Alexis Roberts

ANT 366

M55 Case Study

Case M55 is heavily characterized by one main, large individual and components of
smaller skeletal material. The first individual, largely concentrated and analyzed with long bones
and feet, is telltale of an older male (which we will name Individual One). The skeleton is not
very complete, having very little axial elements. Sections of most appendicular elements are
present and used to indicate stature and identification. If anything, its the feet that will tell the
most about the life of this person, which seems to be a highly unusual way of considering the
struggles and lifespan of a human being. There also seems to be signs of a second, third, and
fourth individual, younger in age.

In terms of the skull, only elements on the superior side are present (aside from one side
of the mandible). The skull is broken into pieces, with breaks along sutures as well as diagonally
between bones (figure 1). The breaks are fairly clean and do not seem to indicate any trauma
aside from post-mortem breakage. The parietal bone is not complete, and broken into six
separate parts (figure 4). The parietal bone right of the sagittal suture contains four parts, with
break points forming an X (figure 3). One section of the parietal bone is broken at the squamosal
suture, and displays thick scored lines, which correspond to the temporal bone and may express
the slight attachment of the temporalis muscle on the parietal bone (figure 7). No temporal bones
are present. The left side of the parietal bone is of two parts, one very small piece attached to the
coronal suture, and a larger piece, missing the section at the left squamosal suture. The frontal
bone is actually composed of two bones, with a persistent metopic suture broken between them
(figures 2,3,8). It is an unusual but not quite rare condition, as the metopic/frontal suture usually

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fuses between three and nine months of age. The closure of the sutures is, according to Buikstra
and Ubelaker, between minimal and significant closure. This means that there is between 50100% closure of the sutures by bridges that extend over the gaps in the cranium. All sutures are
fused together and in some places there is no discernible gap (Byers 2008). The right frontal
bone has a curved crack that indicated a fresh break. This is excluded in analysis of what may
have happened to this skull, since it most likely happened in a lab or at the hands of a
coroner/student. The beginning of the zygomaticofrontal suture and a component of the upper
right eye orbital are present as well. There is a left portion of the mandible, including its condyle,
coronoid process, and mental foramen. The bone is thinning and the condyle is indicative of
arthritis, as the angle has changed horizontally (figures 9,10). There is a strong amount of
alveolar resorption and no teeth are present, but there are few roots, indicating few teeth may
have been existant at time of death. The mental protuberance has sunken in.

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Figure 1 - Proximal view of the cranium

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Figure 2 - Frontal bone split by the metopic suture

Figure 3 - Right side of cranium with fractured parietal bone and frontal bone

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Figure 4 - All five pieces of a broken parietal bone

Figure 5 - All five pieces of a broken frontal bone

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Figure 6 - interior of the cranium

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Figure 7 - sutures on the parietal bone that may have been affected by the temporalis muscle

Figure 8 - interior of the frontal bone and the metopic suture

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Figure 9 - left mandible with absorption and obtuse angle

Figure 10 - left mandible with absorption and no visible teeth

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Figure 11 - bones of the skull as part of the foramen magnum. Condyles present.

Figure 12 - unidentified parts of the skull and various smaller parts

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Vertebral elements are few

and far between, and no complete
material

exists.

There

are

few

components of the thoracic vertebrae

(around

T10-T12),

lumbar

pieces,

identified

and

cervical

even
only

fewer
one

vertebrae

(assumed to be either C3 or C4)

(figure 20). The transverse process
on one thoracic vertebra is curved
unusually to the left and may indicate
some previous skeletal trauma, as
parts of the ribs in the same area
Figure 13 - right vertebrosternal ribs

(articulating with the vertebrae) went through abnormal bone growth/decay (figure 21,22). There
is arthritis present on the body of one vertebra, which happens to be only one of two body
components present in the entire set. Most ribs are unsided, and sided ribs cannot be specifically
identified by number. There are portions of two first ribs, the left and the right. The rest are
merely fragments and are arranged by size in millimeters (figures 14-19). The parts of the ribs
that articulate with the vertebrae are unusually molded, as if Individual One sustained injury at a
younger age, or had some osteoarthritis in that area (figure 19).

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Figure 14 - left vertebrosternal ribs including rib one

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Figure 15 - unsided or identified ribs between sizes 80.1-100 mm

Figure 16 - unsided or identified ribs between sizes 60.1-80 mm

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Figure 17 - unsided or identified ribs between sizes 40.1-60 mm

Figure 18 - unsided or identified ribs between sizes 20-40 mm

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Figure 19 abnormal bone on one left vertebrosternal rib

Figure 20 - various fragmented parts of the vertebral column

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Figure 21 - spinous process of one vertebra

Figure 22 curved spinous process of one vertebra

(as show in Figure 21)

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The chest and shoulder girdle are sparse in material remains. Three pieces of a left
scapula (acromion process, spine, lateral border) and one piece of a right scapula (coracoid
process) exist. There is a postmortem break of the left acromion process and spine with no
unusual markings otherwise (figure 24). Small fragments from the body of the scapula indicate
the presence of a strong lateral line and some thinning/holes in the surface (figure 25). Also
present is a single clavicle from the left side. The costal facet is very pronounced and must have
sat heavily on the costal cartilage of the first rib (figure 23).

Figure 23 complete left clavicle with a pronounced costal facet

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Figure 24 acromion process of the left scapula, in two parts.

Figure 25 various fragments of the scapulae

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A portion of all arm bones of the left and right sides of Individual One are present, with
varying completeness (figure 26). The Humeri are almost complete, with the right side missing
its proximal head (figure 27). There is a complete right ulna and very small piece of the left
ulnas distal shaft (figure 28). The right ulna displays a heavy amount of arthritis at its distal end
and the articular circumference is smoothed over and molded upwards, as if a heavy thumb
pushed it up proximally from underneath. The styloid process is splayed and curved medically
(figure 32). The right radius is almost complete, with a piece missing from the styloid process.
There is a pattern of indentation and beveling on the proximal right shaft, which seems to have
smoothed itself out antemortem (figure 31). The pattern cuts diagonally where the supinator
muscle insert along the lateral proximal radial shaft. Each line is parallel to the others, indicating
a pattern. The most plausible explanation for these markings might be a heavy injury in which
the bone grew back afterwards. The bone may have been cut by some object and then healed
before Individual One died. There are no signs of strain on the lateral epicondyle of the humerus,
which is part of the supinators origin. This shows that the injury most likely did not happen
during flexion. There are also signs that this may have been affected by periostitis. There is a
much darker color to the injury, and its texture may be revealing of active periostitis. Lower
down the shaft there seems to be healed periostitis (Mann 2005). Its compliment, the left radius,
exists only as two pieces of a shaft. Both distal heads are missing and the break between the two
pieces is clean and recent (figure 29). This is telltale by the clean texture and bright color of the
break surface; a separation out of the lab would have left a darker stain on the revealed bone
post-break (figure 30).

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Figure 26 all present bones of the arm (from top to bottom) radii, ulnae, and humeri

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Figure 27 both humerii, right and left

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Figure 28 left and right ulnae

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Figure 29 left and right radii

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Figure 30 post-mortem break of the left radius, exhibiting a clean and bright surface

Figure 31 strange markings on the right radius, possibly injury or periostitis.

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Figure 32 signs of osteoarthritis in the distal end of the right ulna

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There are only four bones of the hand: two carpals and two phalanges. There is one right
trapezium and one left scaphoid which show some signs of arthritis. Two unsided middle
phalanges are also present (figure 33). It is very difficult to deduce much information from the
hands other than potential sizing.

Figure 33 bones of the hand, including phalanges (top) a partial scaphoid and a trapezium (bottom)

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Another part of the axial skeleton, the pelvis, helps us identify the traits of this person.
Two partial Ilium are present, one from each side of a single individual (figures 34, 37). Each
contain an auricular surface, greater sciatic notch, and parts of the anterior superior iliac spine
and anterior inferior iliac spine. The auricular surface is porous and the apex of the surface is
broader and less sharp than it would be in childhood, indicating that this person was beyond
early adulthood (Steele 1988) (figure 38). Arthritis is still an apt conclusion. There are many
drying cracks on this individual (figure 35, 36). The greater sciatic notch is broad and obtuse.

Figure 34 left partial ilium and a thin crack on its surface

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Figure 35 crack in the left partial ilium

Figure 36 crack in the partial left ilium

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Figure 37 partial right ilium

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Figure 38 auricular surface of the left ilium, displaying a rounded apex and no preauricular surface

Figure 39 unsided nfragments of the acetabulum and left pectineal line of the pubis

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Individual One has almost a full

breadth of left leg bones, and little evidence
of adequate right leg bones. On the left, the
femur is separated into four parts, with
breaks at the neck, the midshaft, and around
the popliteal surface (figure 44). On the
fovea capitis are signs of osteoarthritis: the
floor is rough and porous and the rim is
beveled and raised (Mann 2005) (figure
67). The tibia is broken right above the
tibial tuberosity and only the lateral
condyle remains (figure 45). The fibula is

Figure 40 left femoral head and proximal third of shaft

broken into three parts, each end separated

(figure 43). On the distal femur there are beginning signs of marginal and surface osteophytes
(osteoarthritis) by the curvature on the medial side of the medial condyle (Mann 2005). The
medial epicondyle exhibits some cracks, which may be drying cracks. The tibia is heavily
abound with root markings, and there is a small crack/puncture near the attachment for the
semimembranosus muscle. However, the bone revealed after the puncture is bright and doesn't
seem to be meddled with. The severity of the infliction may have been small and unrelated to
cause of death. In the middle of the shaft is a small circular imperfection that is much darker in
appearance and like that of the predicted periostitis in the right radius.

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Examination of the fibula proves this connection,

as there are bold markings indented into the
surface of the bone. However upon further
microscopic examination, it is indeterminate if
this is cause by pathologies or heavy weathering.
The right leg includes the distal end of the femur
in three parts, and the fibula in two parts, with
the distal end separated (figure 42, 43). The
fibula

also

shows

the

same

signs

or

weathering/pathologies on the right as the left.

Unusually, there are many other bones of the
legs that vary entirely in color and type. There is

Figure 41 - distal end of left femur

left tibia of an entirely different color, with none of the same root markings. The margins of the
tibia of Individual One are much sharper and bolder, while the shaft of the discolored right tibia
is smoother and more consistent in its radius. In addition, there are three other parts that seem to
belong to neither two individuals. One is a portion of the medial condyle of the right tibia, which
is brightly colored in hues of sepia and beige. A piece of the lateral condyle of a left femur seems
to match this, as it is a beige color and has some sepia markings where it articulates with the
condyle of the tibia (figure 56).

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This brings us to a minimum number of three individuals based solely on the legs.
However this is not all: separate from everything else is the very distal end of a tibia, separated
from everything by a growth plate on its surface. The articular surface for the talus is incredibly
smooth and unworn. The epiphyseal plate is rigid and full of smaller trabeculae.

Figure 42 concluded fragments of a partial right distal femur (condyles present)

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Figure 43 left and right fibula with fragmented, yet attached distal ends

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Figure 44 all parts of the left femur

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Figure 45 left tibia

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The feet, which are the most intriguing feature of this skeleton, have been through quite
the beating. In both feet, most tarsals are present (figure 46). Both feet are missing the lateral
cuneiform, and the left foot is missing the cuboid. In the left foot, metatarsals 1, 4 and 5 are
present. The right foot maintains metatarsals 1, 2 and 4. Both feet exhibit various proximal
phalanges, many of which are broken (only small portions remain). Few middle and distal
phalanges are in the set, and many cannot be sided. On the superior portion of the intermediate
cuneiform of both feet, there is a harsh green staining (figure 48). This green stain exists on no
other surrounding bones and maintains the same gradation pattern on both sides (figure 49). The
most plausible explanation is that this is copper staining from some form of material on the shoes
this person had left on when they decayed. Every metatarsal (aside from the left first and right
first) exhibits some form of abnormal bone growth, indicative of breaks or growths antemortem.
This hinders ease of identification, as the proximal ends of each metatarsal are twisted and
misshapen. The shaft of the right second metatarsal is thicker than the rest of the metatarsals and
flares/bulges out (figure 47). The proximal ends of both fourth metatarsals are bent and
smoothed over. There are signs of arthritis throughout, especially at the proximal end of the
calcaneus where sharp bony edges have formed. In the same area there are deep grooves running
up from the bone spurs, which might respond to the insertion of the calcaneal tendon (figure 71).
There are also two bones that do not fit with this set: an extra left intermediate cuneiform and left
lateral cuneiform, which are approximately the same size but vary highly in color and fit. They
are much lighter and have gone through a different style of wear than the cuneiforms of
Individual One (figure 59).

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Figure 46 full reconstruction of the feet with bones present from Individual One. Sesemoid bones and
unidentified metatarsal heads and distal phalange to the right.

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Figure 47 unnatural bone growth and possible previous breakage of the right second
metatarsal (left) and possible breakage and regrowth of the left fourth metatarsal (right)

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Figure 48 similar green, coppery stain pattern on the intermediate cuneiforms of both feet

Figure 49 green stained intermediate cuneiform and the articulating bones (navicular and medial
cuneiform) that are unaffected by the same staining. (present in both feet).

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Figure 50 bent phalanges of the first metatarsal, showing signs of osteoarthritis.

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There is no documented provenience, and no way

to indicate where exactly these skeletons were
left and then found. However, there is some
context outside of provenience which helps us
understand what these bones went through. Initial
observation of Individual One shows that root
markings are abound. They are most heavily cited
in the pelvis, the inside of the skull, and the bones
of the legs. Thick, constantly ragged lines cover
the surface of every one of these bones. It can be
noted that the right tibia of Individual Three
exhibits almost no root markings, and varies
largely in color. It is much darker and smoother than
Figure 51 dirt in the trabeculae of the left femoral head

the tibia from Individual One (figure 55). Individual

One also shows signs of minimal drying cracks and is heavily laden with dirt. This is predictive
of time underground; the body must have been buried for a period of time to let dirt accumulate.
Dirt is most obvious in the revealed trabeculae and foramen of long bones like the femur and the
humerus (figure 51,52). Cracks are very thin and individualized, and because of this we can
gather that the bone was no exposed to much sunlight, if at all, for any long period of time.
Cracks were most likely caused by burial pressure (Byers 2008).
Also included in the case material and of no provenience is a small bag full of burnt pieces of
paper, less than a thumb print in size. There is no writing on them and no further conclusions can
be attained with them in this case study (figure 53).

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Figure 52 dirt laden in the trabeculae of the proximal left humerus

Figure 53 burnt pieces of paper which show no indication of writing

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It is clear that there is more than one individual in this case, but exactly how many
individuals is difficult to assess. Bones
that clearly do not belong to Individual
One are hard to separate into distinct
individuals.

However,

there

are

significant markers that can at least

help to indicate the minimum number
of individuals (MNI) in the case. The
strongest

indication

of

second

individual, Individual Two, is a distal

Figure 54 epiphyseal plate of the left distal tibia

tibia with an epiphyseal growth plate on its proximal end (figure 54). There are no other bones
exhibiting any processes of fusion or pre-fusion separation, and it is clear that every other
identifiable bone comes from older individuals. There are two components of a right tibia,
neither belonging to Individual One. This is easily equatable to two more individuals. Individual
Three is comprised of the entire shaft of a right tibia, colored a dark grey and exhibiting very few
signs of root marking. It is laden with much more dirt than the bones of Individual One, and the
dirt is much more fine than the thicker clumps in the trabeculae of all other long bones in the
series. The second right tibia, Individual Four, is a medial condyle, sepia and beige in color
(figure 58). It exhibits almost no signs of root weathering. The medial condyle is much smaller
than the condyles of Individual One, and therefore there must be at least three individuals in the
set. Other evidence of multiple individuals is a left lateral and intermediate cuneiform, both a
similar size to Individual Ones cuneiforms, but much lighter in color. It cannot be determined

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whether these belong to individuals

Three or Four, but they definitely
do not belong to Individual Two
(figure 59). The cuneiforms of
Individual Two would be much
smaller and less developed than the
older and more worn cuneiforms in
the case. The last piece of evidence
of at least a second individual is a
lateral condyle of a left femur,
which seems to be cut cleanly in
half mid-sagittally. The texture of
the bone is extremely smooth and

Figure 55 right and left proximal tibial shafts, which differ largely in
color, size, and robustness of features

unworn, much like that of Individual Two, yet

there are no epiphyseal plates present and it cannot

be determined for certain that these two compliment each other (figure 56). The condyle seems
too large to fit a younger child, but without further fragments of the same bone, no size
comparisons can be adequately accounted for. With multiple indeterminate factors, it can be
certain that there are three individuals in the set.

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The MNI is three, but there may be potentially up to five individuals in the entire case. It is not
determined whether all bones belonged to M55 originally, as the other individuals may have
been intermingled with other inventories in the process of sorting and transport to the lab.

Figure 56 partial left distal femur and left tibia epiphyseal plate. Both similar in color

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Figure 57 epiphyseal plate of a left tibia, in detail

Figure 58 medial condyle of a right tibia, much more beige and sepia in color compared to
other bones in the series

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Figure 59 medial and intermediate cuneiforms of Individual One (top) and medial and intermediate cuneiforms of an
unidentified individual (bottom), both similar in size and shape

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It is also quite difficult to determine the sex of all

individuals. The tibias of Individual Two, Three, and Four are
inconclusive evidence as to whether they come from males or
females. Bones with epiphyseal plates are almost impossible to
distinguish, as the individual is too young and in development
to show prominent signs of sex. The tibias of Individual Three
and Four are inconclusive as well because there are no strong
proper measurements that may be taken to be sure. Individual
One has much more evidence in terms of sex, and we will
focus our analysis of sex for our most concentrated individual.
Figure 60 size comparison of a thumb in the
greater sciatic notch of the right ilium

Not many telltale features are existent in the portions we have

of the pelvis, but the greater sciatic notch is observable and
according to the scale by Buikstra and Ubelaker, is rated
between 1 and 2 for both the right and left ilium (figure 60,61).
This is typical of female morphology, but according to
Buikstra, it is not unknown for males to also possess a wider
sciatic notch. Another feature on the pelvis in sex
determination is the pre-auricular surface, which in both ilium
is not illustrated (graded at a score of 0), a trait determinate of
certain males (figure 63). The skull is usually highly
determinate in sex, but no strong evidence is provided by the

Figure 61 size comparison of a thumb in the

greater sciatic notch of the left ilium

remains available. There is no observable brow ridge, so the

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skull remains out of analysis. Lastly are the long bones of the arms and legs. The maximum
length of the humerus is 350 mm, indicative of white males (290-360 mm range). The maximum
length of the ulna is 271 mm and lies in the range of white males at the 240-290 mm range. The
maximum length of the radius is 237 mm, lying in the range for white males at 220-270 mm.
These are all based on the Terry collection, as analyzed by both Buikstra and Steele. Clearly the
long bones all point to white males, as the ranges for females breach the lower range. There is a
very small chance the long bones are indicative of a
very large female, but some measurements (humerus,
ulna) start after the range for females ends. The
femoral head is measured at 440 mm, which is in the
indeterminate range for sex (between 435-465 mm).
This may be caused by the slightly abnormal shape
of the femoral head and the present osteoarthritis in
the same area (especially on the fovea captitis)
(figure 62). According to scale by Buikstra, the

Figure 62 left femoral head

estimated sex of this individual is a 4, or probable male.

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The age for the male, Individual One, can be

assessed using material from the skull and the
pelvic girdle. The auricular surface is present
in both ilium and is critical in age
determination. Looking at the apex of both
ilium, we can see that the apex is curved and
highly depressed, and bony outgrowths have
formed. Until about 35 years of age the apex
is sharp and distinct, then with advancing age

Figure 63 auricular surface of the right partial ilium

the apex becomes more blunted and broader in

outline (Steele 1988) (figure 63). This male is clearly at least 35 years of age. The bone plateaus
for a bit near the apex but falls sharply into the rest of the auricular surface. This was a pelvis
heavily laden with use. According to Buikstra, Individual Ones auricular surfaces are at Phase
7 or Phase 8. There exhibits no transverse organization and a rugose, nongranular irregular
surface. Margins are lipped as well, placing the individual between 50-60 and older (Buikstra
1994). One other way to view age is by looking at the stage of ectocranial closures, or closing of
the sutures. There is significant to complete closure of the sagittal suture, and minimal to
complete closure of all other sutures present. This confirms the older age of Individual One.

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A last attempt at aging takes us to the mandible, of which the

left side is present. No teeth remain and resorption of the
aveoli is in full activity. The angle of the vertical ramus is
much more obtuse at 148 degrees than a young mandible and
the mental protuberance to gonial angle is approximately 9
centimeters. The mental protuberance has sunken in
completely, and the mandibular condyle is curved lingually
and exhibits a strong depression (figures 64,65,66). Final
estimation of Individual One is 60 and older.

Figure 64 resorption of the mandible

Figure 65 left side of mandible, showing broad obtuse angle

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Figure 66 left mandibular condyle, curved lingually

Individual Two, a single epiphyseal plate of the distal tibia, is early much younger. The
growth plate is rectangular in shape and beginning to exhibit one corner projecting outward
(which will become the fibular notch). By nine years of age, the fibular notch is usually sharp
and at a 45-degree angle. The angle of this growth plate is slightly less apparent and therefore
Individual Two is estimated to be younger than nine years of age. Since the epiphysis is unfused,
Individual Two is definitely younger than the ages of 14-18 (Baker 2005)(figure 57). Individual
Three and Four are unidentified in terms of precise age. They are clearly older than adolescence
as the growth pates are fused, but no other concurrent information is available.

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Ancestry is difficult to assess in any individuals, especially because there are no anomalies or
significant differences in available material equatable to specific traits. Individual One matches
long bones lengths and widths for white males, and it is not conclusive to assume this male may
have been black. No evidence is conclusive in the other individuals.

Pathologies for Individual One include a

heavy amount of osteoarthritis, especially in the
proximal and distal heads of long bones. The
right ulna shows the most obvious signs, with the
articular circumference smoothed over and
molded upwards, as if a heavy thumb pushed it

Figure 67 osteoarthritis of the fovea capitis of the left

femoral head

up proximally from underneath. The styloid

process is splayed and curved medically. Arthritis

is also present in the right radius, the left humerus, and most bones of both the left and right feet.
The fovea capitis of the left humerus is clearly laden with arthritis, as previously stated in the
inventory (figure 67). Periostitis may be present in the right radius on the proximal shaft, but
assumptions about injury may be more justly hypothesized (figure 69). It is possible that an
injury induced periostitis, but no further information is present other than dark markings and
beveled marks on the shaft. In the middle third of the same shaft is what seems to be healed
periostitis, as the bone is porous and healed over (figure 68).

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Figure 68 possible healed periostitis on the middle shaft of the right radius

Figure 69 deep grooves and weathering of the medial shaft on the right radius

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Figure 70 arachnoid granulations on the interior of the skull

There are arachnoid granulations on the inside of the skull along the sagittal suture,
which serve to filter and return cerebrospinal fluid (Mann 2005)(figure 70). They have slightly
eroded the cranial vault, which is another indicator of older age. According to Mann, their
presence is normal but they tend to grow larger and deeper with older age. Heel spurs, which are
a common finding, are in both calcanei (figure 71). This may have resulted from acute trauma to
the abductor hallicus and flexor digitorum brevis tendon attachments, and they increase with age
over 50 (Mann 20015). There is a small perforation in the olecranon fossa of the left humerus,
named a sepal aperture. It is the size of a pinhole, and a common finding (figure 72). Individuals
Two, Three and Four show no pathologies.

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Figure 71 heel spurs on the left calcaneus

Figure 72 perforations in the olecranon fossa of the left humerus

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Stature is not predictable based on the last three individuals, but in Individual One there
are enough long bones and foot bones to hypothesize. Lengths of the main long bones of the feet
are impossible to assess, as there are only fragmented bones. Assuming this is a white male, I
have used Table 7.10 in Steeles Anatomy and Biology of the Human Skeleton to find stature of
long bones in the arm. For the left humerus, stature indicates 178.25 cm + 4.05 cm (or around
58). For the right ulna, stature indicates 174.32 cm + 4.32 cm (or around 510). For the right
radius, stature indicates 168.596 cm + 4.32 cm (or around 56). Analyzed together, this helps us
predict Individual Ones stature to be around 160-185 cm.
Based on the information given and found thus far, it is not possible to know for sure
what the cause of death was. We have no fatal pathologies and no trauma or significant damage
to any of the individuals. We can predict that Individual One may have died of old age, but it is
indeterminate. There are no indications of how Individual Two, Three, or Four died.

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Unidentified Bones

Figure 73 40.1 50 mm unidentified fragments

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Figure 74 30.1-40 mm unidentified fragments

Figure 75 20.1-30 mm unidentified fragments

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Figure 76 10-20 mm unidentified fragments

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Inventory and Documentation

Index
1. Visual Skeletal Recording Forms
Individual One

62-74

Individual Two

75

Individuals Three/Four

76-77

2. Commingled Remains Recording Forms

Individual One

78-86

Individuals Two/Three/Four

87

Unidentified

88

3. Additional Trait Forms

89-98

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62

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63

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64

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65

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66

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67

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68

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69

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70

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71

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72

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73

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74

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75

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76

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77

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78

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79

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80

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81

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82

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83

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84

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85

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86

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87

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88

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89

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90

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91

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92

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93

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94

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95

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96

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97

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98

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Works Cited
Baker, Brenda J., Tosha L. Dupras, and Matthew W. Tocheri. The Osteology of Infants
and Children. College Station: Texas A & M UP, 2005. Print.

Bass, William M. Human Osteology: A Laboratory and Field Manual of the Human
Skeleton. Columbia: Missouri Archaeological Society, 1971. Print.

Byers, Steven N. Introduction to Forensic Anthropology. Boston: Pearson/Allyn and

Bacon, 2008. Print.

Cox, Margaret, and Simon Mays. Human Osteology in Archaeology and Forensic
Science. London: Greenwich Medical Media, 2000. Print.

Haas, Jonathan, Jane E. Buikstra, Douglas H. Ubelaker, and David Aftandilian.

Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains: Proceedings of a
Seminar at the Field Museum of Natural History, Organized by Jonathan Haas.
Fayetteville, AR: Arkansas Archeological Survey, 1994. Print.

Mann, Robert W., and David R. Hunt. Photographic Regional Atlas of Bone Disease: A
Guide to Pathologic and Normal Variation in the Human Skeleton. Springfield, IL:
C.C. Thomas, 2005. Print.

Steele, D. Gentry., and Claud A. Bramblett. The Anatomy and Biology of the Human
Skeleton. College Station: Texas A & M UP, 1988. Print.

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White, T. D., and Pieter A. Folkens. The Human Bone Manual. Amsterdam: Elsevier
Academic, 2005. Print.

100