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ARTICLE IN PRESS

Applied Ergonomics 34 (2003) 413–418

Ergonomics—costs and benefits$


D. Beevisa,*, I.M. Slade
a
EMI Electronics Ltd, UK

Abstract

Ergonomics is primarily concerned with improving the performance of man or of man–machine systems. Although many
applications have produced evident improvements, the terms of reference and the results are not often expressed in measures that are
easily converted into financial savings. However, there is a growing demand for cost–benefit data of ergonomic improvements, and
several examples in which the application of ergonomic principles has resulted in tangible benefits, are reviewed.
Cases are cited of increases of productivity resulting from equipment redesign and of savings achieved from the reduction of
accidents, and from improvements in the working environment. It is concluded that there is, as yet, no large body of well-
documented cases of financial savings accruing from the application of ergonomics, due in many cases to the difficulties of costing
actual changes in performance in the work situation. The need for further studies is debated, and it is suggested that the use of
ergonomic data in a design programme should not necessarily be based on the prediction of financial benefits.
r 1970 Pergamon Press

1. Introduction * reduce skill requirements and training time;


* increase the reliability of personnel-equipment com-
Historically, present day ergonomics evolved from binations;
wartime requirements to ensure the ability of operators * foster design standardisation within and among
to control weapon systems or interpret information systems.
from newly developed electronic displays and commu-
nication systems such as radar. The emphasis was, In many cases these criteria are sufficient justification
therefore, primarily on improving the performance of for the employment of ergonomics, since many data
given man–machine combinations, rather than produ- show that designing work methods, equipment and
cing improvements in efficiency measured in terms of environments to suit the capacities of users greatly
value added per man hour. improves their performance, comfort and health. How-
This attitude is still prevalent today, coupled in some ever, this approach, qualitative rather than quantitative,
quarters with the idea that ergonomics is some form of coupled with the as yet limited industrial application of
welfare service to be provided for the employee by ergonomics, has resulted in a paucity of data on the
improving his comfort, health or safety. Indeed, financial benefits of ergonomics. With the current
although financial savings may be shown to accrue preoccupation with production efficiency, design ratio-
from applying ergonomics to job or equipment redesign, nalisation and cost–benefit studies of alternative designs
they have seldom been the reasons for establishing an and processes, the subject is ill-equipped to refute
ergonomics service or department within an organisa- allegations that financially there is no benefit to be had
tion. Thus the USA armed services, possibly the most from ergonomics, or even to provide evidence of
extensive users of ergonomics data in the western world, economic advantages to justify the inclusion of an
require compliance with their human engineering ergonomist on a design team. Nonetheless, such ques-
standard, MIL STD 1472, to: tions are increasingly being asked.
Whether they should be asked is debatable, but to
* achieve satisfactory performance by operator, control answer them requires evidence derived from the sort of
and maintenance personnel; ‘before and after’ comparison normally associated with
work study techniques or more recently with value
$
First published in Applied Ergonomics 1 (2), 79–84. analysis programmes. Few such studies have been
*Corresponding author. documented; a review in Whitfield (1962) covered the

0003-6870/$ - see front matter r 1970 Pergamon Press


doi:10.1016/S0003-6870(03)00061-9
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414 D. Beevis, I.M. Slade / Applied Ergonomics 34 (2003) 413–418

handful of validation trials in the literature at that time, (Gibbs, 1952), it was found that wide variations in
and a more recent extensive review (Slade, 1969) has work undertaken prevented direct comparisons of time
added few more cases. to do the same job. By distinguishing between setting
Not only are examples scarce, but few that have been time and machine cutting time, however, comparisons
published include economic data. This reflects the were made between the performance of four operators
difficulty of converting the usual ergonomic criteria of (two young, two old) using both types of machines over
human performance into costs, for example when a period of eight weeks. Analysis showed that the digital
reducing the incidence of mistakes or accidents made leadscrew indicators gave an 11% increase in machine
by a process operator to a monetary value. Not only utilisation, in terms of minutes cutting per hour of
this, but performance gains shown during comparison operation (Fig. 1).
trials under carefully controlled conditions may be From another company, Slade recently obtained
confused by other effects in actual use or by shop-floor comparative figures between machines with digital and
conditions, or the criteria used during the comparison with conventional drum, leadscrew indicators (Table 1,
trial in a laboratory may prove unsuitable or mean- Fig. 2).
ingless in an industrial situation. Apart from these These figures were taken over several weeks routine
difficulties, the ramifications of industrial bonus systems use. The impressive reduction in operating time repre-
or the results of ‘productivity bargaining’ over proposed sents a financial saving to the company of 9 s. per hour
changes in working methods can obscure potential per machine, allowing for incentive bonus.
savings when put into practice.

2. Savings from equipment redesign

Faced with such complications, it is not surprising


that many ergonomic programmes do not continue
beyond giving advice during the design stage. Indeed to
argue that funds be allocated for a post-design evalua-
tion of ergonomic improvements implies a lack of
confidence that would dissuade some managers from
employing ergonomics in the first place.
Nevertheless, examples are available. In a comparison
between an old and a redesigned speed control for an
industrial sewing machine (Singleton, 1960), possible
differences between laboratory results and shop floor
practice were accounted for by running a second
comparative trial of both machines during actual
workshop use. Records taken over one month’s opera-
tion of both machines showed a potential improvement
in the production rate of between l0% and 15%, from
what was a relatively simple change in the machine
control dynamics. The increase in production was later Fig. 1. The operator adjusts a short boring tool setting; the indicators
validated on a large scale using conventional time study enable the lathe to be used as a measuring instrument as well as a metal
techniques. chip remover.
Translating the improvement into economic terms
proved difficult, the savings to the company depending
on the bonus system finally agreed between manage- Table 1
ment and operatives. Singleton estimated that by Industrial comparison of lathes with scale and digital position
dividing the gains equally between the two interests, indicators
earnings would increase by 5% and the capital cost Order size Machine Handling Setting Total
of the new control units, which had a life of seven (items) time per time per time per time
years, would be recovered in about three years’ order order order (hours)
(hours) (hours) (hours)
operation.
In another case (Murrell and Edwards, 1963), when Scale and 2400 7644 3860 1500 13 004
investigating differences in performance between ma- vernier indicator
Digital indicator 2400 4400 3860 100 8400
chine operatives using conventional drum scale lead-
Savings in time 3204 1400 4604
screw indicators and those using digital indicators
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D. Beevis, I.M. Slade / Applied Ergonomics 34 (2003) 413–418 415

estimated amount payable under workmen’s compensa-


tion for a single eye injury.
It is not always possible to identify specific causes
of accidents of course, and hence those areas in
which ergonomics could be of benefit; one reason being
that there are usually several contributory factors
involved. For example, the number of aircraft accidents
that have occurred specifically from the pilot misreading
a three-pointer altimeter—a notoriously confusing
instrument (see the article in the December issue on
page 16)—is not known, but it seems certain that such
‘human errors’ have contributed to a considerable
number of crashes.
In another case, a contributory factor in the crash of
an experimental aircraft in the USA seems to have been
that the pilot made an error when using a control which
had been designed to operate in the opposite direction to
that recommended by human factors engineers.
However, the Cornell–Guggenheim International
Aviation Centre in the USA has published a report
(Lederer et al., 1963) giving monetary values of many
aspects of accidents and over 30 references to other
economic studies of transport accidents. It includes
Fig. 2. Five-figure Dimension Indicator arranged to read up to 99– financial statements to show that any improvement
999. The trigger lever activates a positive clutch to disengage the drive which reduces the likelihood of transport accidents is
from the lead screw for rapid traverse or approximate setting as well as also worthwhile in monetary terms.
setting to a known datum or reference. On a lathe cross slide control, it In a more routine application, savings in cost arising
can show exactly the workpiece diameter.
from the redesign of the cab of an electric overhead
travelling crane were studied by R. G. Sell, at the British
Iron and Steel Research Association. It was found that
3. Accidents and mistakes by changing the design to allow the operator to see the
‘hook’ (in this case a large magnet) and reach and
The foregoing examples clearly show savings in time operate the controls at the same time, the cost of
resulting in savings in money. There are many cases of damage to railway wagons, etc., caused by impact of the
course, where ergonomic improvements to tasks or crane magnet would be reduced by at least d30 per week.
equipment do not result in savings in time, or increases The modifications to the crane cost d270.
in work rate, for example when reducing the incidence of Even the cost of simple mistakes can be high,
accidents or mistakes. especially when they are widespread or occur over a
In the USA there have been a number of investiga- long period. Over a period of more than 7 years a meter
tions into the cost of accidents, and the West German reader consistently misread the water meter–another
Iron and Steel Federation has also sponsored a research notoriously confusing device—of a large hotel in the
programme on ‘‘The Direct and Indirect Costs of USA (Chapanis, 1965). Eventually a compromise
Accidents’’ (Berckhoff, 1952). This has been sum- settlement was agreed between the hotel and the city
marised with an attempt to apply the results of this water department for $12 569, and even this represented
and some of the USA research to the British Iron and a loss of some $8000 in water department revenues.
Steel Industry (Laner, 1957). However defining the exact
cost of any particular accident remains extremely
difficult. 4. Environmental redesign
Risks, and hence costs, can be greatly reduced in
many cases by the use of suitable protective equipment Despite the large number of applications of ergo-
and safety measures. A survey of the economics of an nomic principles in the fields of lighting, noise protec-
eye safety programme in a factory in the USA (Suleck, tion and heating and ventilation—whether by
1965) showed how a mandatory examination of the ergonomists or not—there is no greater number of
sight of all workers, with the provision of prescription documented examples of financial benefits in this area
safety glasses to the 35–40% who required them and than in others. Some of the difficulties of costing
plain safety glasses for the rest, cost less than the improvements in production resulting from changes in
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416 D. Beevis, I.M. Slade / Applied Ergonomics 34 (2003) 413–418

lighting levels or other environmental factors have been a year. The results were compared and in the quiet office
discussed (Manning, 1968; Stone, 1968). A major there was
problem is the difficulty of assigning definite costs to * 19% higher production
any particular change in operator performance follow- * 29% less typing errors
ing an improvement in working conditions. The well- * 52% less errors on calculating machines
known Hawthorne experiment in the USA demon- * 37% less sick leave
strated how even adverse changes in environmental and * 47% less staff changes
working conditions can produce an increase in perfor-
mance due to the increase in operatives motivation and This paper also states that in 1960, DM 1 million were
morale when the employers apparently express an paid in compensation for occupational deafness.
interest in their welfare. Another environmental condition that seriously af-
Nevertheless, one researcher (Robinson, 1963) has fects efficiency is heat, which cannot be avoided in
given five examples where significant improvements in industries such as steelmaking, forging, glassmaking,
output, or decreases in spoilt work, absenteeism and etc. In such conditions the only way of improving
accidents, resulted directly from improvements in light- efficiency is by providing protection. There has been
ing. Significantly three of these were inspection tasks, or much recent development of clothing that protects
tasks having a high inspection content, where the against heat, some of which is described by Hellon
improvement in lighting would have enhanced the (1961) and by Crockford (1962, 1963). The results they
differences between good and bad products. In one report of using airfed permeable clothing show that in
case, in the leather stamping department of a leather conditions of heat such that an unprotected person has
working factory in Germany, 12 consistent operatives to leave within a few minutes, a man wearing such a suit
worked for 2 years under 3761  (35 ft-candle) of can work for as much as 2 h. This work obviously has
illumination, and for a further 2 years under great potential for savings in labour costs where, for
1076l  (100 ft candle). The average production under example, it enables the manpower required to re-line a
10761  was 107.6% of that under 3761  and the furnace in a given time to be reduced.
annual value of the extra production was 13 times the
total annual cost of the revised lighting installation.
Since the figures were obtained over a 2 year period, 5. Costs and contribution of the ergonomics team
before and after changing the lighting, the ‘Hawthorne
effect’ should not have confounded the comparison In some applications, particularly those where ergono-
significantly, although some doubt must remain as with mists are involved in the design of a new piece of
most of these examples. equipment from the start, it is not possible to show real or
In a study carefully designed to compensate for any potential reductions in errors or improvements in produc-
such effects (Broadbent and Little, 1960), performance tion. Thus when validating the redesign of the EMIdec
in accoustically treated and untreated rooms of a cine! 2400 digital computer (Whitfield, 1964) it was found that
film processing plant was compared over four 6 week the improvements to the design had not resulted in a
periods, both before and after reducing the ambient reduction in errors, although it is possible that a
noise level in one of the rooms from 99 dB to 89 dB comparative trial run over a longer period might have
[(above the usual zero of 0.02 m N/m2 (0.0002 dyne/ done so. Significantly, improvements were found in the
sq cm)]. Although finding an increase in work rate for all operating times for some tasks on the new computer, and
rooms following the treatment, apparently due to an these were taken as indicating improvements in the relative
improvement in morale, they did find other improve- ease of operation. However, the speed with which a
ments in performance related to the reduction of noise particular task is performed is not an important con-
alone. Film breakages attributed to the operator error sideration in this case, given the comparative contributions
were significantly reduced (by a ratio of 1:15); shut- of man and machine to the data processing task.
downs of the equipment attributed to the operator also Thus we find instances where ergonomics may
decreased, although not by a statistically significant improve the product—subjectively the redesigned com-
amount. Unfortunately, it is extremely difficult to puter was ‘better’ than the original—without any
convert these savings into monetary figures. demonstrable financial advantage. Utilising ergonomics
Further illustrations of improved performance result- data in the design of a chair is a very basic example. Few
ing from reduced noise levels are given in a study carried would think of attempting a cost-benefit analysis for
out at Dresden (Hartig, 1962). One case compares such an application. All that can be said is that the
two otherwise identical offices, one of which was design is better than it might have been, — that the
quietened by being fitted with a ‘‘sound swallowing design is ‘right’ — and that ultimately its sales should
ceiling and wall-clothing material’’, and in both of benefit from this fact. It is a question of qualitative
which everything they could measure was measured for rather than quantitative advantages.
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Given that there may be no immediate financial ergonomics study would have reduced the plant
advantage to the user between products designed with throughput by half when handling cartons, which
and without ergonomic advice, the only remaining constituted 30% of the total goods passed through the
question is whether the design costs are greater or not. system. In terms of direct labour costs, therefore, the
It is often argued by project managers that they cannot study, which cost d7 000, including equipment costs, can
afford to employ extra staff such as ergonomists. be claimed to have made available a potential saving of
Equally it is argued that it costs no more to design a d500 for every full week of operation.
product properly than to design it badly. This is borne In a more recent and elaborate investigation (Lewis,
out by experience during the design of the above- 1969), it was found that for some navigation tasks in
mentioned computer. It was found (Shackel, 1962) that helicopters flying very near the ground, the navigator
as a result of preparing full sketches of panel layouts and using a hand-held map has generally better performance
console details, about 1 month’s work in the drawing than a very sophisticated and expensive automatic
office was saved because difficult and time-consuming navigation system. Although the important criterion in
decisions had already been made. The cost of all the this case was accuracy of navigation, i.e. a performance
ergonomic work, which included a study of the measure, rather than cost-effectiveness of alternative
anthropometry of the operators’ work station, involving systems, it does illustrate the contribution that a
trials using a mock-up, was of the same order. thorough study of human performance can make to
the development of complex and costly systems.

6. Costs of experimental work

Whilst the above argument may be accepted for 7. Conclusions


routine design advice, the costs of an ergonomic study
involving a research programme may, at first glance, In the introduction to this paper it was admitted that
seem formidable. With less money being freely available there is a lack of data on the costs and benefits arising
for research, particularly in industry, financial justifica- from the application of ergonomics. The cases included
tion for such work is increasingly important. One in this review show the scope of what is available and
stumbling block is that the results of engineering demonstrate that financial benefits can and do accrue
research often have wide application, whereas ergo- from the redesign of equipment and tasks using
nomic research tends to relate to one particular problem ergonomic principles. Unfortunately those included are
or project, resulting in the occasional accusation that almost the total of those available in the literature.
ergonomics presents engineers with an overwhelming Possibly they represent but the tip of an iceberg, the
mass of conflicting data. greater part of which remains hidden for understandable
However, in at least one case financial benefits can be reasons such as company security. But it seems likely
claimed for such a research programme. During the that many of the improvements resulting from ergo-
design of a large materials handling plant (Shackel et al., nomic programmes have not been evaluated in financial
1967) a problem arose which could only be resolved by a terms if, indeed, at all. Besides the difficulties already
6-month ergonomics research programme. Operators mentioned, which may prevent benefits being expressed
were required to read an identity code printed on one easily as monetary advantages, it is thought that the
face of heavy cartons moving past them on a belt academic or university bias of the subject and of many
conveyor. To complicate matters the carton end printed ergonomists leads them, and those who hear of their
with the code could be facing in any direction when the results, to ignore matters of economics.
carton was first put on the conveyor. The problem was As ergonomists become more fully involved in the
to find a cheap and reliable means of enabling the design of new tasks and equipment, rather than in the
operators to see all four vertical faces of a carton, or of redesign of existing ones, there will be less opportunity
turning all the cartons to face one way. to make such before and after cost comparisons. It is
A complex simulation was set up for the experiment, pointless to argue that a design could have been made
including two closed-circuit tv systems for viewing a more expensive, or less efficient, although there is
simulated conveyor, together with a ‘carousel’ of admittedly only a shade of difference between such an
powered belt conveyors. The solution finally chosen as argument and the example of the conveyor study
a result of the study was relatively cheap, and reliable (a mentioned above. Evaluations made within the design
short trial measuring physical work loads showed that a process should select those solutions which will lead to a
man could turn all the cartons the right way round as reasonable compromise between all design factors,
they passed him on the conveyor). This allowed the including cost and efficiency. Opportunities for making
plant to operate at maximum throughput for all post-design evaluations of financial benefits will there-
the items handled. Alternatives considered prior to the fore become increasingly rare.
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418 D. Beevis, I.M. Slade / Applied Ergonomics 34 (2003) 413–418

It is worthwhile considering whether this is Chapanis, A., 1965. Man–Machine Engineering, Tavistock Publica-
important, and whether further evidence is really tions Ltd., London.
necessary despite the paucity of data. When matching Crockford, G.W., 1962. Air fed clothing for work in hot conditions.
Ind. Safety 8 (9), 483–485.
men to machines, or machines to men, the criteria used Crockford, G.W., 1963. New developments in heat protective clothing
are those of performance—information processing for industry. Trans. Assoc. Ind. Med. Off., 12–15.
rate, speed of response, accuracy, tolerance to external Gibbs, C.B., 1952. A new indicator of machine tool travel. Occup.
interference, overload capacity and so on; indeed, the Psychol. 26 (4), 234–243.
final specifications of many systems are written in Hartig, H., 1962. L.armbek.ambfung in der industrie. Dresden Inst.
Arbeitsdkomomic Arbeitsschufzforschungt 15, 139.
these terms also. Should the American practice of Hellon, R.F., 1961. Working in heat. Safety 14, 36–38.
‘Parametric Evaluation’ (NAVWEPS O.D. 27070 Laner, S., 1957. The cost of accidents. BISRA Report OR/3/57.
1963) be adopted on a wide scale for industrial pro- Lewis, R.E.F., 1969. Evaluation of an automatic navigation system
jects, the ergonomist will probably become involved for use in helicopters. Proceedings of the International Sym-
posium on Man–Machine Systems IEEE Conference Record no.
in the preparation of very detailed performance speci-
69C58-MMS.
fications. Lederer, J., Miller, C.O., Schmitt, C.T., 1963. Economics of safety in
It seems unnecessary that the value to a design team civil aviation. technical Report. ADS-7, Cornell–Guggenheim
of a specialist in human performance should be International Center. Pub. by Fed. AV. Agency, Washington.
evaluated on a financial basis when the advice of D.C. as Rep FAA-ADS-7, December 1963.
specialists in electrical, mechanical, metallurgical or Manning, P., 1986. Lighting in relation to other components of
the total environment. Trans. Illum. Eng. Soc. (London): 33 (4),
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achieve a given specification. The education of designers Murrell, K.F.H., Edwards, E., 1963. Field studies of an indicator of
and engineers to think of seeking the advice of an machine tool travel with special reference to the aging worker.
ergonomist as naturally as they would that of a specialist Occup. Psychol. 37 (4), 267–275.
in an engineering discipline would do much to change NAVWEPS Ordnance Data 27070. 1963. Preparation instructions for
parameters documents. Department of Navy, Special Projects
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