Introduction to Computer Music:

Volume One
By Jeffrey Haas

Chapter One: An Acoustics Primer

6. What is Amplitude? | page 4

Decibels:
While power is measured in watts, the most-used acoustic measurement
for intensity is the decibel (dB). Named in honor of Alexander Graham
Bell, a decibel = 1/10 of a Bel. A decibel is a logarithmic measurement that
reflects the tremendous range of sound intensity our ears can perceive and
closely correlates to the physiology of our ears and our perception of
loudness. There are many different forms of decibel measurement, and it
is not always clear which method of computation is being used, although a
few labels exist.
I must admit that I was once intimidated by logarithms, but with cheap
calculators to do the math (one previously used log tables), just a simple
understanding of how they work is all that is necessary for decibel
calculations.
A logarithm primer
can be thought of as "what power of 10 will result in x." For example,
to measure very minute values, which can also be expressed by logs of negative numbers.

, a value we will use for our threshold of hearing measure

.
A decibel is a measurement used to compare the ratio of power, intensity
or amplitude of two acoustic sounds (or electronic signals). The ratio (R)
of two signals expressed by their power in watts (W1 and W2) is:

A doubling of power equals an increase of +3dB. When we study filters

later on, you will notice that a filter cut-off frequency is defined as the halfpower point, which is calculated as 3dB.
Decibels that measure power and intensity There are many different
types of decibel measurements, so for the purpose of clarity, the above
form, which measures power or intensity, is called dBm when a fixed
reference value is used for the denominator . For the purpose of having a
standardized absolute measurement of power (i.e., a comparison not to
another signal, but to an industry-fixed value), the nominal reference
wattage (W2) has been defined as 1 milliwatt (0.001 watt). In absolute
terms, a 1-watt signal, which has 1,000 times the power of the reference
wattage, will be 30 dB, computed below:
dBm=10 log10 (1 watt/.001 watt)
dBm =10 log10 (1000)
dBm=10 x 3 [because log10 1000 =
3]
dBm=30
dBm is the form most commonly used to evaluate power in audio circuits.
Since intensity (I) at a fixed distance of measurement is directly
proportional to power, a similar measurement can be made:

Decibels that measure amplitude and microphone voltage While the

original dB scale was created for comparison of intensity or power, it is
also commonly used as a measurement of amplitude (A), or sound
pressure, as defined above. The formula for computing relative amplitude
or sound pressure is:

Note the only difference is a multiplication factor of '20' vs. '10' for power
and intensity measurements. By comparing this formula to the one for
power ratios above, the relationship between amplitude, power and
intensity becomes clear. Power and intensity are usually proportional to the
square of amplitude, and the formula above will give identical results for
the same amplitude ratios. In the formula above, a doubling of amplitude
from one source to another equals an increase of +6 dB as shown below:

Sound Pressure Level or SPL The most common acoustic ratio

measures a current sound against a predetermined value of the threshold
of audibility, mentioned above, but expressed as 10-12 watts/m2. This
absolute measurement is referred to as the sound-pressure level (SPL).
It gives us a means of generalizing relative loudness of common acoustic
sources. (Note that the "dB" is followed by "SPL" to indicate this mode of
measurement.) The logarithmic scale from the threshold of hearing to the
threshold of pain ranges from 0.00002 N/m2 to 200 N/m2, or about 120-130
dB SPL, at which point the entire body, not just the ears, sense the
vibrations. While every 6 dB SPL represents a doubling of amplitude, a
non-exact rule-of-thumb is that every 10 dB increase is a doubling of
perceived loudness (although this is mitigated by other factors such as
frequency content, to be covered later).

Threshold of Pain: In preparing this article, it quickly became apparent that no standard f
the threshold of pain has been established. In the references consulted, the threshold of p
to 140 dB SPL, which is a huge variation of opinions and points out the differences b
psychoacoustic measurement. Younger people also have more effective protection mech
louder sounds surprise!.
If we accept 130 dB as the threshold of pain, then humans hear sounds
that range from the smallest perceptible intensity to those that are
10,000,000,000,000 as loud or 10 watts/m2. Both the dB and dB SPL
scales reflect the incredible discrimination of human hearing, our most
sensitive sense by far. Here are some vague benchmarks (which of
course depend on many factors, including the listeners distance from the
sound).
Source
Threshold of pain
Jet takeoff from 500 ft.
Medium-loud rock concert
Circular saw
New York subway
Jack-hammer from 50 ft.
Vacuum cleaner from 10 ft.

Intensity
(watts/m2)
10
1
.1
.01
.001
.0001
.00001

dB
SPL
130
120
110
100
90
80
70

Normal conversation
Light traffic from 100 ft.
Soft conversation
Whisper from 5 ft.
Average household silence

.000001
.0000001
.00000001
.000000001
.0000000001
.0000000000
Breathing
1
Threshold of hearing in .0000000000
young 01

60
50
40
30
20
10
0

Amazing Factoid: The Ben and Jerry's Ice Cream Company recently funded research on a
that uses sound waves pumped in at an astonishing 190 decibels to compress the air enoug
temperature down to 0 degrees.

MORE AMAZING FACTOID!: dB Drag Racing is a growing sport in which competitors attem
loudest sound possible inside a vehicle, which must also be able to run. Wikipedia reports t
in-car sound produced to date is 180 dB SPL--6 times the perceived loudness of a jet plane
Signals from microphones, most of which seek to accurately transform
changes in SPL to proportional changes in voltage (V), can also be
measured by the same method. If one were to change the miking distance
to the sound source, the voltage differences could be measured as follows:

If measured properly, halving the distance of the mic to the source, thanks
to the inverse square law, should double the voltage produced by the
microphone, giving a +6 dB increase in amplitude (which, if youve been
reading closely, also produces four times the intensity). For a standardized
comparison of voltages, 0.775 volts is used as the reference level for 0
dB. We have looked at two basic types of dB measurement, one for power
and intensity, and the other for amplitude, SPL and voltage. Several other
weighted dB scales, such as dBA are used for specific purposes, such as
more closely mirroring the way we hear, but this will be discussed in further
detail in the psychoacoustics sections. You may also run into the terms
sones and phons at some point in your studies--these are also
psychoacoustic measurements i.e. designed to factor in the way we hear.