. The effect of
backlash on rattle is not monotonic. It turns out that the current backlash level
in the T350 transmission is very close to its optimal value from the rattle point
of view.
6.2
Contributions
In this dissertation, the research work has concentrated on modeling and anal
ysis of rattle phenomena in an automotive powertrain equipped with a manual
transmission.
The development of a decoupled model is based on an understanding of
powertrain component characteristics. The decoupled model makes use of the
assumption of neglecting the effect of unladen driven gears on driving gear. This
model is examined through a comparison with a full model. The results indi
cate th at the decoupled model is accurate for practical applications with great
83
efficiency.
The Finite Element in Time domain (FET) numerical method was first
proposed about three decades ago, but its application has not been widely stud
ied. In this dissertation, a FET mixed form formulation is derived in detail and
is implemented for the analysis of powertrain rattle. Through numerical com
parisons with stiff ODE algorithms, the effectiveness and efficiency of the FET
method have been verified.
As noted, rattle phenomena are more prominent for certain speeds of op
eration, less for others. W ith understanding of the general concept of rattle
characteristics for the existing transmission, the parametric study can be initi
ated. By checking the effect of key parameters, such as backlash and drag torque,
on the rattle mechanism and its level, a guide to the design of clutch and trans
mission with better rattle characteristics is possible, thus moving the design for
the powertrain into a new and more objective phase.
6.3
Future work
It is our ambitious goal to develop a complete modeling and analysis package

for powertrain rattle. We have covered many issues related to physical modeling
and numerical simulation. There still remain topics for further study.
If there arises a chance for continued study, good topics might be damping
model and dry friction characteristics of the clutch. The model developed in this
dissertation employs proportional damping for both baseline and rattle models.
84
The possibility of using other types of damping and including hysteresis charac
teristics of the clutch could be interesting topics. With study and understanding
of these two aspects, the capacity of the model for powertrain rattle analysis will
be greatly deepened.
Another important topic is experimental investigation. This dissertation
studied analysis and numerical simulations only. Experimental results will be
the final validation of the modeling and analysis methodology developed in this
dissertation.
85
BIBLIOGRAPHY
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92

WANG, ZHAO - Modeling and Analysis of Gear Rattle in Automotive Transmissions

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Modeling and Analysis of Gear Rattle in

Weijie Zhao, Doctor of Philosophy, 2002

Dissertation directed by:

In recent years, attainment of high quality in automotive vibration and sound

to automobile manufacturers in their pursuit of an increase in perceived sound

Second, a numerical technique based on Finite Elements in Time domain

MODELING AND ANALYSIS OF GEAR RATTLE IN AUTOMOTIVE

Dissertation submitted to the Faculty of the Graduate School of the

UMI Number 3055646

ProQuest Information and Learning Company

dedicated to my wife, mom, and Katherine

2 M odeling For Powertrain Gear Rattle

3 Numerical Algorithms for Gear Rattle Analysis

3.3.2 Primal form of F E T .............................................................

Application to NT350 T ransmission

Parametric Studies and Design Application

6 Sum m a ry and Discussion

Rattle Indices : Decoupled model vs. Full model

Illustration of Dodge Neon powertrain with NT350transmission .

Engine excitation torque fluctuation................................................

Time-varying gear meshing stiffness................................................

The powertrain model for the first s p e e d .......................................

The cause and effect diagram of gear rattle system ........................

Torsional vibration model for the first s p e e d .................................

Various stiffness characteristics of powertrain parts

A meshing gear p a i r ........................................................................

Geometric relation of a meshing gear pair with backlash

2.10 The physical model of a pair of unladen gears withbacklash . . .

2.11 Powertrain model with 4 D O F s ......................................................

2.12 The force characteristics of c lu tc h ...................................................

2.13 The motion of driving gear from decoupled m o d e l........................

2.14 The motion of driving gear from full m odel....................................

2.15 The motion of driven gear from decoupled model

2.16 The motion of driven gear from full m o d e l....................................

2.17 Rattle result from decoupled model a n a ly s is ..................................

2.18 Rattle result from full model a n aly sis.............................................

The baseline response with flexible s h a f t .......................................

The baseline response with rigid sh a ft.............................................

4.3 Time varying stiffness with contact ratio = 1 . 8 8 ............................

4.4 Time varying stiffness with contact ratio = 2 .7 9 ............................

4.5 The baseline response with constant contact stiffn e ss...................

4.6 The baseline response with time-varying contact stiffness.............

4.7 The rattle response with constant contact stiffness.........................

4.8 The rattle response with time-varying contact stiffness

4.9 Baseline response: Angular displacem ent........................................

4.10 Baseline response: Angular v elocity.................................................

Double side impact rattle m o d e .......................................................

Single side impact rattle m ode..........................................................

Irregular rattle m o d e ........................................................................

Rattle indices versus drag

Rattle indices versus b a c k la sh .......................................................

Rattle response with drag

torque = 0.0 Nm ...........................

Rattle response with drag torque = 0.05N m ..................................

Rattle response with drag torque = 0.10N m ..................................

Rattle response with drag torque = 0.15N m ..................................

5.10 Rattle response with drag torque = 0.20N m ..................................

Literature review for gear rattle stu d y

The power transmission system of an automobile is highly nonlinear. The dy

Furthermore, it becomes difficult to consider both neutral and in-drive rattles

Tel + k i T b u ( ^ i ll 02 ~ 7621 *0 3 )

fci r b11 ( f ill 02 7621 03) = 0

-4 0 0 0 '------------1----------- 1___ 1_ 1------------ 1------------1_ 1___ i