GEOMETRIC STRUCTURES OF TONAL

MUSIC
Cristian Manuel Ba
nuelos Hinojosa ,1

Universidad Aut
onoma de Baja California, Ensenada
B.C., Mexico. October 2007

Abstract: The basic theory of tonal music is analyzed from a mathematical point
of view. The definitions of scales, intervals, chords, diatonic triads and harmonic
progressions are interpreted in a geometric and algebraic language. In particular,
3
the diatonic triads are analyzed as points in the space T, constructed over Z . Some
operations are defined on the set, such that their use generate successions of chords
known as harmonic progressions. On other hand, the set T of triads, can be divided
on equivalence classes according to the degrees of the scale. We also provide the set
with a partial order and metric that allow to any pair of chords to be connected.
The found results are according to the basic rules of voice leading. Lastly, the
results are used in music analysis; in particular in a fragment of a prelude of J.S.
Bach. All of the above was implemented in a computer program that allows the
user to explore and listen the progressions generated by the operations over the
triads.
Keywords: Geometry, tonal music.

1. INTRODUCTION
When hearing a great musical work, like Beethovens
fifth symphony; one can be left impressed and intrigued. What are the reason that those particular
sounds, in such order, produced such an splendid
piece, that evoke such feelings and emotions. The
ear can distinguish certain patterns and hints of
structure; but when the score its analyzed in
greater detail, its when great symmetries appear.
With this in mind, the purpose of the current work
its to analyze the patterns that occur on tonal
music, with the use of geometric and algebraic
techniques, with the goal to find some structure
thats useful in musical analysis.
As a first step, we will delimit our focus. We will
analyze only tonal music constructed over diatonic triads. Which are sets of three sounds that

when played together satisfy certain defined properties, that we will describe later on. Some composers of this style of music are J.S. Bach, Haendel, Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert, Schumann,
Brahms, Wagner, Tchaikovsky, and many of their
contemporaries. On other hand, J.P. Rameau was
one of the greatest theoretical writers of tonal
music. [8]. Its worth noticing that mostly of the
current popular music is based on the rules of
tonal harmony.
The next step is to formalize these concepts in
a conventional mathematical language, in a way
that we can find a geometric structure that gives
us some insight on the workings of tonal music
In current literature there exist some works that
use mathematical concepts to describe musical
structures 2 , like the work of Dmitri Tymoczko
2

Thesis advisor: Alvaro Alvarez Parrilla.

For a detailed exposition of the relations between music

and mathematics trough history see:[6].

[3], that represents chords as points in orbifolds.

On other hand the work of Guerino Mazzola [4],
that uses category theory to describe semiotic and
ontological concepts of music. This work pretends
to serve as a middle point, in where we study the
structures of tonal music.

2. MATHEMATICAL TRANSLATION
We will now translate some musical concepts to a
mathematical language. For a detailed description
of their musical meaning see: [1], [5] y [7].
A musical scale its the basic set of sounds used
in the composition of a tonal piece. Let Z12m
represent the keys of a m octave piano numbered
from left to right, in such a way that each number
represents a musical note.
Definition 2.1. The structure of a scale is a set
that satisfies :
N = {x0 , x2 , , xn1 } Z12m
0 n 12,
xn1 x0 12,

xi < xi+1 ,

A scale E is the set:

E = {x Z12m |x = xi + b + 12r},
Where i, r, b Z12m . The number b will be called
base note, satisfying: 0 b < 12; where xi N ,
0 r < m.
From this its clear that the scale E its generated
from m copies of the structure N , which has n
elements. Thus we can find a partition of the same
as follows:
Definition 2.2. The degrees of a scale are defined
as the sets:
[xi ] = {x E|x = xi + b + 12r},
for some r Z and 0 r < m. If e [xi ] we say
that e belongs to the degree i of the scale.
Its worth noticing that [xi ] [xj ] = if and only
if i 6= j, which leads to:
E=

n1
[

[xi ].

On other hand, if we have the scale E, its base

and partition given by 12 ; we can obtain the
structure with the following quotient:
N = (E b)/ 12 .

Some of the most common scales in tonal music

are the: chromatic, major and natural minor,
which are shown in the next table:
Scale
Chromatic
Major
Natural minor

Structure
{0, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11}
{0, 2, 4, 5, 7, 9, 11}
{0, 2, 3, 5, 7, 8, 10}

Table 1. Some musical scales.

On other hand, andy pair of scales with the same
structure N are related by transposition:
Proposition 2.1. Let E be a scale with base b, and
D a scale with base 0, with the same structure N .
Then there exists k Z12m , 0 k < 12 such that:
E + k = {e + k|e E} = D.
We say that these scales are equivalent.
Proof. The base of E is b, with 0 b < 12.
Lets take k = b. Since E has structure N , lets
construct the scale E + k with structure N . Both
E and D share the same structure N , if e E,
e = xi + b + 12p, for some p Z, e [xi ], but
by construction e b = xi + 0 + 12p, that gives
us e b [xi ] in a scale with base zero. Hence all
notes in the degree i of E, will also be in the degree
i of D when transposed. This can be repeated with
each class of notes in E to obtain all classes en D.
Since the equivalence classes form a partition of
the sets we can be assured that all elements of E
and D are taken. We conclude that E + k = D
Given this equivalence, from now on we will work
with scales D whose base note es b = 0 and
structure N . The next step will be to give this
scale the structure of an algebraic group in a
natural way. First, lets note that d D can be
written in a unique form as:
d = xi + 12r,
for some degree of the scale given by xi N and
some r Z, 0 r < m. Lets define the function
f : D Z12m Znm as
f (d) = f (xi + 12r) = i + nr,

i=0

where n = |N | its the number of classes of notes.

With this partition of E its natural to define an

equivalence relation, so that a, b E are related
a 12 b if a, b [xi ] for some 1 i n.
Its important to note that the elements of these
equivalence classes [xi ] are separated in multiples
of 12, that is, octaves.

Adding nr in Znm its equivalent to adding 12r on

D, where r represents the octave of the note. This
function ignores the notes not belonging to the
scale and shows how the structure repeats itself
every n notes, instead of the 12 that are required
in Z12m . One interpretation of this function is

that each note can be expressed by its equivalence

class, together with its correspondent octave nr.
This allows to move inside the scale in a natural
way. Its important to note that the definition of f
requires knowledge of the structure N of the scale
D.
The inverse function is: f 1 : Znm D,
f 1 (x) = f 1 (i + nr) = xi + 12r.
Note that nm = 0 in Znm , which gives us
f 1 (nm) = x0 . This is a bijection between D with
structure N and the set Znm ; and so between any
other scale E with the same structure but different
base and the set Znm

hence,
f (a +D b) = f (f 1 (f (a) + f (b))) = f (a) + f (b).
f Znm , and its immediate that
It follows that D =
f Znm .
E=
This theorem represents that a scale is isomorphic
to the abelian group Znm . Its importance lies in
that it allows us to move in a space where all the
notes belong to the scale, this is, we move in a
diatonic way 3 .

The set f (D) inherits the partition from D if we

define the sets:
[i] = {a f (D)|a = i + nr},
for some r Z where 0 r < n. Its clear that
[i] [j] = if and only iff i 6= j, also:
f (D) =

n1
[

[i].

i=0

We will denote the equivalence relation defined by

this partition on f (D) as n .
To endow D with a group structure, we will
use the sum in Znm , and will relate it with
D by the bijection f . For this, lets define the
following binary operation in D. Let a, b D
+D : D D D, then:
a +D b = f 1 (f (a) + f (b)),
where the sum in the right corresponds to the
sum in Znm . This structure can be generalized for
other scales E with the same structure es D. Lets
define the operation +E as taking the scale E,
transpose it to D, perform the operation on +D ,
and transpose the sult to E again. We will always
work on D, because its a simplified version of the
scales with the same structure. All this serves as
preparation for the next:
Theorem 2.1. Let E Z12m be a scale of m
octaves, base note b, structure N , and n classes of
notes; then E
=f Znm . We will denote the scale
E with such group structure by ZE .
Demostraci
on. Remember that E with structure
N its equivalent to the scale D with base 0, with
the same N . We will prove that the theorem holds
for D, and the result will immediately for any
other base.
By its defiition, the function f its a bijection
between D and Znm . Now, lets check that its also
an homomorphism. Taking a, b D, we will prove
that f (a +D b) = f (a) + f (b). We know that:
a +D b = f 1 (f (a) + f (b)),

Figure 1. Relation between E and ZE for the scale

C major.
Our last basic definition is about the harmonic interval between a pair of notes. Let
a, b ZE , we define this interval as:
I(a, b) = |f 1 (a) f 1 (b)|.
This function allows us to find the distance between notes in the scale D counting all the semitones among them in the original set Z12m . This
will be of use in the analysis of triads
3. DIATONIC TRIADS
Given a scale ZD , we will call n-note chords to the
n
elements in ZD . The diatonic triads are chords of
3
three notes than can be seen as points in ZD =
ZD ZD ZD , where D is a major or minor scale.
These chords have one of the following structures:
Type of triad
Major
Minor
Diminished
Augmented

Structure in
(0,4,7)
(0,3,7)
(0,3,6)
(0,4,8)

Z312m

Table 2. Structures of triads.

Chords that are equivalent to these but in different octaves or permutations are also triads, for
example the chord (0, 7, 4 + 12). We express this
in the next:
3

Musical term referring to the notes of a scale

Definition 3.1. A triad in a major scale 4 is

3
an element A = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) ZD such that
a1 a2 a3 and there exists k ZD and S3
that have the property:
(k, k, k) + (a(1) , a(2) , a(3) )mod 7 (0, 2, 4),
We will denote this set of triads of the mayor scale
with base 0 by T.

We say that ai corresponds to the fundamental :

F und(A) = ai , if (i) = 1; to the third if (i) = 2,
and fifth if (i) = 3.
Observe also that the space T is also partitioned
in seven equivalence classes given by the degrees
of the scale
6
[

T=
When we work on the major scale ZD we see
that, given three notes whose degrees are not
consecutive, the intervals between them are such
that they always form a triad, this is shown in the
next table:
Distances I(i, i + 1)
I(0, 1) = 2
I(1, 2) = 2
I(2, 3) = 1
I(3, 4) = 2
I(4, 5) = 2
I(5, 6) = 2
I(6, 7) = 1

[[k]].

k=0

[[k]] = {A T|k F und(A) mod 7},

we will use double square brackets to distinguish
classes of triads, from classes of notes.
An order and metric can be assigned to the set
of chords and triads. In particular the lexicographical order is of use when comparing chords.
For measuring distance we will use the metric of
aggregate displacement

Distances I(i, i + 2)
I(0, 2) = 4
I(1, 3) = 3
I(2, 4) = 3
I(3, 5) = 4
I(4, 6) = 4
I(5, 0 + 7) = 3
I(6, 7 + 1) = 3

d(A, B) =

3
X

|ai bi |.

i=1
3

For example, the chord (0, 2, 4) in ZD corresponds

3
to (0, 4, 7) in Z12m , and so, it is a triad. In the
3
same way (0, 4, 2 + 7) ZD its a triad because
its equivalent to (0, 2, 4) by permutation of the
components and octave transposition, 7 being the
octave in ZD . We are interested in knowing what
part of the triad corresponds to each components:
fundamental the one that has the number 0;
third if its 2, and fifth if its 4. These names
are according to musical conventions.
To know which part of the triad is each component, we define the function structure as follows:
3

: T ZD ZD ,
if A = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) T:

donde
such that
such that
such that

k + ai mod 7 0,
k + aj mod 7 2,
k + al mod 7 4,

With i, j, l {1, 2, 3}.

Lets define the space of diatonic triads
the scale C major as the pair (T, ).

Thus, we have found a geometric structure for the

set of triads: (T, ). The next step is to describe
the relations between its elements.

3.1 Voice leading

When composing a tonal piece, its common to
start in an initial triad Ai , from some degree [[i]],
and then continue with a succession of classes of
triads
[[i]] [[j]] [[k]].
The problem consists in finding a succession Ai
[[i]], Aj [[j]],. . ., Ak [[k]], that satisfies the
rules of voice leading, which can be very complex.
At the moment, we will focus on one of the most
important: the distance between two consecutive
triads d(Ai , Aj ), must be minimal. For a more
detailed exposition of such rules, see [2].

(a1 , a2 , a3 ) = (ai , aj , al ),
ai
aj
al

where A, B Z12m . This is of great help for the

following musical analysis.

for

Note that the function is a permutation of the

coordinates of A = (a1 , a2 , a3 ) T, which will be
denoted:
(a1 , a2 , a3 ) = (a(1) , a(2) , a(3) ),

The next function to be defined is used to find

relations between triads with minimal distance.
It represents the idea of adding elements to the
components of the function. For example, you
can add some fixed value to the fundamental, fifth
or third:
Definition 3.2. Let A T, we define the function
3
3
 : Z T Z12m as:

where S3 .

(k, m, l)  (a1 , a2 , a3 ) = (e1 (1) , e1 (2) , e1 (3) ),

Where (e1 , e2 , e3 ) = (a(1) , a(2) , a(3) ) + (k, m, l)

y is the associated permutation to the structure
of the triad: (a1 , a2 , a3 ) = (a(1) , a(2) , a(3) ).

See table 1 We show here only the major scale case, but
its equivalent for scales with similar structures.

We are interested in finding the elements

3
(r1 , r2 , r3 ) Z , such that |r1 | + |r2 | + |r3 | be
a minimum, and satisfy (r1 , r2 , r3 )  A T, for
all triads A. By inspection it can be checked that
the elements that satisfy this with displacement
1, 2 o 3, are only the ones in the next table:
(0,0,0)
(0,0,1)
(-1,0,0)
(0,1,1)
(-1,-1,0)
(1,1,1)
(-1,-1,-1)

The operation  simplifies the search for the

minimal movement between the classes of T. For
example, if we start in (0, 2, 4) [[0]], we can
pass to the closest triad in the class [[2]] with
the operation (1, 0, 0)  (0, 2, 4) = (1, 2, 4).
In musical language, this means going from a C
major, to the E minor triad. To ease the notation
we define the following operation:
Definition 3.3. Si A T. We define the function
+ : Z7 T T as:

By using these operations over T, we obtain

relations that are musically interesting because
they express the fundamental idea of voice leading
minimal movement.
Si A [[i]]
(1, 0, 0)  A [[i + 2]]
(0, 0, 1)  A [[i 2]]
(0, 1, 1)  A [[i + 3]]
(1, 1, 0)  A [[i 3]]
(1, 1, 1)  A [[i + 1]]
(1, 1, 1)  A [[i 1]]

Table 3. Operations on the triads.

This means that we can pass from any class of

triads to any other with unitary movements in
the components. For example, if we have the triad
A [[i]], and want to find a triad that is in the
equivalence class [[i + 2]], we only need to use
the (1, 0, 0)  A operation. This is because the
construction d((1, 0, 0)  A, A) = 1. Only the
fundamental voice of the triad A has moved one
unitary step.
Theorem 3.1. Si A, B T con A [[i]] y
(1) d(A, B) = 1 B [[i + 2]] o B [[i 2]].
(2) d(A, B) = 2 B [[i + 3]] o B [[i 3]].
(3) d(A, B) = 3 B [[i + 1]] o B [[i 1]].
Proof. The distance d(A, B) = 1 corresponds to a
3
movement in only one voice. The elements e Z
that satisfy d(A, e  A) = 1 are only (1, 0, 0) y
(0, 0, 1). By the table 3 we have that B [[i + 2]]
or B [i 2], where B = e  A.
For d(A, B) = 2, the possible movements in the
3
voices that satisfy d(A, e  A) = 2 con e Z , are
only (0, 1, 1) y (1, 1, 0). Also by the table 3, it
is clear that B [[i + 3]] o B [[i 3]].
In the case d(A, B) = 3 we have only
d(A, e  A) = 3 if e = (1, 1, 1) and e =
(1, 1, 1). also by 3, we conlcude that B [[i+
1]] or B [[i 1]].
This theorem is very useful because it allows a
classification of all triads that are in a distance
not greater of 3 from a given triad.

0 + A = (0, 0, 0)  A.
1 + A = (1, 1, 1)  A.
2 + A = (1, 0, 0)  A.
3 + A = (0, 1, 1)  A.
4 + A = (1, 1, 0)  A.
5 + A = (0, 0, 1)  A.
6 + A = (1, 1, 1)  A.

Sometimes, to avoid monotony in harmonic progressions, it is desirable that the displacement be

the second closest one. The next operation represents progressions with distance in components
not greater than 6.
Definition 3.4. Si A T. We define the function
+0 : Z7 T T as:

0 +0 A = 0 + A.
1 +0 A = 4 + (4 + A).
2 +0 A = 1 + (1 + A).
3 +0 A = 4 + (4 + (2 + A)).
4 +0 A = 1 + (3 + A).
5 +0 A = 6 + (6 + A).
6 +0 A = 3 + (3 + A).

These operations define a group action of the

group Z7 over the set of classes of triads T/ 7 .
However, its not an action over the set of triads
because it only satisfies the following properties:
(1) a ? T T, for all a G
(2) 0 ? T = T , where 0 its the neutral element in
G,
(3) If a +G b = 0, then
a ? (b ? T ) = b ? (a ? T ) = T,
(4) a1 ? a2 ? ai ? T = a(1) ? a(2) a(i) ? T
for all Si .

4. MUSICAL ANALYSIS
The ideas developed on this work can be used in
music analysis. Lets take a fragment from a small
prelude of J.S. Bach 5 (BWV 924). Some of the
triads used in the prelude are shown in figure 2.
5

See [1] page 271, for a detailed analysis.

This piece is in the scale of C major, that is, with

base note b = 0.
The inicial triad is A = (4, 0 + 7, 2 + 7) and the
operations required for the succession of chords is:
4 +0 4 + 4 +0 4 + A.
For more examples of applications of these operations, the thesis work in which this article is
based, and the computer program where all this
is implemented, see the website
http://www.holomorfo.com

Figure 2. Progressions in the prelude BWV 924

from J.S.Bach.

5. CONCLUSIONS
The basic definitions of tonal music hide a symmetry that we have been able to express by the
structure of the triads (T, ). On other hand, by
means of the operation  it is possible to abstract
the idea of minimal movement in the components
of the progressions of triads.
With these tools at hand, we have been able to
systemize some of the methods of musical analysis. All that was developed describes adequately
what is equivalent to an introductory level of
tonal harmony. However, there still much work
left, like the use of seventh chords, modulations,
chromatism and functional harmony.
From a mathematical standpoint, its of interest
that the set of triad progressions can behave as a
dynamical system. This is because given a inicial
triad and the rules of voice leading it can be
described a the path that a musical piece follows
in (T, ). As future work its the idea to expand
these structures, also to describe in greater detail
the musical rules in a mathematical framework to
delimit the system.
We hope that expressing music concepts with
mathematical geometrical notation can serve to
bring some insight on music theory. Its also the
intention to develop this model to include more
aspects of the structure of music, in a way that can
be useful to theoretical musicians and composers.

REFERENCES
[1] E. Aldwell, C. Schachter, Harmony & Voice
Leading.
Tercera Edicion, Thomson-Schrimer EE.UU.
2003.
[2] F. Salzer, C. Schachter, Counterpoint in Composition.
Columbia University Press, EE.UU. 1989.
[3] D. Tymoczko, The Geometry of Musical
Chords.
Science 313, 72 (2006)
[4] G. Mazzola, The Topos of Music.
Birkhauser Verlag, Alemania 2003.
[5] Forte Allen, Tonal Harmony in concept &
practice.
Third Edition, Holt, Rinehart and Winston
Ed. EE.UU. 1979.
[6] Fauvel J., Flood R., Wilson R, Music and
Mathematics.
Oxford University Press EE.UU. 2005.
[7] Walter Piston., Harmony, third edition
Norton EE.UU. 1962.
[8] Jean-Philippe Rameau, Treatsie on Harmony.
Dover, EE.UU. 1997.