Principles of Management

MGT 471:
Principles of Management 1
Table of Contents
CHAPTER ONE: MEANING, NATURE AND SCOPE OF
MANAGEMENT ..................................................... 4
Definition of management and its relationship with Administration
Management as a science and art
Management as a profession
CHAPTER TWO: EVOLUTION OF THE THEORY OF
MANAGEMENT ....................................................... 15
Classical theories
Behavioural
Systems
Contingency
Operations Research (Management Science)
CHAPTER THREE: STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT ......................................... Error!
Bookmark not defined.
Objective Setting
Vision
Mission Statement
CHAPTER FOUR: FUNCTIONS/PROCESS OF MANAGEMENT .................... Error!
Bookmark not defined.
Planning
Organizing
Directing/Leading
Controlling
CHAPTER FIVE: ORGANISATIONAL STRUCTURE ....................................... Error!
Bookmark not defined.
Types of organisational structure functional, line, staff, tall, flat, matrix, committees, etc.
Delegation
Authority
Power (types)
Responsibility
Accountability
CHAPTER SIX: TEAM MANAGEMENT ....................................................... Error! Bookmark
not defined.
Definition
Formal and Informal groups
Group Formation
Factors affecting group cohesion and performance
Characteristics of effective work group

Differences between groups and teams

Belbins Team Roles
CHAPTER SEVEN: CHANGE MANAGEMENT ............................................. Error! Bookmark
not defined.
Strategic Change
Resistance to Change
Strategies for Change Management
Overcoming Resistance to Change
Kotter's Eight Steps in Transforming Organisations
Change and Culture
REFERENCES ............................................................................................. Error! Bookmark not
defined.
1.1 DEFINITION OF MANAGEMENT
There are many definitions of management as there are authors and practitioners. Management
has been interpreted to mean many things like other disciplines. Hence, there is no one generally
accepted definition of management.
Mary Parker Follet defined management as Getting things done through other people
Henri Fayol (1916) argues that to manage is to forecast and plan, to organize, to command, to coordinate and to control. This definition is a reflection of his management principles to be
considered later in the course.
E.F.L. Brech (1975) also sees management as a social process entailing responsibility for the
effective and economical planning and regulation of the operations of an enterprise, in fulfilment
of given purposes or tasks, such responsibility involving:
Judgment and decision in determining plans and in using data to control performance and
progress against plans
The guidance, integration, motivation and supervision of the personnel composing the enterprise
and carrying out its operation
Breach identifies four main elements of management. These are planning, controlling,
coordinating, and motivation
F.W. Taylor (1886) (Father of Scientific Management), has postulated that management is The
determination of the overall policy of a business organization
Herold Koontz, and Heinz Weilhrick (1990) view management as the process of designing and
maintaining an environment in which individuals, working together in groups, efficiently
accomplish selected goals
Laurie J. Mullins (1994) says management may be regarded as:
Taking place within a structured organizational setting and with prescribed roles;
Directed towards the attainment of aims and objectives
Achieved through the efforts of other people
Using systems and procedures
1.1.2 Implications of the definition
Management has various meanings and interpretations like many disciplines.
Hence, there is no one generally accepted definition of management.
The definitions above and others have given extended definitions and interpretations to
management to cover the following:

The determination of the overall policy of an organization

An activity that takes place at the topmost hierarchy of an organization, i.e. board of directors.
An activity that deals with critical and strategic policy decision issues.
A discipline which students and practitioners pursue at education institutions.
A team or a group of people who are experienced in management who work together to get
things done
A career which people pursue to earn a living.
For the purpose of our course, we can define management as: A process of planning, organizing,
directing (leading), and controlling carried out by people at the topmost hierarchy of an
organization to ensure that a proper environment is created to enable people working in an
organization achieve successfully, the objectives of an organization through the proper utilization
(optimization) of scarce resources.
1.2 VARIOUS DIMENSIONS OF MANAGEMENT
The various dimensions of management have come about as result of the different levels of
management activities in organisations. The level of management depicts the kind of decision
that may be taken. The three main levels are: Strategic, tactical and operational.
Strategic Managers (top level management)
This level of management is more often charged with the responsibility of developing the vision,
mission, objectives and the game plan of the entire organization. Vision, mission and objectives
constitute the three main elements of strategic management direction.
This level is also responsible for determining, evaluating and adapting the aims or missions of an
organization and the patterns of decisions that give direction and guidance to the achievement of
these aims in the long-term.
Tactical Managers (middle level management)
That aspect of management which facilitates the re-definition of the programmes of the Strategic
Manager i.e. it ensures that the plans of the strategic manager are re-defined in unambiguous
terms. It provides an opportunity for lower level managers to actually get things done. Tactical
managers facilitate the implementation of the policies of strategic managers.
It should, however, be noted that, this level of management is being removed from most
organisational hierarchies making organisation flatter. This is given the term delayering. This has
come about as a result of improvement in information and communication technology, which
makes subordinates able to perform their jobs. Organisational members therefore have access to
information-which hitherto was provided by middle level managers-that facilitates their work.
This process is referred to as empowerment.
Operational Managers (Lower Level Management)
That aspect of Management which is concerned with the actual implementation of the strategies
evolved by strategic managers and re-defined by tactical managers. Operational managers may
include assistants or deputies to tactical managers.
The following diagram gives a graphical representation of the three dimensions or levels of
management.
THE NATURE OF MANAGEMENT
Strategic Management
(Top-level Management)
Tactical Management
(Middle-Level Management)
Operational Management

(Lower-level management)
Front-line Manag
ers
1.3 MANAGEMENT FUNCTIONS
Mullins (2002) identification of those who are job titles alone, as identification of those who are
managers within organizations can be confusing. He goes on to state in some organizations
there is a liberal use of the term manager in an apparent attempt to enhance the status and
morale of staff. Perhaps the de-layering of workforces and the removal of traditional middle
management roles and predictable progression routes has led to the desire for outward
recognition from employees who perceive that they hold positions of responsibility. For example
individuals, who have a responsibility for one area of work, such as a particular aspect of IT, are
frequently referred to as managers, although they have no staff to manage.
A result of this trend is that there are a seemingly growing number of people within organizations
who, although they have the term manager used in their official job title, do not fulfil all aspects
of the role as it is identified by commentators in the fields.
In other areas, changes in organizations and the requirements of roles has meant that positions
not formally termed managerial fulfil the requirements for the role. Mullins (2002), page 167)
presents an interesting case of the infant school head teacher as a manager.
As organizations have become larger managerial functions have become more specialized.
Boddy (2002) outlines distinct functions within the management role.
Functional Managers
Functional managers are typically, those managers who are responsible for a common activity
within the organization. Examples include research, marketing, finance and production. Typically
both staff and managers will have an expertise in the field of their operations, whilst in some
organizations mangers will be required to perform a series of functional management positions in
preparation for a general management or board level appointment.
General Managers
General managers are typically responsible for a distinct unit within the organization, this might
relate to the functions at a geographical location, a division or subsidiary. The general manger is
responsible for the overall performance of the unit and as such relies on a number of functional
managers.
Project manager
Typically these managers are responsible for a temporary team that has been put together to plan
and implement some form of change or carry out an activity with a limited life span. Examples
include a new product or system. In some organizations a project manager might be responsible
for a sizeable project for a particular customer, such as is often the case in the oil and
construction industry. Project managers have particular challenges to face, often they have
changing teams of people to work with and on some occasions the people who report to them
have additional responsibilities elsewhere in the organization or to other project teams to whom
they also report.
Line managers
They are those managers who are in charge of a particular function directly involved in making
or supplying goods or services to customers. Line mangers can have widely differing degrees of
responsibility, examples of these positions, and range from responsibility for a production line
(where the term originates) to responsibility for a team of nurses.
This position is of growing relevance in the modern business environment as two factors come

into play. Firstly the reduction in the traditional hierarchy of modern organizations has led to a
gradual increase in the degree of responsibility that organizations place in line management
positions, additionally there is an increasing belief that it is appropriate for more managerial
tasks to be delegated to the line management function where managers are close to both
employees and customers.
1.3 MANAGEMENT AND ADMINISTRATION (the distinction)
Administration and Management are often used interchangeably and synonymously as Henri
Fayol did. However, many modern writers on management do not share Fayols interpretation of
the two concepts-regarding administration as meaning the same as management
Brech regards Administration as a part of management. In other words, administration is a subset
of management.
Mullins shares the idea of Brech by stating: For our purposes, administration is interpreted as
part of the management process, and concerned with the design and implementation of systems
and procedures to help meet stated objectives
1.3.1 General interpretations
Administration deals with the general and actual implementation of the policies initiated by
the top management of an organization.
Administration is an activity that takes place below the top management level of an
organization and performed by the functional or the departmental managers and below.
Administration states the job description (what employees are expected to do) job titles, lines
of authority. i.e. who reports to who etc.
Administration puts into action, what is to be done and provides guidance so that what is to be
done is done properly.
Diagrammatic Representation of the Relationship That Exists Between Management and
Administration
SHARE HOLDERS
BOARD OF DIRECTORS
MANGING DIRECTOR/CHIEF EXECUTIVE
GENERAL MANAGER
HUMAN
RESOURCE
MANGER
PRODUCTION
MANAGER
MARKETING FINANCE
MANAGER
PUBLIC
RELATIONS
MANAGER
1.4 ORGANIZATION
As an entity/institution; it is a system or a structure made up of people with set objectives and
targets to achieve. It is made up of people who have well-defined roles and responsibilities to
enable them achieve the overall objectives of an entity.
Organization as an entity includes business institutions, educational institutions, religious
institutions, health institutions, security (military/police) institutions etc.
Organisation could also be seen as a process (organizing). This means identifying and grouping

the work to be performed, defining and delegating authority, establishing relationships for the
purpose of enabling people to work effectively to achieve set objectives.
1.5 THE NATURE OF MANAGEMENT
A lot of practitioners and theorists have tried to explain what management really is. This has
resulted in the development of theories regarding the nature of management. Some think that
management has come to a point where it could be regarded as a profession. Whereas some
regard management as a science; others believe it is an art. Some even believe in the universal
applicability of management concepts and theories.
1.5.1 Management as profession
For us to be able to describe management as a profession, it is important to explore what makes a
profession. In other words, what are the conditions that must be satisfied for a discipline to gain
profession status? The following conditions have been recommended:
A body of principles, skills, techniques and specialized knowledge.
Formal methods of acquiring advanced education, training and experience.
Existence of ethical codes for the guidance and conduct of members
License for members to operate
ADMINISTRATION
An association for the members
Public recognition
On the basis of the above, to what extent do we conclude that management is a profession
against the background of successful managers who did not have any formal education and
training in management but doing extremely well in management?
Peter F. Drucker is of the view that Management is a practice, rather than a science or
profession, though containing elements of both. He further argues that a manager should not be
concerned with professionalism but to manage a business.
There are trends towards professionalism in the areas of
Development of skills/techniques
Formal training
Use of management consultants
Institutes of Management (BIM) (1974)
For example, the British Institute of Management (BIM) (1974) has outlined the following codes
for its members:
To act loyally and honestly in carrying out the policy of an organization and not to undermine its
image or reputation.
To accept responsibility for their own work and that of their subordinates
Not to abuse their authority for personal gain
Not to injure or attempt to injure the professional reputation, prospects or business of others
Always to comply with the law and operate within the spirit of the law
To order their conduct so as to uphold the dignity, standing and reputation of the Institute
To deal honestly with the public
The BIM also gives the following guides to good management practice:
Establishing objectives for themselves (Managers and their subordinates which do not conflict
with the organizations overall objectives.
Respecting confidentiality of information and not using it for personal gain

Making full disclosure of a personal interest to their employer\helping and training

subordinates, ensuring their safety and well-being
Honouring contracts with customers and suppliers
Ensuring that correct information is produced
Not tolerating any corrupt practices
Setting up a disciplinary structure to implant the code.
1.6 MANAGEMENT AS A UNIVERSAL PROCESS
Like management as a profession, management as a universal process has one main condition.
Anything which is universal in character is capable of being applied or used in many contrasting
environments with almost the same degree of success. Business environments differ due to
socio-economic variations. Management problems therefore vary with each environment.
The questions therefore are: Are management principles capable of universal application? Is
management skill transferable i.e. can a manger apply his knowledge and skill in a wide variety
of industries?
The aforementioned question could be answered by exploring the views of management theorists
such as the following:
Peter F. Drucker
Drucker believes that management skills and experiences have no universal application. He also
contended that organisation is businessoriented and profit maximizing; and welfare and socially
oriented organisation (e.g NGOs) have different orientations and therefore cannot be managed
with the same principles.
Ernest Dale
Dale supports Druckers idea that management is not a universal process. To him, no one person
could be good manager/administrator in academic, business, military or religious concerns since
the philosophy in each institution varies in nature and is not possible for one person to have
versatile knowledge in each institution.
Robert C. Appleby
Appleby contends that management is capable of universal application because both businessoriented or profit maximizing organizations, and socially-oriented or welfare organizations have
scarce resources to use. Scarce resources need to be judiciously applied to the varying and
competing ends/uses. That is to say, managers can use their skills and knowledge in any
institution/organization to achieve the set objectives/targets.
1.7 MANAGEMENT AS A SCIENCE OR AN ART
One source of controversy is whether Management is a Science or an Art or both.
1.7.1 Management as a Science
Science is any knowledge arranged in orderly manner, subjected to observation, experiment,
tested, systematised and finally brought under general principles.
Thus anything referred to as science should have been subjected to various stages of
experimentation and proved to be valid after a generalization technically referred to as a
hypothesis.
Scientific Management
For management to be regarded as a science it must use scientific methods in its application.
Scientific methods involve;
Formalized and procedural way of doing things
Application of systematized principles like Fayols 14 principles and system of controlling
Scientific management is management that organizes knowledge that has been built up through

scientific means.
If a manager manages through the use of formula, procedure or memorization of some principles,
it is scientific management. Such a manager is likely to overlook practical realities.
1.7.2 Management as an Art
An art is a practical skill acquired through a long period of experience without any form of
rigidity. It is traditional way of doing things without any element of formal training. It could also
be described as the use an inherent know-how to achieve a desire result.
According to Schermerhorn et al [1995] an art is something a person practices based on skills
applied to achieve a desired result. Art is the application of personal intuition and viewpoints.
Artistic Management
This is managing through the use of personal skills and know-how rather than through the
application of principles, procedures and formulas. Artistic management make use of practical
knowledge acquired through a long period of experience.
The achievement of Wendy McDonald, A British Columbia businesswoman in the art of
management is quite commendable. She got married at the age of 18 after high school, worked
and lifted his husband small machine shop into a giant multi-million dollar industrial complex
with branches in Canada and US. She was honoured in 1982 with Veuve Cliquot Award in 1982
for her outstanding practical achievement in management. This story connotes the perception that
some people are born managers.
The first schools of thought spearheaded by Taylor, hold the view that management is a science
rather than an art.
The Second School led by Peter F. Drucker argue that management is an art rather than a
science.
This school of thought is based on the perception that some people are born managers and that
management is an innate ability-either you have it or you do not have it. Another adherent to this
school of thought is Robert C. Appleby who states that:
Management is far from being an exact science at present but, by understanding and applying
accepted principles; the quality of management practice can be greatly improved.
It is most probable that management will never become wholly an exact science as personal
judgements will always be needed to supplement available knowledge; therefore, as a practice,
management will always be an art.
From the analysis made so far, one cannot presently describe management as a complete science
or art since it has some elements of both in practice. It is therefore safer to regards management
as both a science and an art.
2.1 INTRODUCTION
Evolution of management is concerned with the various development stages that management
has gone through over years. Historically, Management was not recognised as a distinct subject
such as Geography, Economics, Mathematics, Physics, Law, Accounting, etc. worthy to be
studied in educational institution.
The tendency was therefore for people to marginalise it since the Geographer, Economist,
Mathematician, Physicist, Lawyer, Accountant, etc. who establishes his business and was in
charge of affairs was regarded as a manager.
Interestingly, if one has not studied courses such as Law and Accounting one cannot call himself
a Lawyer or an Accountant respectively.
The same cannot be said of Management since it is loosely used to apply to anybody who has
established his own business and is in total control of it.

2.2 CHANGING TREND

The concepts of evolution and development have created a paradigm shift in emphasis to the
point that management is now regarded as a distinct subject or course of study vigorously studied
in many educational institutions. The existence of many management and administration
educational institutions the world over are practical demonstration of the fact that there has been
a paradigm shift in emphasis. For example, we have Business Schools all over the world and in
Ghana we have, KNUST School of Business, Ghana Institute of Management and Public
Administration [GIMPA], Institute of Professional Studies [IPS], etc.
Even though the renowned authorities in the field of management achieved fame through
personal intuition, practice and experience [Art], the fact remains that many went through formal
training in it [Science].
The various principles of management propounded by Henri Fayol were the results of many
years of practice and formal training.
2.3 INTER-DISCIPLINARY NATURE OF MANAGEMENT
Management has assumed inter-disciplinary dimension since it borrows ideas from various fields
such as Economics, Law, Sociology, Psychology, Anthropology and Accounting.
The good general manager is the one who can articulate and demonstrate rich knowledge in
many related disciplines in addition to the key functional areas of Management. For example, the
Finance manager should be able to understand marketing issues relating to customers
satisfaction, brand image and other related issues.
Thus, the inter-disciplinary nature of management compels managers to broaden their knowledge
in the relevant and related disciplines.
It can therefore be concluded that experts in the other relevant disciplines needed in management
have also contributed to the evolution and development of management.
2.4 THEORIES/APPROACHES TO MANAGEMENT
A lot of theories have been developed to underpin the concept of management in organisation.
Among some of these schools of management thought are the classical or traditional approach,
the behavioural approach, the system approach and the contingency approach.
2.4.1. Classical /Traditional Approach
The key assumption under this approach is that people are rational and economically oriented in
their approach towards work.
The approach focuses extensively on formal organizations. It also deals with management and
organizations by emphasizing more on the organizations purpose and formal structure
Proponents of this approach also placed greater emphasis on planning of work, the technical
requirements of the organization, principles of management, and rational and logical behaviour.
The classical school tried to lay down universal principles for the structure and organisation of a
business.
Branches/Dimensions of the Classical Approach
The classical approach is made up of:
Scientific Management.
Administrative Management
Bureaucratic Management
2.4.2 Scientific Management
It aims at improving the general manufacturing process with a view to improving productivity.
It is also concerned with formulating proper work procedures so that materials will flow
uninterrupted.

It lays emphasis on scientific methods of doing things rather than the use of personal intuition,
experience, practice and guess work.
Pioneers in the Field of Scientific Management
Scientific management was based on the work of Frederick Winslow Taylor [1856-1915]. He
was described as the Father of Scientific Management. He was born in Boston, Massachusetts
and started work as an apprentice in engineering. He spent most of his time working and
achieving greater efficiency at the shop-floor. His solutions to problems of efficiency were from
his own practical experiences. He rose through the ranks to become a Manager in the Midvale
Steel Co. He also worked with Simonds Rolling Machine Co. It was at Bethlehem that he
conducted experiment on how to improve labour productivity. He consolidated his ideas into a
book The Principles of Scientific Management [1911].
Taylor contributed to the study of management in the following areas:
The need to develop scientific methods of doing things rather than opinion and rule-of-thumb.
Scientific selection of workers with properly defined roles and responsibilities.
Scientific education, training and development of the worker
Scientific development of intimate, friendly and co-operative spirit between management and
labour.
According to Taylor, the success of the above principles required a complete mental revolution
on the part of management and labour. This required substituting facts or scientific method for
intuition, opinion and guesswork.
Taylor was concerned with finding the one best way to perform a task. His basic philosophy of
work was based on motivation. He believed that prosperity of both the employer and the worker
could only be achieved through maximizing productivity. Taylor suggested that organisations
would be more efficient if their knowledge, experience and practices were analysed and the best
methods established by management.
Implications of Taylors work
Managers have now realised the need to assign roles and responsibilities. Managers now apply
the principles of division of labour and specialization. Managers now design an organizational
structure, recruit workers and fit them into the organization with welldefined roles and
responsibilities.
Managers at the shopfloor of manufacturing concerns now appreciate correct sequence of
manufacturing operations through appropriate plant layout- product, process, fixed position etc.
Examples of Taylors Scientific Studies
He analysed and timed steel worker movement on series of jobs. Using time study as a base, he
broke each job down into its components and designed the quickest and best methods of doing
each component of the job[task] the conclusion was that, he was able to allot the optimum time
for performing a task given the equipment and material on hand.
He also recommended appropriate compensation for more productive workers in relation to
others based on a scientifically correct rate that would benefit both the worker and the
organization.
The Gilbreths [husband and wife team]
The Gilbreths are credited with motion study even though Taylor mentioned it in his work.
Motion study [movement on task] is the science of reducing a job or task to its basic physical
motions. It is regarded as the cornerstone of scientific management.
In consultation with their senior colleague, Taylor, the Gilbreths were able to reduce the number
of movements in laying bricks from 18 movements per brick to 5 movements per brick. In this

way, individual output increased from 120 to 350 bricks laid per hour.
The Gilbreths were concerned with the application of measurement to management and abiding
by the results. They were also concerned with finding the one best scientific way of doing things.
As employers, they did their best to practice what they preached. They laid down systematic and
scientific rules and procedures for doing work and insisted on strict adherence to them. In this
way, workers had no or little discretion. In reciprocity, workers were paid fair above competitive
rates.
The work of Gilbreths established the foundation for later advances in the areas of job
simplification, work standards, and incentive wage plans. According to the Gilbreths, motion and
fatigue are intertwined, i.e. a reduction in motion leads to a reduction in fatigue, all other things
being equal.
Henry L. Gantt [1861-1991]
Gantt was another disciple of Taylor after the Gilbreths in the field of scientific management. He
worked with Taylor on several scientific projects at Midvale and Bethlehem. He later went out
on his own as a consulting industrial engineer.
Gantt was not happy that Taylor placed too much emphasis on scientific methods of doing things
to the neglect of the individual worker whose general welfare will facilitate the success of the
scientific method.
He was also not in favour of the differential reward system since to him, had little motivational
impact. His new idea on reward system was as follows:
Every worker who completed a days assigned workload was to be given a 50-cent bonus. The
next reward system was a bonus for each worker who accomplished the set standard and
additional bonus if all the workers collectively achieve the standard. To Gantt this reward system
would spur supervisors on to train their workers to work hard and earn more.
Contributions/benefits from scientific management
Scientific approach to doing things leads to general improvement in working conditions.
Scientific improvement in working methods leads to increased in productivity all other things
being equal.
It enables workers to be paid by results and to take advantage of packages.
The scientific approach to management enable managers to adopt a more positive role in
leadership styles at the shop floor level in particular.
It was the basis and the foundation for advanced studies [motion study]
It created orderliness through a well-designed organizational structure.
It reduced putting square pegs in round holes since workers were carefully selected based on
their abilities to do a particular work.
It emphasized the importance of training and development of employees to enhance their
productive efficiency.
It provided supervisors with the necessary support to make them more effective
Limitations/drawbacks of the scientific management
Workers resented Taylors position expressing anxiety that working faster or harder will
exhaust work and may lead to redundancy and consequently lay-offs.
The faster work rate which implied speed up was criticized since it exerted pressure on the
work force to achieve a set standard to qualify for an incentive package.
Scientific management had little regard for human feelings and sentiments. The emphasis was
too much on hard work and increased productivity.

Greater emphasis on productivity and profitability made the manager to exploit the worker and
the buyer of his products.
The worker was made a rigid adherent to methods and procedures to the detriment of discretion
and initiative.
It narrowed motivation to bonus system of incentive to the neglect of other methods of
motivation such as respect for human rights.
The approach gave managers at the workplace the exclusive right to plan and control activities.
The system of bargaining for conditions of work was absent since every job was scientifically
measured, timed and rated.
2.4.3 Administrative management principles/theory
The administrative principles/theory was also regarded as classical organization theory. Its two
major purposes are;
To develop basic principles that could guide the design creation, and maintenance of large
organizations;
To identify the basic functions of managing organizations.
Henri Fayol [1841-1925]
He was French industrialist and had extensive business experience. He founded the classical
approach. He started work as a mining engineer at the age of 19. He spent his entire working life
with the same company and rose to become the managing director at the age of 47 and retired at
the age of 77. He published his lifetime working experience in his book Administration
Industrielle et generate in 1916. The book was later translated by Storrs [1949] into English to
read General and Industrial Management.
Fayols concern was on the totality of an organization. To him, management was the most
neglected aspect of business operation. Before Fayol, the general believe was that managers are
born and not made. That is to say, no one could become a manager through formal training.
However, Fayol was of the view that management was a skill like any other, and that, it could be
taught once its underlying principles were understood. He was thus given the following
accolades:
Father of classical approach
Practical man of Management
Father of modern management theory
Key areas of Contribution
Fayol contributed to modern management theory through the development of his 14 Principles
[blue-print of management].
1. Division of labour
Fayols objective here was to maximize both the amount and quality of production for a given
degree of effort, hence he argued for the advantages of specialization. An interesting idea he
raises particularly in relation to Taylors ideas (which will be discussed in later chapters) is that
there are limits to the division of labour, which experience teaches us should not be exceeded.
2. Authority and responsibility
Fayol suggests that management has the right to give orders and to expect obedience. Managers
derive authority either from their official position or personal qualities. Wherever authority is
exercised, responsibility arises. Fayol (1949).
3. Discipline
Fayol argued that discipline marks a mutual respect between the organization and its employees.

He embodies the principle that a manager can take sanctions in the case of a breakdown of
discipline.
4. Unity of command
For any action whatsoever, an employee should receive orders from one superior only. Fayol
(1949).Thus he argues that authority should be clearly allocated and suggests that if command is
divided or unclear it is a continual source of conflict.
5. Unity of direction
He argues that for any group of activities with the same objective, there should be one clear
leader and one clear plan so as to provide for unity of action.
6. Subordination of individual interest to general interest
In any organization there will at least be times when individual interests differ from the interests
of the organization. Fayol argues, The interests of one employee or group of employees should
not prevail over the interests of the concern or organisation.
7. Remuneration of personnel
Salaries - the price of services rendered by employees - should be fair and provide satisfaction
both to the employee and employer. It shall not go beyond reasonable limits.
8. Centralization
The degree of centralization, Fayol argues, is a question of proportion and will vary according to
different cases. It will depend, he argues on the character of the manager, the condition of the
business and the reliability of the subordinates to whom the manager can delegate.
9. Scalar chain
Fayol argues for a clear chain of authority through which communication should flow. He did
however appreciate that some activities require speedy action and recognizes that it was
appropriate for people at the same level of the organisation to communicate directly. Notably he
required superiors to approve any such communication. He also expected some measure of
initiative at all levels of authority. Fayol (1949)
10. Order
Fayol approved of both social and physical order. This could be summarized as the right thing
in the right place at the right time. Appropriate selection should ensure competent people are in
place, their tasks, responsibilities and places of work should be clear. Echoes of this approach are
clearly apparent in what are seen as relatively new practices such as Just in Time.
11. Equity
Managers are encouraged to be both fair and friendly to employees. Fayol argues, Equity
requires much good sense, experience and good nature. Fayol (1949)
12. Stability of tenure of personnel
Fayol felt that high employee turnover was not the best and that mangers in particular, if they
were to develop themselves fully, required as much security as was possible. He noted however
that the stability it was possible to generate in any industry depended on the commercial
environment in which the organization was operating.
13. Initiative
Fayol argues that initiative is a source of strength for an organization, particularly in times of
difficulty. Initiative he felt should be encouraged at all levels and The manager must be able to
sacrifice some personal vanity to grant this satisfaction to subordinates Fayol (1949). In a
sentiment as appropriate today as it was at the turn of the century he states A manger able to do
so is infinitely superior to one who cannot.
14. Esprit de corps

In a sentiment possibly borrowed from the military, Fayol outlines the importance of harmony
within, and commitment to, the organization. He describes in particular two methods to help
build such a spirit, the use of verbal rather than written communication wherever possible and
secondly the avoidance of encouraging dissension among subordinates.
While Fayols principles are widely quoted, he did not intend them to be set in stone but rather
as guidance for management action, which must always take into consideration the prevailing
circumstances.
Functions/Process of Management
Planning- Selecting the activities and methods for achieving them, either for the organisation as a
whole of for a part of it.
Organizing- Establishing the structure of the tasks to be performed to achieve the goals of the
organisation; grouping these tasks into jobs for an individual; creating groups of jobs within
departments, delegating authority to carry out these jobs, providing systems of information and
communication and co-ordinating activities within the organisation.
Commanding- Giving instructions to subordinates to carry out tasks over which the manager has
authority for decision and responsibility for performance.
Co-ordinating Harmonising the activities of individuals and groups within the organisation.
Management must reconcile differences in approach, effort, interest and timing.
Controlling - Measuring and correcting activities to ensure that performance is in accordance
with plans. Plans will not be achieved unless activities are monitored; and deviations identified
and corrected as soon as they become apparent.
These functions have been re-organized into planning, organizing, directing/leading and
controlling.
Lyndall F. Urwick
He was a prolific writer on administration and management. He had rich working experience in
industry business consultancy and the armed forces. He was strongly influenced by the ideas of
Henri Fayol in particular. He advocated the use of principles as the only way social organization
could be controlled .He translated this into his best known-book The Elements of
Administration published in 1947.
His principles of management represented a code of good practice which he claimed if strictly
adhered to should lead to success in administration or management. His work resulted in the
development of the following ten (10) principles:
1. Objective
2. Specialization
3. Co-ordination
4. Authority
5. Responsibility
6. Definition [job]
7. Correspondence [authority and responsibility]
8. Span of control
9. Balance [of all depths]
10. Continuity [going concern]
Urwick principles concentrated more on getting the organizational mechanisms right rather than
focussing on issues such as remuneration and morale.
A major weakness of Urwick principles is its concentration on the internal environment to the
detriment of the external environment. No organization can succeed without the external

environment. This is because; organizations are open-systems not self-contained. They have to
respond to pressures from the external environment-social, economic, cultural, political, etc.
Urwick also identified the key functions/process of management to be planning, organizing and
controlling. He expanded the controlling function to include staffing, selecting and placing. His
controlling function served as the foundation or the forerunner to personnel /human resources
management and the human relations approach to management.
E. F. L. Brech
Even though Brech shared the opinion of using principles, he was concerned with the
development of people in organizations. He was less advocate of the use of principles. Instead,
he emphasized the use of flexibility according to a particular situation. He also emphasized the
need for written definitions of responsibilities and the value of job descriptions as an aid to
effective organization and delegation.
Breech sees management as a social process, for planning and regulating the operations of an
enterprise towards an agreed objective. To him, the process is carried out within a framework
known as organizational structure.
He argued that the key elements in developing an organizational structure are:
Defining the responsibilities of management, supervisors and specialist personnel.
Determining how the responsibilities should be shared.
Co-ordinating the execution of the responsibilities
Maintaining a high level of morale among personnel.
Brechs principles of management overlap those of Fayol and Urwick. However, they are less
dogmatic than the others. Some of his principles are division of responsibilities, clear lines of
communication, unity of command, and allocation of authority. His principles are contained in
his book The Principles and Practice of Management [1975].
Brech regrets that there are no generally accepted principles of management since each writer
has formulated his own principles. In the absent of general agreement on the fundamental body
of principles, Brech finds it difficult to regard management as a science or a profession
Contributions/benefits from the administrative theory
The numerous principles that have evolved have provided blue- prints in management. The
works of Fayol, Follett and others have set the foundations for present emphasis on the key
components of the function/process of management-planning, organizing, directing/leading and
controlling. Follettes principle of making every worker part owner in a business is still valid
today as we often hear of workers in troubled unionised organizations agitating to take up
ownership and management by using their end-of-service benefits to buy shares. It has enhanced
and promoted the skills of managers. The use of principles makes room for little deviations since
the principles provide blue-print and direction. In this way, trial and error are minimized.
Criticisms /Drawbacks to the Administrative Principles. Dogmatic adherence to principles stifles
initiative and discretionary use of authority Principles are not applicable in all situations since we
are in a dynamic environment. They cannot be used as rule-of-thumb Since organizations cannot
function without people, the disregard for human factors that will apply the principles is a serious
drawback to the Administrative Principle.
2.4.4 Bureaucratic Management
This is the third arm of the classical approach. The most important personality associated with
bureaucracy is Max Weber [1864-1920]. As a German sociologist, psychologist and a practising
manager, he was the key innovator of the concept of bureaucracy. His views on bureaucracy
were published in his book The Theory of Social and Economic Organization He used

bureaucracy to describe a form of organization that exists in almost every organization.

The concept of bureaucracy often referred to as red tapeism i.e. too many rules, regulations
and paperwork which often lead to inefficiency. It is referred to as officialdom i.e. all the
apparatus of central and local government.
The concern of Weber was on bureaucracy as a form of organization with hierarchy of authority
regulated by rules and regulations. He saw the development of bureaucracy as a means of
introducing order and rationality into social life.
He identified the characteristics/features of bureaucracy as follows: Every organization functions
continuously through rules and regulations. Need for competence, division of labour and
specialization. Allocation of authority regulated by rule. Appointment to positions/offices made
on the basis of technical competence A hierarchical arrangement of offices/jobs i.e. work should
be arranged in hierarchical order with control systems. The need to separate working staff from
the ownership of the organization. Rules, decisions and actions are formulated and recorded in
writing. Official positions exist in their own right and the job holder has no right to a particular
position except through promotion or initial occupation based on merit.
According to Weber, the above characteristics/features make bureaucratic organizations capable
of attaining the highest degree of efficiency since to him, it is the most rational means of
controlling workers or members in an organizations. He believed that bureaucracy is
indispensable for the needs of large-scale organizations. The size [large] and complex nature of
organizations make bureaucracy inevitable in such organizations.
Webers legitimate authority
Max Weber identified three types of legitimate authority:
Traditional authority- This is where acceptance of authority is based on tradition and custom.
Charismatic authority- The acceptance of authority is based on loyalty to, and confidence in the
personal qualities of a person in authority.
Rational-Legal authority This is also based on the office or the position a person legitimately
occupies; regulated by rules and procedures of the organization.
Contributions/benefits from Webers bureaucracy
The need for fairness and uniformity of treatment of workers demands bureaucracy.
Adherence to rules and procedures does not make room for arbitrariness.
The element of hierarchy of authority creates orderliness and respect for higher authority.
The elements of division of labour and specialization put the worker on the right job/task.
Limitations/drawbacks of Webers bureaucracy
Too much emphasis on rules, procedures, record-keeping and paperwork may lead to delay and
inefficiency.
There is the tendency of workers to place too much reliance on rules and procedures to the
detriment of initiative and discretion.
Bureaucracy does not make room for flexibility and adaptation
It disregards informal organization and the development of groups with their own goals.
2.5 THE BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH
It was made up of a group of management scholars trained in behavioural disciplines such as
Sociology, Psychology, Anthropology and related fields who used their diverse knowledge to
propose more effective ways to manage people in an organisation. It was developed to take care
of the human element in organizations which was a major limitation of the classical approach.
The major assumption that underlines the behavioural approach is that people are social and self-

actualizing.
2.5.1 Dimensions of the Behavioural Approach
Human Relations
This approach deals with how managers interact with their workers. Proper worker
management leads to organizational harmony and increases productivity. Many antagonisms,
suspicions, acrimonies, wrangling, strikes, riots, demonstrations, etc. are often the result of how
people in an organization are treated. In a wider perspective, the way the government manages
the various ethnic factions can also affect the relations between the government and certain
ethnic groups.
Human relations sub-approach was founded by Prof. Elton Mayo (1880-1949).
The approach is deeply rooted in the social environment and personality trait of the manager
unlike the classical approach which emphasized the physical environment. Expert in this
approach say that managers should be trained in both technical skills and people skill.
The main underlying principle in this approach is that the achievement of organisational
effectiveness depends on how peoples needs and wants are satisfied. Under the human relations
approach, managers must know why their subordinates behave in a certain way and the
psychological and social factors that influence them. The human relations approach led to the
famous Hawthorne Experiment conducted by Prof. Elton Mayo.
Hawthorne Experiments
The genesis of the experiments was the desire of the National Research Council [NRC] of the
National Academy of Sciences to study how lighting in the workplace influenced individual
efficiency. This led to what has become popularly known as the Hawthorne Studies.
The experiments conducted by Mayo at Western Electric were;
To determine the effects/impacts of changes in illumination on worker productivity.
The determine the effects of work-related periods, coffee breaks, shortened work days and
other changes in working conditions on worker productivity. This was the relay assembly room
experiments.
To interview workers to determine workers attitude.
To analyse the various social factors at work.
Douglas Murray McGregor [1906-1964)
McGregor developed Theory X and Theory Y which are sets of assumptions about human
behaviour. He wrote the book The Human Side of Enterprise
Theory X regards employees as being inherently lazy, requiring coercion and control, avoiding
responsibility and only seeking security. Under this theory, work is distasteful and therefore
workers must be directed and motivated through force, pecuniary consideration (financial
incentives) and praise to achieve results.
Theory Y sees man in a more favourable position. It regards employees as liking work which is
regarded as natural. That the worker should not be directed, controlled and coerced if he is
committed to the directives of the organization. Under this theory, the worker will accept
responsibility.
The above theories have become the basis for the extreme forms of management style that
managers are using. A blend of the two theories may provide the best prescription for effective
management.
Abraham H. Maslow
As a motivation theorist, his hierarchy of needs influenced the work habits of people at the
workplace. He identified the levels of needs to be:

Physiological needs
Safety needs
Love/Affection needs
Esteem/Ego needs
Self-Actualization
According to Maslow, the manager should know the level of the hierarchy on which his
subordinates are so that he can apply the appropriate motivational factors to move them up to the
next level of hierarchy. The behaviour of workers will to some extend be influenced by the
degree to which their needs are satisfied.
2.6 SYSTEMS THEORY
During the 1940s and World War II, systems analysis emerged. This viewpoint uses systems
concepts and quantitative approaches from mathematics, statistics, engineering, and other related
fields to solve problems. Managers find optimal solutions to management problems by using
scientific analysis which is closely associated with the systems approach to management. A
system is an interrelated and interdependent set of elements functioning as a whole. It is an open
system that interacts with its environment. It is composed of inputs from the environment
(material or human resources), transformation processes of inputs to finished goods
(technological and managerial processes), outputs of those finished goods into the environment
(products or services), and feedback (reactions from the environment). Subsystems are systems
within a broader system. Interdependent subsystems (such as production, finance, and human
resources) work toward synergy in an attempt to accomplish an organizational goal that could
not otherwise be accomplished by a single subsystem. Systems develop synergy. This is a
condition in which the combined and coordinated actions of the parts of a system achieve more
than all the parts could have achieved acting independently. Entropy is the process that leads to
decline.
2.6.1 Contribution of the System Approach
It ended the dominance of the classical and the behavioural approaches.
It blended the opposing views of both the classical approach and the behavioural approach.
It brought to fore the important role the environments and its elements play on business
activities.
It cautions managers to be circumspect in the decision-making process since a decision made
in one department can affect almost all the other departments
It creates the awareness of sub-systems each with potentially conflicting roles and goals which
must be integrated.
It focuses attention on inter-relationships between it and its environment i.e. the need of the
system as a whole.
2.6.2 Limitations/Drawbacks/Criticisms of the Systems Approach
It is perceived that some organizations operate successfully and achieve their corporate
objectives under the closed system i.e. without recourse to the external environment. Examples
are Catholic Monastery and the Trokosi in the Volta Region of Ghana.
The environment and its elements sometimes have negative impact on organization. The
external environment has negative socio-cultural practices that may adversely affect other
organizations that may relate to it.
Breakdown of a sub-system of a system may affect all the other systems and a general
breakdown of the entire systems.

The impact of a decision in one department on the entire organization may cause managers to
be over-circumspect. This may lead to delays in decisions or no decisions at all.
2.7 CONTINGENCY VIEW
In the mid-1960s, the contingency view of management or situational approach emerged. This
view emphasizes the fit between organization processes and the characteristics of the situation. It
calls for fitting the structure of the organization to various possible or chance events. It questions
the use of universal management practices and advocates using traditional, behavioural, and
systems viewpoints independently or in combination to deal with various circumstances. The
contingency approach assumes that managerial behaviour is dependent on a wide variety of
elements. Thus, it provides a framework for integrating the knowledge of management thought.
2.7.1 Contributions to the Contingency Approach
It gives rise to the notion that different problems require different methods of approaches of
solution.
It calls for the application of different management styles in dealing with different situations.
It has eliminated some of the loopholes associated with the classical approach. For example,
the classical approach wanted to find only one best way of doing things. The contingency
approach does not subscribe to this.
It creates a synthesis and a collaborated relationship among other approaches.
2.7.2 Limitations/Drawbacks/Criticisms of the Contingency Approach
The ideal of psychic unity of mankind implies that certain principles and perceptions are capable
of universal application.
Different management styles based on situational analysis may not always yield the same
expected results.
2.8 Management Science/ Quantitative approach
The emphasis of this approach is on the use of quantitative techniques in solving management
related problems in the areas of Statistics, Mathematics and Computers. This approach emerged
out of Operation Research approach. As a result the two [management science and operations
Research] are often used interchangeably/synonymously. The focus of the approach is on
technical problems rather than on Human/personal problems. The computer has emerged as a
very important facilitator to this approach. Why?
2.8.1 Practical application of management science approach includes:
1. Mathematical forecasting- for projections into the future for planning purposes.
2. Inventory modelling- to exercise effective control over inventories by mathematically
establishing how much/many to order and produce.
3. Linear programming- it deals with the allocation and utilization of scarce resources among
competing ends/uses.
4. Queuing theory- it deals with the facilitation and allocation of service personal or work
stations to minimize customer waiting time and service cost.
5. Network model/analysis- breaking large tasks into smaller and simple components so that they
can be properly worked on. It can also be used to map out programmes of activities in such a
way as to create the most effective planning and control.
6. Simulation- make models of problems to create hypothetical situations to test different
solutions under various assumptions
2.8.2 The above techniques aim at;
i. Rational decision
ii. Economic viability of such decisions based on proper cost, revenues and returns on investment

analysis.
iii. Using appropriate mathematical models based on formulas and rules.
iv. Using computers for faster processing of large mass of data.
2.8.3 Contributions of the Management Science Approach
Introduction of the various techniques.
Use of mathematical models in dealing with productions issues often lead to concise and
unambiguous solutions in contrast with the behavioural approach.
It has improved on the mathematics/quantitative reflexes of managers.
2.8.4 Limitations of the Management Science Approach
The fact that management is a behavioural science implies that it is not in all cases that a
mathematical model can be used to explain why a person behaves in a certain manner towards
another.
The use of computer in analysing certain events may sometimes be influenced by human
beings who operate it and this may lead to manipulation of figures.