CAUSES OF WW2: FAILURE OF

COLLECTIVE SECURITY
Route 2

Why did collective security fail to keep peace between 1920-1935?

To what extent was the League of Nations doomed to fail?

The League of Nations was put forth by US president Roosevelt, emphasizing collective
security - the notion that if countries act together to prevent one country from attacking another,
collectively, war can be avoided. Disputes between nations were to be brought to the League.
When two nations couldnt find a solution to an issue, the first step was moral pressure and the
next was economic sanctions. (most likely against the perceived aggressor)
Membership was curious. In the beginning 32 WW1-Allied nations were members, with 12
neutral nations as members, and finally Central Powers states. (the USSR was allowed to join in
1934 - remember that Communism was feared by the Leagues dominant nations) Although an
American idea, the US never joined the League giving it less credibility and stability.

Failure of Collective Security

The Covenant & Handling of Disputes (some of the articles dealt with.
articles dealt with prevention of war
post-WW1 treaty agreements / obligations
territorial mandates
many humanitarian issues (human trafficking, health, drugs, women and children)
When dealing with international disputes members had the following options:
take the issue to the Permanent Court of International Justice
arbitration (a neutral person / group that judges what is just)
investigation by the League Council
If states did not deal with issues in these ways the League would impose economic sanctions.
Nations were so poor, and protectionism was practiced so much that sanctions couldnt have an
impact. There was a military intervention option, though member states were so economically
weak from the war that military intervention was unlikely.

Failure of Collective Security

Problems for the League in the 1920s
the economic crisis left nations struggling to keep people happy; in the new nations
and defeated nations there were more right-wing governments taking power, and they
were becoming more aggressive
o eventually the USSR (and communism) was seen as less of a threat than the
former war losers

the USA wasnt a member of the League - it had the most money to loan the League, but
Americans didnt want to be a part of the controversial Treaty of Versailles - the US went
back into isolationism
o without the US it was difficult to enforce the Leagues ideas of collective security
(economic sanctions would have no influence without the worlds richest country)
o the League was dominated by Europeans, and thus had no truly worldwide
representation and danger of European nations dominating the League
the USSR wasnt brought into the League until 1934 - the Soviets were isolated, out of
fear that communist revolution could spread; the USSR claimed the League to be an
advantage only for dominant capitalist nations that wanted to maintain empires (and
continue oppressing their colonized peoples)
Germany wasnt initially in the League - so it appeared that the winners were dictating
world policy without acknowledging that Germany, though defeated, was still a world
power; Germany still had vast economic potential, and thus economic power, but was
ignored (Germany was admitted in 1926)
Central European states were weak: they were struggling for political stability, dealing
with a weak European economy (due to the money spent on the war) and national
protectionist policies, and attempting to achieve territorial security
o they had little to offer the League, in spite of being populated by people directly
involved in the war

Failure of Collective Security

Assessing the Success of the League of Nations in the 1920s
it is argued the League was successful in achieving collective security by viewing certain
cases that ended peacefully (see Pearson text p.93)
there was an effort in 1923-24, led by France, to strengthen the League - initiating an
amendment that stated a member attacked would be defended by all members
o this was not supported by some members, especially due to the unwillingness to
commit troops (France, naturally, felt vulnerable)
France invaded Germany - known as The Ruhr Crisis
o Germany wasnt keeping up with Versailles payments, and there were protests
against the payments (needed to rebuild the French economy); there was an
agreement that a certain amount could be paid in raw materials
o France and Belgium, supported by Italy, invaded the Ruhr valley area; the
German government pointed out that it went against the Treaty of Versailles, and
instructed workers to strike (the German government had to pay the workers, and
printed money to do so, which led to the economy collapsing entirely)
o the French and Belgians encouraged their workers to move and work in the Ruhr
valley factories; this didnt work
Charles Dawes, a US economist, created a reparations plan, reducing the reparations
that Germany had to pay
o German prime Minister Stressman planned to follow the plan, as long as French
troops withdrew, but in the end the German government looked weak and lost
support; the League of Nations also appeared weak
the USA and Britain could do little to stop France, which made the League look
powerless to the whims of the world powers (they would do what they wanted to do)

Failure of Collective Security

Why Collective Security Failed in the 1930s
The Depression
The USA had become the globally dominant economic power
o the worlds economy was linked to its fortunes
The impact of the crisis on economic, social and political landscape of the world
o ushered in a return to a world dominated by national self-interest (trade barriers,
protectionism) and the dominance of military forces.
Poverty & despair Rise of extremist groups
o the fragile liberal governments of the 1920s found resurgent nationalist and
aggressive political groups very difficult to restrict.
The delicate European stability that had been nurtured by the resources of American
capitalism was particularly vulnerable to a major economic collapse in the USA.
Changes in governments
o France
a moderate government was replaced by a radical left-wing government
in the May 1932 election.
o Britain
iron and steel production fell by 50% (nobody to sell to)
politics shifted to right-wing parties
o Germany
had borrowed 9,000 million (euro) between 1924 and 1929
the economy collapsed when the money stopped.
unemployment
1.4 million in 1928
12 million in 1932
The Weimer government and liberal democracy lost credibility and ended
when Franz von Papen assumed the role of virtual dictator in May 1932.
o Japan
50% of factories closed by 1931
ensued a radical shirt to the right, linked to military factions.
the era of liberal politics in Japan was over by 1932
o Belgium and Poland
the impact of Depression led to new government initiatives that looked to
improve their defences against a potentially expansionist Germany
Growing expansionism in Europe and Asia
o The potential of USSR for fostering the spread of
communist revolution into the impoverished working-class
streets of European cities.
Soviet propaganda claimed that the Depression demonstrated the failings
of capitalism, and its inevitable replacement with the communist system.
o Britain and France
escalating nationalist and independence movements in their respective
empires, and the corresponding costs of controlling these.
pressurized domestic situation difficult to manage the growing
forces of expansionism

Leagues key weapon of economic sanctions was now a weapon

most countries would not want deployed as they attempted to
protect their own trading interests.
o USA pulled away further into isolationism
o The British established protectionism for their trade within
their empire in the Ottawa Agreements (1932)
To conclude...
o lead back to an old-style diplomacy
ex) alliances and agreements outside the League
o The strategy of appeasing countries in response to
aggression became more realistic
Economic sanctions were not palatable and to take on aggressors by
force was not a viable option
at least in the early 1930s when the Depression was tightening its
grip. (getting worse and worse)

The Manchurian Dispute

Japan
o
o
o
o
o

only independent Asian with own empire

Asias greatest industrial and trading power badly affected by world depression
Belief Japans future economic survival to expand its empire.
But Asia already dominated by: Britain, France, Netherlands
US - attempting to increase influence in Pacific
Philippines
Sept 1931
o Japanese army in Manchuria (the Kwantung Army) protecting Japanese
interests
Bomb explosion near town of Mukden evidence of growing disorder
(military acted independently of the Japanese government, demonstrating
the lack of control the government had on the military)
excuse to conquer province
Japanese forces planned bomb evidence of Kwantung Armys desire to
expand its influence
China
o Appealed to League for assistance against Japan collective security
o League of Nations:
Condemned Japans actions, ordered withdrawal of Japanese troops
Japanese government agreed but army refused
= Lack of control Japanese government had over military
Appointed commission under Lord Lytton to investigate crisis
Took more than a year to report time invasion and occupation
complete
Commission found Japan guilty of forcibly seizing part of Chinas
territory
Accepted Lytton Report, instructed all members not to recognize new
Japanese state manchukuo
Invited Japan to hand Manchuria back to China

o
o
o

o
o
o

In response:
Japan claimed to leave league
condemnation of actions in China hypocrisy by powers ex. Britain (long
legacy known - used force to achieve objectives in China)
League shifted international tolerance of empire-building
Why did the League fail to resolve the Manchurian Crisis?
Impact of Great Depression
Failure to resolve crisis with own troubled domestic situations
Unwilling to apply economic sanctions
Japans main trading links: USA not member of League
Imposing military solutions
Manchuria geographically remote, Britain and USA had naval
resources to confront
did not want to risk naval conflict in region may be outnumbered by
Japanese
France and Italy too occupied with events in Europe, not prepared to agree
military/naval action against Japan
Japan openly condemned but privately - government sent note
suggesting its sympathetic to difficulties Japan was experiencing
What was the impact of the Manchurian Crisis on the League of
Nations?
Failure of League
China appealed to League for help but received no practical support
Moral high ground offered by Lytton Reports verdict little comfort
Lacked the will of collective security
Japan got away with it
Richard Overy Japan had effectively removed the Far East from the
system of collective security
Mussolini began planning expansion into Abyssinia (Ethiopia, Eritrea)
What was the impact of the Manchurian Crisis on the growth of
Japanese militarism?
View#1: Manchurian Crisis starting point for dominance of militarism within
Japanese government => Pacific war
View#2: less significant to future events in Asia
The Manchurian Crisis and Japanese Society,1931-33 book by Sandra Wilson
argues crisis more limited impact on Japanese thinking than suggested
Argues most Japanese regarded end of fighting in Manchuria in
society
Believed Japan would continue working cooperatively and diplomatically
w/ Britain and USA
Contends past-World War II idea of 15-year war beginning in Pacific
(1931) affected perception of Manchurian incident

The Abyssinian Crisis (1935)

Mussolini wanted to annex Abyssinia (present-day Ethiopia and Eritrea).

o to secure a North African Empire

o to distract his people from the impact of the Depression

o to link two Italian colonies -- Eritrea and Italian Somaliland
o to provide land for the Italians to settle
Dec. 1934 At the Wal-Wal oasis (80 km in the Abyssinian border), the Italian and
Abyssinian forces clashed.
Oct. 1934 Mussolini launched a full-scale invasion with 100,000 men.
o Mussolini believed that the League would not respond.
French Foreign Minister Pierre Laval Mussolini would have a free hand
in Abyssinia (basically, he could do what he wanted)
British wanted Italy to have control over the territory.
Both wanted Italy as an ally against Nazi Germany.
Haile Selassie, the Abyssinian Emperor, appealed to the League.
18 Oct 1934 League condemned Italys invasion and decided to employ sanctions.
However, Britain and France had other plans
o France wanted Italian support for an anti-German alignment.
o If Italy was an enemy, Britain would lose a major sea route to its colonies.
British Foreign Minister Samuel Hoare and French Foreign Minister Laval drafted a
Hoare-Laval Pact, which would allow Italy to control of Abyssinia.
The Hoare-Laval Pact leaked to the French press.
o the pro-League British were outraged (went against the idea of no secret
agreements)
o Hoare was forced to resign
Meanwhile, the League proved ineffective
o no oil embargo
o Britain refused to close the Suez Canal to Italian shipping.
May 1936 Italians controlled Abyssinia
Abyssinian Crisis final nail in the coffin
o a leading power defied the Leagues decisions
o the League failed to maintain peace
o two major powers opposed the League when their decisions harmed their own
economic interests
Italy grew closer to Nazi Germany and further from Britain and France.
March 1936 Seeing the Leagues weakness, Hitler militarized the Rhineland.

The failure of disarmament

Attempts to reduce weapons in 1920s
The Washington Conference(1921-22)
After WW1 Great Britain, USA and Japan build up their navies
US was worried about the cost of military growth & concern of Japans growing strength
= called for first post-war disarmament conference in Washington DC
o Result:
Five power treaty-limiting naval tonnage
nations could destroy battleships until their quota is reached
no battleships were be built for the next 10 years
US & Britain = 525,000 tons

Japan = 300,000 tons

France & Italy = 175,000 tons
Four power treaty
US & Canada wanted Britain to distance itself from the 1902
Alliance
1902 Britain & Japan alliances = replaced with Four power treaty
guaranteed the rights of possessions in Asia
protect each other in case of an attack
Nine power treaty
Endorsing all nations to trade with China on equal basis
Successfully limited naval armaments
all nations benefited
key = few nations were involved
France isolating = same level as Italy = humiliation

The London Naval Conference(1930)

Revision of agreements made in Washington Conference
Great Depression = major powers were desperate to limit defence spending
However, USA, UK and Japans armaments 5:5:3 ratio 10:10:7
France and Italy refused BUT agreed to continue the ban on building capital ships for
five year
Agreements on size & numbers of cruisers, destroyers and submarines (rules to limit submarine
warfare)
o

The London Naval Treaty(1936)

re-negotiation of London Treaty of 1930
Japan walked out of the conference because:
o no longer wanted arm limitation
o no longer wanted to be inferior to the USA and Britain
Italy left
Britain, US, France signed treaty on cruiser tonnage
BUT meaningless because rearmament programs of Germany and Japan
The Geneva Disarmament Conference (1932-34)
Problems:
o what armaments to limit and how the limitations should be enforced
o German threat
if they failed to substantial disarmament, Germany could ask for
rearmament
Nazi was the biggest party in Germany and their demands were forceful &
aggressive France determined to disarm Germany

Germany demanded equality of status but German equality meant no security

in France = therefore, Germany could not be equal

Conclusion: In October 1933, Hitler lead German Delegation out of the conference = ended the
conference, failing to secure any of its goals

Why did the League fail to achieve disarmament?

Economic Instability
o Great depression cause nations to concentrate in their own problems rather than
work on collective security
competitive market = conflict
rearmament = increased employment rate

Political Instability
o Communist regime in Russia
o Fragility of new states in Central Europe
o Discontented Germany
= reluctant to limit arms
especially France, neighboring Germany

Japans invasion of Manchuria undermined the idea of collective security = nations with
interests in the Asia-Pacific region were unlikely to welcome disarmament suggestions