Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
Copyright 2008
Journal of
Psychology in Africa
ISSN 1433-0237
Psychology essentially refers to the study and use (logos) of the breath, soul or spirit of life (psyche) that leaves a
person at death and continues in some other form. From such a fundamental perspective, all forms of ancient and
modern caring, helping and healing have their foundations in breath-based behaviour, experiences and spirituality. This
article examines Jungs image of the breath-body or spirit-body in relation to various spiritual healing traditions with
special focus on their source in African spiritual healing.
311-318
Introduction
Jung had deep insight into the prevailing European, materialistic and natural scientific zeitgeist, which had brought
about great splits in the individual and collective Western psyche. In striving for balance, harmony and healing, he pioneered the reintroduction of ancient African and Eastern
wisdom into the Western world.
Jung insisted that the psyche is antecedent and a precondition for that phenomenon now called mankind (Brooke,
1991:59). The psychological moment in time for this realization occurred during his visit to Africa and culminated in his
experiences of dawn on Mount Elgin in Kenya where the
world appeared as a shining temple (Brooke, 1991; Burleson,
2005). An Elgonyi elder had described and demonstrated an
ancient ritual ceremony of going out of the hut in the morning,
spitting and blowing vigorously on the hands before holding
them up to the sun. For Jung this was a sacred offering to the
sun, where the spittle and breath represented the life-force
and spiritual healing power.
"If they breathe into their hands, breath is wind and spirit-it
is roho, in Arabic ruch, in Hebrew ruach and in Greek
pneuma. The action means: I offer my living soul to God. It
is a wordless acted prayer, which could equally well be
spoken; Lord into thy hands I commend my spirit." (Jung,
1931a, pp.72-73).
In his commentary on the Secret of the Golden Flower,
Jung (1957) notes that the Chinese alchemical metaphors of
diamond body or holy fruit refer to the purified, incorruptible
breath-body or spirit-body sought by Taoist adepts in their
search for spiritual immortality. For Jung this also covered an
essential quest for all humanity of special relevance in the
second half of life.
"Psychologically these expressions symbolize an attitude
that is beyond the reach of emotional entanglements and
violent shocks- a consciousness detached from the world.
I have reason for believing that this attitude sets in after
middle life and is a natural preparation for deathChinese yoga philosophy is based on this instinctive preparation for death as a goal. In analogy with the goal of the first
half of life - procreation and reproduction, the means of
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In an empirical attempt to examine the soul, Jung (1931b, p.
345) investigated such names people have given to their experiences as the Gothic saiwula and old German saiwulo from
which the German Seele and English word soul derive as well
as the old Slavonic sila or strength. These words are etymologically linked to the Greek ailos (quick moving, twinkling iridescent), anemos (wind), animus (spirit), anima (soul), psyche
(butterfly), psychein (to breathe), pneuma (wind or spirit), psychos (cool) psychros, (cold, chill) and physa, (bellows) and connote the experience of a moving life force. The Gothic us-anan,
(to breathe out), the Latin anhelare, (to pant) are linked to Old
High German, atum, (breath). In Arabic, wind is r h and r h is
soul, spirit. These connections indicate clearly how in Latin,
Greek, Gothic, German, English, Slavonic and Arabic the
names given to the soul are related to the notion of moving air
and breath and the basis for endowing the soul with an invisible
breathe-body.
Although he visited India, collaborated with Richard Wilhelm
on the Secret of the Golden Flower, introduced Eastern philosophy to the West and found that the rich symbolism of yoga provided "invaluable comparative material for interpreting the collective unconscious" Jung did not apply Yoga methods in or
advocate yoga for Western persons. His reasons were the different lines of spiritual development, the much older and more
advanced spiritual traditions of the East, greater emphasis on
Christianity in the West, the principle that nothing ought to be
forced on the unconscious by consciousness with its typical intensifying and narrowing effect, and need for Western civilization to free itself from its barbarous one-sidedness and gain
deeper insight into human nature. He predicted that the West
would ultimately produce its own yoga along Christian
foundations (Jung, 1936, p.537).
Critical analysis should include Jungs insight into the splits
within his personal psyche and other related personal, family
and religious conflicts (Jung, 1961; Hayman, 1999). His prediction has not come to pass fully as Yoga is popular throughout
the Western world today. Moreover his method of active imagination to help Western clients make the unconscious conscious
and free it from its rigidity essentially uses a form of meditation
and imagery recognized in Yoga. Central to this method is the
focus on images arising from archetypes from the collective unconscious. In describing his method of proof for establishing the
existence of the archetypes, Jung (1917) described the
essential features of active imagination as follows:
"Another source for the material we need is to be found in
active imagination. By this I mean a sequence of fantasies
produced by deliberate concentration the patient is simply
given the task of contemplating one fragment of fantasy that
seems significant to him- a chance idea, perhaps, or some
thing he has become conscious of in a dream-until its context becomes visible, that is to say, the relevant associative
material in which it is embedded. It is not a question if the
free association recommended by Freud for the purposes of
dream analysis, but of elaborating the fantasy material that
adds itself to the fragment in a natural manner" (Jung, 1917,
p. 49).
Variations of this method of amplifying imaginative material
are described, using expressive techniques through concentrating on inner images, voices, drawing, painting, movement,
sculpture and automatic writing. The therapeutic value of the intensity of clients emotional disturbance related to archetypal
energy and the regulating and transcendent influence of the unconscious through creative formulation and understanding is
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traditions in developing and improving various meditative, martial and medicinal breathing styles. In Zen breathing techniques,
special emphasis in on breathing as a grounding and meditation
technique, through life-breath stored in the energetic, intestinal
area of the belly, referred to in India as the second chakra or
svadisthana, in China as the lower tantien and in Japan as the
hara (Brasier, 2003; Galante, 1981; Reid, 1998).
Taoism. Unlike Buddhism, Christianity and Islam, Taoism
had no particular founding figure. It grew out of treasured writings such as the Tao te Ching and the ancient book of divination/changes known as the I-Ching, leading to the development
of Chi gung, the first branch of Traditional Chinese Medicine.
Chi gung took root some 10,000 years ago as a form of tribal,
ceremonial, great dance (da-wu), which was discovered to have
therapeutic benefits (Reid, 1998).
In its meaning of breath, air and energy, the Chinese and
Taoist concept of chi or qi indicates the vital role that breathing
plays in transmitting the atmospheric energy of air, oxygen and
negative ions into the human system. Gung connotes any
movement, action, work, skill or achievement that require much
time, effort and practice to cultivate and perfect. Chi-gung therefore refers to a form of energy skill or control, which is typically
associated with breathing and movement (Reid, 1998).
The first written references to Chi-gung are found in texts
dating back 4000 years, when another slow moving aerobic and
therapeutic dance was specifically developed to prevent illnesses arising from dampness and flooding in the Yellow river
basin and to promote health through guiding and gathering chi
(dao-yin). This dance combined breath control with rhythmic
bodily movements patterned on those of animals in nature
(Reid, 1998, p.26). Since these early times, Chi-gung breathing
skills have developed into a form of health and energy care with
medical, martial and meditative applications. The system was
further developed in the fifth century A.D, by the Tantric
Buddhist monk, Ta Mo (Reid, 1998).
Taoist systems of breath control emphasize breath
co-ordinated movement. In the focus on stimulating internal energy through soft continuous external movements harmonized
with deep, diaphragmatic breathing under conditions of mental
calm and quietude, Chi-gung is often referred to as moving
meditation, which balances yin and yang, stillness and activity,
medicine and the martial arts. Tai Chi is a special, internationally popular form of Chi-gung (Reid, 1998).
Hinduism. Like Taoism Hinduism has no individual founding
figure. It grew out of sacred writings such as the Vedas and
Brahamans and settlements in the valleys of the Indus and
Ganges rivers, has been tolerant of all paths to spiritual truths
and gave birth to yoga. In the Yogic conception prana or life
force, is experienced and conceptualised as the connecting link
between matter, life, mind, energy and consciousness in the cycle of life and death, reincarnation, karma and nirvana (Hewitt,
1977; Reid, 1998; Taub-Bynaum, 1984).
"Prana, which exists on all the planes of manifestation, as
the connecting link between matter and energy on the one
hand, and consciousness and mind on the other. Consciousness expressing itself through the mind, cannot come
into touch with matter and function through it without the intermediate presence of prana" (Hewitt, 1977, p.421).
Many specific Yogic breathing and meditation techniques
have been developed to realise the main goal of yoga: union
with ultimate reality. One branch of yoga, kundalini, practises
spiritual refinement of the life-breath through seven chakras or
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spinning wheels of energy, associated with particular anatomical locations of the spine and brain, plexuses of the nervous, endocrine and other human functional systems as well as colours,
sounds, patterns and symbols (Judith, 2004; Mumford, 2005,
Ralston, 1999; Reid, 1998). For example, from perineum to
crown, the chakras muladhara, svadisthana, manipura,
anahata, vishudda, ajna and sahasrara are respectively associated with energetic, systemic functions of elimination, reproduction, digestion, circulation, respiration, nervation and ultimate
cosmic realisation.
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(umoya). The doctors methods are usually based on the active
ingredients of local herbs, plants, roots and bark administered in
a culturally appropriate, holistic and ceremonial manner. The
faith healer typically belongs to an African Indigenous Church
(AIC), whose Christian faith embraces ancestral spirituality
(umoya), which gains further meaning with reference to the third
person of the trinity or Holy Spirit (Umoya Ongcwele). Christ is
regarded as the ancestral, divine, Son of God and the peace,
truth, power, love, and wisdom in inspirational African indigenous healing is experienced at one and the same time and
place in the body and breath of the individual, group and communal ancestral spirituality as graced and mediated by God,
Christ and Holy Spirit.
As noted above, healing implies a transformation from illness to health in becoming whole again. In South African society, this means caring humanity (ubuntu) and an ongoing everyday form of healing, beyond truth and reconciliation, that is
slowly making its way in the experience of generations of people
growing up together from childhood in freedom. To care for over
forty-five million people in South Africa, it means the harmonious collaboration of all community healing resources; some five
thousand psychologists, ten thousand social workers, thirty
thousand medical doctors, one hundred and twenty-five thousand nurses, two hundred and fifty thousand traditional healers
and one million AIC faith healers (Edwards, 2002).
Gumede (1990) estimated that indigenous healers cater for
80% of the health needs of the African population and are usually consulted before modern doctors, particularly in the less developed and rural areas of KwaZulu-Natal. The AIC movement,
whose earlier religious roots also formed an apolitical foundation for the African National Congress in 1912, deserves special
mention for its role as buffer in preventing violent civil war between warring political groups during the Apartheid struggles.
The AICs continue to promote communal spirituality, spiritual
community, and practical public health in the form of food,
money, surrogate family and work to anyone who asks for help
(Bakker, 1996; Berglund, 1976; Dube, 1989; Gumede, 1990;
Nyembe, 1994; Oosthuizen, Edwards, Wessels & Hexam,
1989).
African Indigenous Churches meetings can be found at any
time throughout Africa. In their brightly coloured attire, groups
gather wherever convenient, at the river or the mountain, near
the sea, at a vacant plot in town or at the bus stop. Spiritual energy (umoya) is invoked through bible reading, prayer and singing in a healing circle. In more formal meetings held in churches,
community halls or houses of faith healers or prophets
(abaprofethi) may close windows and doors to keep out distractions and amplify spiritual energy for an evening, day or weekend of intense individual, family and community healing and
spiritual purification (ukuhlambuluka) in a religious ceremony
which include rituals, music, drama and dance. This is a form of
pastoral community psychology where community development, healing and education are harmoniously integrated
(Nyembe, 1994; Oosthuizen, et al., 1989). The African Indigenous Church movement revolves around receiving the Holy
Spirit (Umoya Oyingcwele) through various circular symbols of
spiritual perfection. For example, a common occurrence observed at South African beaches will be a Zionist group dancing
in a circle, while chanting "come spirit, come" (woza umoya,
woza umoya) (Oosthuizen et al., 1989:175).
Familial and communal spirituality. Taub-Bynum (1984) has
described the family unconscious in terms of an active, intense,
and immediate shared energy field, characterized by affective
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interactional patterns, communal dreaming, telepathy and various other psi phenomena. Such phenomena are fully experienced in African extended family kinship ties, through ongoing
communication with the world of the recently deceased and
older living dead ancestors, all of whom continue to be freshly
experienced as responsible for shaping the lives of
contemporary humanity.
We should not neglect to mention that inspirational and spiritual healing is not the sole province of the priest or psychologist
and occurs readily in everyday life. It is more common in ceremonial, ritual, communal spiritual gatherings (umsebenzi). For
example, a sneeze is believed to be an indication of ancestral
presence and is followed by an exhortation to the ancestors
(makhosi!). A six year old child may be required to breathe
deeply (ukuhogela) the burning fumes of izinyamazane (pieces
of animal skin and fat) as a preventive and strengthening tonic
when being given a second name which characterizes his/her
earthy existence to date. A woman in labour will be told to
breathe like a dog (hefuzela) during contractions. Men working
together in a slow motion physical activity such as digging a
trench may chant in time to deep abdominal breathing rhythms
before taking a breather (ukhukhokh umoya) in order to regain
energy and strength. Such deep breathing, rhythm and
harmony are characteristic of traditional singing and dancing.
Conclusion
Jungs insights during his central African visit changed his
life, work and contribution to humanity. Taking his image of the
breath-body in relation to various spiritual healing traditions as
point of departure this article has examined African forms of
spiritual healing. The breath body is experienced as a natural
form of life-force, energy, consciousness, soul and spirit that
may be accessed in various ways such as meditation, prayer
and ceremonial dance for healing purposes. The earliest forms
of conscious breathwork seem to have been related to spiritual
beliefs and practices such as those concerning nature, ultimate
reality, ancestors and human existence with special reference
to such matters as survival, growth, health, life and death. In
harmony with the ceaseless cycles and forces of heaven, earth
and ancestors, life-breath skill forms the essential, experiential
foundation for spiritual healing of self and others in its prevention of blocked, stagnant or unbalanced energy and promotion
of nourishing, protective and harmonised energy. This indicates
an archetypal core to healing practices throughout the world, of
which breath, particularly in relation to spirituality, is an
essential component.
Emphasis on the breath body ensures that we are grounded
in our experience of the lived body and world, yet also tuned to
our spirituality. An essence of this bodiliness is the comforting
presence of our breathing, which is the precondition for transcendence in terms of liberating spirituality. During times of clarity and equanimity we are comforted by the rhythmic regularity
of our breathing and its harmony with the bodily phenomena
that appear to our consciousness. Sitting and moving forms of
breath co-ordinated behaviour form the foundation for all forms
of healing and transcendence as exemplified in alpha conditioning, biofeedback, transcendental meditation, !Kung healing
dance, izangoma divination, yoga and Tai chi. Healthy breathing and related spirituality experiences, that have been bodily
re-experienced as anchors, provide a phenomenological foundation for various forms of imagery, light, sound, colour, touch
and movement used in breathwork, expressive therapy, progressive relaxation, systematic desensitisation, crisis interven-
tion and other forms of caring, healing, counselling, psychotherapy, illness prevention and health promotion. As exemplified in
past and present African contexts, such breath based healing
encompasses all of these forms in addition to building spiritual
community and communal spirituality.
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