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Running Head: Gender Disparity in Education

Gender Disparity in Education

Boazii University
Rahime Gl Erdoan
2011110285

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Running Head: Gender Disparity in Education

Education is a human right for women and men. Gender equality in education means
that girls and boys have equal opportunities to enter school and to participate in and benefit
from the learning experiences being offered. Yet, unfortunately throughout history women
have been subjected to discrimination based on their gender in education as in many areas
pertaining to politics, sports and certain professions. Cultural stereotypes and some religious
beliefs which put women in the roles of subservient wives and mothers play a huge part in this
discrimination. Other reasons of gender disparity in education could be early marriage of
girls, poverty, lack of awareness of parents about the importance of female education and
domestic work. Women have historically been viewed weaker than men mostly in the maledominated societies around the world. Seeing women as the weaker gender caused some
restrictions on women. In many societies, although there has been much change in recent
hstory, women have not been allowed to vote and work. Over and above, they could not use
the right to get education. Since women could not resist against patriarchal society because of
their attributed submissive role and because of getting used to a life without education,
women have started raise their daughters according to the usual cultural stereotypes. They
have not let their girls go to school and they have started to treat to their daughters n the same
way as their husbands and fathers. Therefore, a vicious cycle of gender discrimination in
schooling has occurred.
Gender disparity in education is mostly seen in developing, underdeveloped and
Islamic countries. Due to the fact that in these countries men and women are not seen equal,
men do not accept the fact that education is a human right for both men and women. In these
countries girls are rarely allowed to go to school. The number of female students in these

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Running Head: Gender Disparity in Education

countries has always been lower than the number of female students in developed countries.
Unfortunately, just a small number of women can attend schooling and education in these
countries. Women who can find opportunity to use the right to education are unfortunately
exposed to gender related discrimination too. Only lucky ones can maintain their education
lives. Those who have to leave schools mostly return to their family home. Moreover, female
academicians in these countries generally cannot maintain their want for education and study
because of the pressure from society to resign from academia and live according to religious
rules. Therefore, in such countries while the number of female participants in schooling
cannot increase, the number of female teachers and academicians continue to decrease too.
Comparative education is completely settled academic field of study that analyzes
instruction in one nation by utilizing information and experiences drawn from the practices in
another nation. According to Harold Noah (1973), and Farooq Joubish (2009), comparative
education has four purposes: describing educational systems, processes, or outcomes,
assisting in the development of educational institutions and practices, highlighting the
relationships between education and society and establishing generalized statements about
education that are valid in more than one country. In order to fulfill these purposes many
researches were done about many issues and problems concerning education. There are many
examples of comparative literature concerning gender inequality in education and schooling
too. One of these articles (Aikman, Halai, Rubagize, 2011) is about conceptualizing gender
equality in education quality. Authors assert four approaches to conceptualizing gender
equitable education quality which are: human capital theory with a focus on parity and
sameness for all; a human rights and power perspective, within which gender equality is
viewed as transforming unjust structures; postcolonial critiques, which celebrate and
recognize difference; and the view of development as social action for empowerment with
gender intersecting with other inequalities (Aikman, Halai, Rubagize, 2011). Moreover in this

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Running Head: Gender Disparity in Education

article authors put the idea forward that gender discrimination shows its effects in many areas
of education. The article keeps up that for education quality at the level of classrooms
to move beyond fairness of distribution of assets, to consider the way of educational
experience for boys and girls, necessitates a deeper questioning of the gender biased nature of
education. (Aikman, Halai, Rubagize, 2011).
Comparative education researches include a focus on cross-national comparisons as
well as intra-national comparisons, and highlights the benefit of approaching subjects from
diverse points. According to comparative education researches sexual inequality in education
is observed not only in developing and underdeveloped countries, but also in a few developed
countries too (OECD, 2010). Recent international development attempts including Education
for All1 (EFA) and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) have tried to encourage all
children and adults to participate in education. The other aim of these initiatives are to ensure
that the number of boys and girls attending to schooling is equal. Although one of the aims
was eliminating gender disparity in education, research conducted on gender and education in
industrialized and developing countries suggests that schools are sites of doing rather than
undoing gender (Connell 1989). Various empirical studies take after the lead of West and
Zimmerman (1987) to contend that schools are locales where instructors, students and course
books develop implications of sexual orientation that disadvantage women (Harber 1998).
Gender Disparity in Different Countries
There is a common view that gender inequality in education is only seen in
underdeveloped and developing countries. There are many researches and studies which
investigate and analyze the gender inequality in education. These researchers mostly take
underdeveloped and developing countries into consideration when the claim is about
inequality more than equality in education. The number of educational researches that

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Running Head: Gender Disparity in Education

consider gender disparity in developed countries is less than the number of educational
researches considering gender inequality in underdeveloped and developing countries.
Furthermore, researches and studies that compares underdeveloped, developing and
developed countries are mostly about the differences between these countries. Yet, the
similarities and differences between underdeveloped, developing and developed countries
about the issue of gender inequality in education have not been discussed by many
researchers. In order to analyze and investigate the similarities and differences about gender
inequality in education between these countries closely I will examine three different
countries. One of these countries is Ghana which is defined as an underdeveloped country. In
Ghana education is divided into three sections: basic education (kindergarten, primary school,
and lower secondary school), secondary education (upper secondary school, technical and
vocational education) and tertiary education (universities, polytechnics and colleges).
Education is compulsory for ages between four and fifteen which corresponds to basic
education. The language of instruction is mainly English in Ghana. The other country is a
newly developing country Papua New Guinea. In Papua New Guinea education is not
compulsory and managed through nineteen provinces and two different organizational units.
In Papua New Guinea, youngsters go to state-run group schools for essential training and they
go to national high schools for secondary education. After evaluation six, they are tried and
screened for proceeding with their studies in secondary school. After grade 10, students need
to qualify through an examination to enter one of the four national senior secondary schools,
where they go to grade 11 and 12. Later grade 10, students can enter one of the numerous
specialized or professional schools that prepare them in different professions and aptitudes,
contingent upon their hobbies and skills. The third country is Sweden which is defined as one
of the most developed countries in the world. Sweden come to be known for its high standard
of living and also for good education standards. Education in Sweden is compulsory for every

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Running Head: Gender Disparity in Education

children between age 7 and age 16. High school and gymnasium which are upper secondary
schools are optional and free of charge. Almost all students in Sweden who finish compulsory
school continue to upper secondary school. In order to get acceptance from a national
programme, students should have enough grades in Swedish or Swedish as a second language,
English and mathematics. For a vocational programme, students should have passing grades
in five additional subjects too.
Ghana
Fentiman, Hall and Bundy (1999) conducted a study about different variables which
have profound effects on childrens access to basic schooling in Ghana. One of these variables
was gender. In their study they focused primarily on factors which hinder students from basic
schooling. In order to fulfill this purpose they investigated the gender disparity between
classes. Moreover, in order to see the underlying causes of gender discrimination in education,
they investigated gender disparity in the urban and rural areas and the south and the north of
country too. They compared the findings from two southern and one northern areas of Ghana.
In Ghana, the gross enrollment ratios were 76% in 1992, the enrollment ratio of boys was
83% and the enrollment ratio of girls 70%. While the ratios of girls enrollment to the
schooling in southern areas were 46% and 44%, the ratio of girls enrollment to the schooling
in northern areas was only 40% (Fentiman, Hall, Bundy, 1999). Based on these results they
came to the conclusion that the north of the country lags behind the south in enrollment of
girls to the school. Due to the fact that most people in north of Ghana make a living from
agriculture, children in these areas could not find the opportunity to go to school.
Furthermore, girls are much needed to do agricultural works than boys. Therefore, although in
Africa girls could not go to school mostly because of religious qualms and cultural beliefs,
means of living is another constraint for them to go to school.

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Running Head: Gender Disparity in Education

Indeed, the Ghana example is a good reflection for the reasons of sexual inequality in
education in African countries. In most Sub-Saharan African countries like Ghana, most
children cannot even find the opportunity to go to school because there is no school. Children
who get a chance to go to school face many difficulties in this barred way. In many African
countries, the reasons for gender disparity are same with Ghana. Although employment
opportunities, religion, social set-up and early marriage are known as major causations for
gender inequality, economic factors and religious prejudices against girls are two main causes
for it.
Papua New Guinea
Helen Geissinger (1997) conducted a study about girls access to education in a
developing country, Papua New Guinea. Before European-style education was brought to
Papua New Guinea girls were learning skills needed for village life and the histories of their
clans as were boys. Yet, with the advent of European-style education girls started to not to see
same amount of education with boys. While boys started to get educated, girls were taught
housekeeping skills in order to get contributions from them. First university in Papua New
Guinea opened in 1996. The first intake consisted of 54 students and just six of them were
young women. These six women were in the right place at the right time or they were lucky.
Because in that time finding opportunity for receiving acceptance from a university was too
difficult for a young woman (Geissinger, 1977)
Geissinger (1977) explored girls access to education by looking three different factors which
are; physical and geographical factors, psychosocial factors and economic factors. Firstly, she
analyzed the effects of physical geographical factors on access to education and stated the
physical and geographical features of the country. Papua New Guinea is a mountainous
country with few roads, fewer bus routes and without any train network. Therefore, children

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Running Head: Gender Disparity in Education

cannot attend school if it is located too far away. Girls living in remote areas see few women
teachers. Therefore they have few women role models and this situation adversely affects
their attitude towards schooling and education. Furthermore, male teachers with few skills are
charged in these schools. Most of them place more emphasis on their life outside the
classroom so that children are not encouraged to attend the school Because of the attitude of
teachers and lack of female teachers, the meaning of school becomes almost meaningless for
female students. Children in such areas also face violence. Because of tribal fighting and
murders in schools and universities, in 1991 Council of Education Ministers proposed that the
deployment of female professional staff is required (Geissinger, 1997).
There are numerous psychosocial factors that hinder girls from attending school. There
is a common understanding in that if an individual believes what they desire is unattainable by
reason, it is. This sentence clearly explains female students attitude towards education in
Papua New Guinea. Most societies in Papua New Genuine are patrilineal and they give more
importance to the boys than girls. If families have to choose between sending their sons or
their daughters to school because of lack of money, always sons are chosen. Moreover,
parental attitude toward daughters is more restrictive than attitude toward sons. Over and
above, in Papua New Guinea modern figures such as Sir Paulias Matane who is called as the
elders of the country affect the families viewpoint for education. Matane is known for
writing several books and holding important posts in National Department of Education.
Matane (1986) states that girls should be prepared for their common, instead of being
educators or professors. Families who listen and reverence to Matane mostly decide to not to
allow their daughters to go to school (Geissinger, 1997).
Lastly, there are economic factors that restrain girls from receiving education. In many
towns in Papua New Guinea, there is opportunity for girls to have little waged employment.
Although finding steady jobs in the village or nearby region is difficult, girls could find

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Running Head: Gender Disparity in Education

temporary jobs more readily in a village. Therefore, instead of enrolling in a school and
getting training, girls are brought in such temporary and little waged jobs in order to make a
little contribution to family income. Girls who could not find a job are forced to stay with
their family instead of going to school. Thus, one way or another, besides lucky ones, girls in
villages could not go to school because of such economic factors and these prospective
mothers would probably keep the tradition as formers did (Geissinger, 1997). According to
many researchers and Geissinger (1977) physical and geographical factors, psychosocial
factors and economic factors are the main factors that hinder girls from schooling. These three
factors are generally seen in underdeveloped and developing countries. Papua New Guinea is
a good example of a developing country which does not offer much encouragement to girls to
enter schooling or stay in school. Although many attempts made in order to break down the
prejudices against women in these countries, the effects of gender disparity in education are
still felt.
Sweden
The issue of lack of gender equality in education does not only occur in
underdeveloped countries. Sweden which is knows as one of the most developed countries in
the world also faces the problem of gender disparity. In Sweden, as in other Western and
European countries, women are consistently underrepresented in the higher levels of the
academic hierarchy (Monroe, Chiu, 2010).

Although in most European countries more

women take part in undergraduate higher education than men, the unequal sex structure is
observed in higher positions such as; senior lecturers and professors. In Sweden there are
more male professors than female professor in universities. Silander, Haake and Lindberg
(2013) have reviewed the previous studies about gender differences between academic
disciplines in Sweden. Furthermore, they have studied the ratio of men and women with a
doctoral degree. Based on researches that they have done, they proposed that in the Nordic

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Running Head: Gender Disparity in Education

countries women in medicine, odontology, and law face more difficulties in their academic
careers. Chrapkowska (2006) found that it takes longer for women to reach the professor level
compared to men in natural science compared to other sciences (Chrapkowska 2006). Lastly,
a study from 2006 which was repeated in 2011 showed that the ratio of women professors in
humanities and natural sciences is less than in other disciplines (Hgskoleverket, 2006).
Horizontal gender balance in academia compared to the vertical gender balance is stronger in
Sweden. There is a significant correlation between sex and the persons work field. Moreover
unbalanced gender representation in advanced higher education positions is even stronger
(Silander, Haake, Lindberg, 2013). In the article horizontal study of gender equality in higher
education was conducted by analyzing two periods of academic career; doctoral education
and the period after earning a doctorate degree. In Sweden, 56 % of people who earn a
doctoral degree leave academia immediately after (Silander 2010). According to the
comparative studies women leave academia more often than men after receiving a doctorate
degree (Preston, 2004).
Summative Evaluation
My comparison about gender disparity in education is based on research from three
countries in three different continents; America, Africa and Europe. These three countries
have no direct influence over each other in terms of culture and education systems. Although
all three show distinct signs of gender disparity in their education systems, cultural
comparisons cannot be seen as the sole factor in sexual inequality with regards to education.
Furthermore the economical situation of these three countries varies greatly between
them. What is clear is that even though it appears economically developed countries have less
gender disparity in their education systems, it is clear irrespective of a countries social,
economic and cultural standing gender disparity in educaton still exists. Contrary to common

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Running Head: Gender Disparity in Education

view which advocates that gender inequality in education is seen only in developed and
developing countries, while comparing Sweden with Papua New Guinea and Ghana we saw
that there was not a huge difference between them. Yet, while Papua New Guinea and Ghana
show gender disparity at the all levels of education (kindergarten, primary school, lower
secondary school, upper secondary school and universities), in Sweden gender disparity is
mostly seen in higher levels of academic hierarchy. Moreover, the number of girls who cannot
access to education in Ghana and Papua New Guinea could not even be compared. While, the
number of boys who have access to education in Ghana and Papua New Guinea dominates the
total number of children who have access to education, the number of boys and girls who
participate in education in Sweden is almost equal. Nevertheless, the problem gender
inequality is still observed in Sweden which is a country with high living standards and high
education standards.
Paulo Freire was a Brazilian educator and philosopher who is known mostly for his
critical theory. He is best known for his publication Pedagogy of the Oppressed which is
counted one of the influential texts about critical pedagogy. Freire defends the idea that in
order to become what we are or what we like to be, it is necessary to be self-experienced. In
order to become self-experienced children should participate in education irrespective of their
gender. According to this idea, oppressed people could never participate fully in education.
When we look the problem of gender inequality in education we can say that the oppressed
people could be defined as girls and women by adapting Freires critical pedagogy theory
(Freire, 1970). "Education makes sense because women and men learn that through learning
they can make and remake themselves, because women and men are able to take
responsibility for themselves as beings capable of knowing of knowing that they know and
knowing that they don't" (Freire, 2004). Although Paulo Freire has countless quotes about the
education and pedagogy of the oppressed this is the most impressive one:

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Running Head: Gender Disparity in Education
...the fact that certain members of the oppressor class join the oppressed in their struggle for
liberation, thus moving from one pole of the contradiction to the other... Theirs is a fundamental role,
and has been throughout the history of this struggle. It happens, however, that as they cease to be
exploiters or indifferent spectators or simply the heirs of exploitation and move to the side of the
exploited, they almost always bring with them the marks of their origin: their prejudices and their
deformations, which include a lack of confidence in the people's ability to think, to want, and to know.
Accordingly, these adherents to the people's cause constantly run the risk of falling into a type of
generosity as malefic as that of the oppressors. The generosity of the oppressors is nourished by an
unjust order, which must be maintained in order to justify that generosity. Our converts, on the other
hand, truly desire to transform the unjust order; but because of their background they believe that they
must be the executors of the transformation. They talk about the people, but they do not trust them; and
trusting the people is the indispensable precondition for revolutionary change. A real humanist can be
identified more by his trust in the people, which engages him in their struggle, than by a thousand
actions in their favor without that trust.

Paulo Freire, Pedagogy of the Oppressed

As Freire stated a person could make and remake oneself through learning and in order
to fulfill this need women and men should equally participate in education. In order for
societies to develop understanding, mutual respect and consideration for both sexes, education
is paramount. It is clear from the articles that I found on this subject it seems clear there is a
need for more research in the subject of sexual inequality in education. Interestingly, these
three countries are chosen to study in these subject are from widely varying states of
economic and social development. What I initially though would be the key factors in the
underlying problem of this subject. Although, there are many researches and studies about
gender inequality in education in underdeveloped and developing countries, the number of
researches and studies done about gender inequality in education in developing countries is
not even close to the number of developing and developed countries. In order to see the real
difference between underdeveloped, developing and developed countries in this issue, more
researches and studies should be done about gender inequality in education in developed
countries like Norway, England and Switzerland.

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Running Head: Gender Disparity in Education

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Running Head: Gender Disparity in Education

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