It's important to understand the relation of amu's and moles.

One mole of something that weighs one amu

is one gram. In other words, 1 g = 6.022 x 1023 amus. So one mole of hydrogen (H2) would weigh 1.0079 x
2 = 2.0158 grams. One mole of carbon is exactly 12 grams; that's how they derived Avogadro's number.
Often it's important to find out how many moles is some given quantity of mass. You can use dimensional
analysis (DA) for this. Let's say you want to know how many moles is 36 grams of water, and also how many
molecules are in it. First you must find the molar mass of water (how many amus it weighs). Water is H 2O,
that means 2 of hydrogen and one of oxygen. So the adding of those masses is:
1.008 x 2 + 16.00 = 18.00 amu.
Now comes the DA part.

So it's 2 moles. And since 1 mole is NA molecules, there are 2 x NA = 1.2 x 1024 molecules.
The key to solving these problems is getting the g/mol (molar mass, or amus) of the substance, and then
using that in a DA setup to convert back and forth between grams and moles. One amu is one g/mol.
Example:

How many moles are in 4.5 grams of glucose (C6H12O6)?

Answer
First you must find out the molar mass of glucose. Adding the weights of
the individual atoms, you get:
6 x 12.00 amu + 12 x 1.008 amu + 6 + 16.00 amu = 180.1 amus =
180.1 g/mol
Then you use DA:

The answer is .025 moles. Be careful to use DA correctly, and that you will
have to flip it so that the units in the top and bottom cancel out.

Example:

You have a sample of glucose (C6H12O6), that weighs 2.5 grams. How many
carbon molecules are in it?
Answer
Find the number of moles of glucose (we already found molar mass of
glucose in last problem, 180.1.)

In each glucose molecule there are six carbons. So if you have .014 moles
of glucose, you must have 6 times as many carbons in it. .014 moles x 6
= .084 moles C. Just multiply it by Avogadro's number to get the answer.
.084 moles x 6.022 x 1023=5.1 x 1022 carbon molecules.

Percent Mass
This is just another way to show how much of something is in a compound. It's how much of the substance
is made of one particular element, the percent by mass (I bet you could figure that out by the title). So if
there is 60 g of something, and in that compound there is 12 g of carbon, then you would say the percent
mass is 20% (12 g / 60 g x 100%).
Note that this number can't be directly obtained from the moles. Percent moles is not the percent mass too.
You must convert or die.
Example:

Find the mass percent of each element of penicillin (C 14H20N2SO4).

Answer
Here's a hint: if they don't give you how much there is, assume one mole.
So if there is one mole of penicillin, there must be 14 moles of carbon, 20
moles of hydrogen, and so on.
To find the mass of each element in this mole of penicillin, just do the DA
using the g/mol conversion.
Mass of carbon = 14 moles C x 12.01 g / mol = 168.4 g.

Mass of hydrogen = 20 moles H x 1.008 g / mol = 20.16 g.

Mass of nitrogen = 2 moles N x 14.01 g / mol = 28.02 g.
Mass of sulfur = 1 mole S x 32.07 g / mol = 32.07 g.
Mass of oxygen = 4 moles O x 16.00 g / mol = 64.00 g.
The total mass can be found just by adding:
168.4g + 20.16g + 28.02g + 32.07g + 64.00g = 312.6 g
Percent mass is mass of one thing divided by the total mass, times
hundred percent:
Percent mass carbon = 168.4 g / 312.6 g x 100% = 53.87%
Percent mass hydrogen = 20.16 g / 312.6 g x 100% = 6.449%
Percent mass nitrogen = 28.02 g / 312.6 g x 100% = 8.964%
Percent mass sulfur = 32.07 g / 312.6 g x 100% = 10.24%
Percent mass oxygen = 64.00 g / 312.6 g x 100% = 20.47%
And the percents add up to 99.993%, which is close enough to 100%.

Go try some more percent mass practice problems now!

Empirical and Molecular Formulas

The molecular formula is the type that we've always been using: H 2O, C6H12O6, C2H4, and all the like. It's how
many atoms of each element are present in one molecule of the substance. The empirical formula is the
reduced form of this. It's the ratio of atoms. For H2O, there's 2 hydrogens for every oxygen. So the empirical
formula is the same. However in C6H12O6, there is a ratio of 6 : 12 : 6. That can be reduced, so the ratio is
1 : 2 : 1. Therefore the empirical formula is CH2O. Likewise, the ratio 2 : 4 in the last one can be reduced to
1 : 2. The empirical for it is is CH2.
Example:

The empirical formula of a compound is found to be C 2H3O4. The molar

mass was found to be 273.1 g / mol. Find the molecular formula.

Answer
Let's find the molecular mass of the empirical formula.
12.01 g/mol x 2 + 1.008 g/mol x 3 + 16.00 g/mol x 4 = 91.04 g / mol.
And since the molecular formula is just a multiple of the empirical, let's
see if 273.1 g / mol is a multiple of 91.04 g / mol.
273.1 g/mol / 91.04 g/mol = 3.000.
Sure enough, the number goes divides almost evenly three times. That
means the molecular must have three times the number of particles of the
empirical. Multiplying each by three gives the molecular formula to be
C6H9O12.

It's important to remember that the molecular formula is a multiple of the empirical formula in both
subscripts and molar masses.
Chemical Equations and Balancing Them
A chemical reaction is when one or more molecules rearrange their atoms to form new molecules. Here is an
example:
CH4 + O2 ---> CO2 + H2O
You can see this visually below:

Methane

->

Oxygen

Carbon Dioxide

Water

The things on the left side are called the reactants, and the things on the right are called the products. The
reactants are generally transformed into the products until one of the reactants runs out, or the system
reaches equilibrium (a balance).
As another example, if you wanted to say that two molecules combine to form one, just use the coefficients.
Just like in algebra, you can put numbers in front of the molecule to show how many of them are in the
equation. Let's say 2 of Molecule A and 3 of Molecule B are needed to make 4 of Molecule C. The equation
would look like:
2A + 3B ---> 4C
Another thing that's important to right down is what state each reactant and product is, by little subscript
letters. The symbols are:

Solid: (s)

Liquid: (l) (When you write it by hand, it's a lowercase cursive l.)

Gas: (g)

Aqueous (means dissolved in water): (aq)

So the first equation should have really been written as:

CH4 (g) + O2 (g) ---> CO2 (g) + H2O (g)
It's funny how they teach you to do that, but on the AP test on the Equation Writing section, they will not
look for those symbols. But your teacher most certainly will, so get into the habit!
That equation is better, but it still is missing a key point in chemical reactions. Atoms cannot be created nor
destroyed; they can only be put in different orders. If you look above, there are two oxygens (green) on the
left and three oxygens on the right. Where did that extra oxygen come from? The key is to realize that these
aren't one to one reactions. That is, they all don't have coefficients of one. So you have to balance.
Let's start with hydrogen. There's four on the left and two on the right, so multiply the molecule on the right
by two:
CH4 (g) + O2 (g) ---> CO2 (g) + 2H2O (g)

Now the hydrogens are balanced, but the oxygens aren't. Now we have 4 on right and 2 on left. Multiply
atom with oxygen on left by two:
CH4 (g) + 2O2 (g) ---> CO2 (g) + 2H2O (g)
If you count them, everything adds up. There are the same number of atoms on the left as on the right.
That is the correct chemical equation.
Here is The Art of Balancing Instruction Manual, by none other than Takalah:

Before doing anything, check if it all adds up. If the same

number of atoms exist on both sides, then it's already balanced and
you're done.
If not, start your balancing with the atom that is combined with
another on both sides, and the one that has the most atoms. You
really do want to start with the most complex one. For instance, in
C2H5OH + O2 CO2 + H2O, you would start with H first, because it's
in a molecule with other atoms on both sides, and the numbers of
atoms (5 and 2) are greater than the other one that fits the first
criteria (C).
Leave the atoms that stand by themselves for last. Like in the
equation in the last rule, you would save O2 for last. Since changing
the coefficient for this only affects one atom, you can use it as a
"finishing touch", balancing the oxygens after all the other ones are
done, but without messing another atom up.
Don't change the molecular formula!!! As frustrating as some of
these problems can be at first, don't be tempted to change one little
number in some molecular formula just to make something balance.
Remember that changing the coefficient will just change the
number of particles that are involved in the reaction. Changing the
subscripts will change the whole molecule into something else. The
molecule is a unit. So don't do it!

Example:

Write balanced equations for the following:

Glucose (C6H12O6) reacts with oxygen gas to form carbon dioxide and
water.

Indium reacts with oxygen to make indium (III) oxide.

AgNO3 (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) ---> Ag2SO4 (s) + HNO3 (aq)
Answer

The unbalanced reaction is: C6H12O6 (s) + O2 (g) ---> CO2 (g) + H2O (g)
The most complicated atom is H, since it's in glucose and water, and
that the subscripts are the largest. Let's see; there are 12 on the
left and 2 on the right, so let's try multiplying right by 6:
C6H12O6 (s) + O2 (g) ---> CO2 (g) + 6H2O (g)
Now you move on to the next complicated atom; C, since it's in both
carbon dioxide and glucose. There are six on left, and one on right;
try multiplying right one by 6. You get:
C6H12O6 (s) + O2 (g) ---> 6CO2 (g) + 6H2O (g)
Everything is basically done now, you got have to finish it by
balancing oxygens using the O2 molecule. There's 6 on left; and
6x2+6 = 18 on right. (Remember that you have to multiply
coefficient by subscript to get number of atoms.) So there must be
12 atoms on right to balance it. Twelve oxygen atoms is 6 oxygen
molecules, so the final answer is:
C6H12O6 (s) + 6O2 (g) ---> 6CO2 (g) + 6H2O (g)

You have to remember the stuff you learned in the last part to do
this. Indium (III) oxide is In2O3. So the equation is:
In (s) + O2 (g) ---> In2O3 (g)
Start with the most complicated one, which is oxygen. Multiplying
left by three and right by two gives
In (s) + 3O2 (g) ---> 2In2O3 (g)
Now to balance In's, there are four total In's on right. So there must
be 4 In's in left. Answer is:

4In (s) + 3O2 (g) ---> 2In2O3 (g)

AgNO3 (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) ---> Ag2SO4 (s) + HNO3 (aq)

This is the hardest one yet. Oxygen is too hard to do right now,
since it's in all four. Let's start with Ag, by getting two on left:
2AgNO3 (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) ---> Ag2SO4 (s) + HNO3 (aq)
That changes the N to 2N. Looking at the right, we have only one N.
Let's multiply that one by 2 too.
2AgNO3 (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) ---> Ag2SO4 (s) + 2HNO3 (aq)
Now we get 2 H's on the right, but that's favorable, since we have 2
H's on left. In fact, if you find out how many oxygen's are on each
side, you gots ten, and that's your answer. Note that solving these
can be like a chain reaction; solving for one gets you how many of
another, then you balance that, and it goes on.

Stoichiometric Calculations
One thing to realize when doing any calculations is that moles and coefficients are interchangeable. Both
mean number of particles, or multiples thereof. So in 2A + 3B ---> 4C, it either means 2 particles of A
combine with 3 particles of B to make 4 particles of C, or 2 moles reacts with 3 moles to make 4 moles.
With that in mind, here is a simple problem.
Example:

The formation of water from hydrogen and oxygen gas is: 2H 2 (g) + O2 (g) --> 2H2O (l). What mass of water will form from 12.0 grams of hydrogen and
excess oxygen (assuming the reaction goes to completion?)
Answer
First what you must do in any of these problems is get all given masses
into moles. You are given 12.0 grams of hydrogen, let's see how many
moles that is:

12.0 g H2 x 1 mol / 2.02 g = 5.94 mol H2

So how much water is formed? According to the equation, for every 2
moles of hydrogen, 2 moles of water are produced, or in other words, a 1
to 1 ratio. So 5.94 moles of water will be formed. The question asks for
what mass, so we're not quite done yet.
5.94 mol H2O x 18.0 g / mol = 107. grams of H2O.

The "oxygen in excess" is important. We're assuming that there's tons of oxygen, enough to supply
whatever the hydrogen needs. If there was only .0000000000000000000001 moles of oxygen, 5.94 moles
of water obviously can't form.
Let's try one more of this type before moving on to LRs.
Example:

The newly discovered element Takalahium (symbol Tak; molecular mass =

411 g/mol) combines with oxygen to form Takalahium Oxide. The
unbalanced equation is:
Tak + O2 ---> Tak2O3
How many grams of Tak Oxide are formed when burning 8.00 kilograms of
Tak?
Answer
First and foremost, the balanced equation is needed. That would be:
4Tak + 3O2 ---> 2Tak2O3
Then convert all given masses to moles:
8.00 kg Tak = 8000 g x 1 mol / 411 g = 19.5 moles.
Since there are 2 Tak's for every 1 Tak Oxide, there must be half as many
moles of Tak Oxide, or 9.50 moles. You can also use DA to do the same
mole ratios.
Before you can get grams, you must first find the molar mass of Tak

Oxide, which is no problem:

Mass = 2 x 411 g + 3 x 16.0 g = 870 g/mol.
Then you find the mass:
9.50 moles x 870 g / 1 mol = 8260 grams = 8.26 kilograms.

In these last two problems, we always assumed that one of the reactants was in excess. This simplified
things, but it's often not the case in many reactions. You have given amounts of each reactant. So how do
you do this? Simple, just find out which out runs out first molewise. The one that does is called the limiting
reactant, or just LR. One quick example:
Example:

Tak + Asdf ---> TakAsdf

You are given 45.0 grams of Takalahium (411 g/mol) and 500. grams of
Asdfur (5620.5 g/mol). Find the limiting reactant in the formation of
Takalahium Asdfite.
Answer
The limiting reactant isn't necessarily the one with the smallest mass.
Remember that reactions look at number of particles, not at mass. So let's
get both of these values into moles:
45.0 g Tak x 1 mol / 411 g = .109 moles.
500.g Asdf x 1 mol / 5620.5 g = .0890 moles.
As both are being consumed, you'll see that Asdf is used up first.
Therefore it's the limiting reactant, even though there is over ten times as
much of it by mass.

Note that mole ratios are important. Let's say 2 Tak's become 1 Asdf. Then it becomes a little bit more than
just finding the bigger number, but not very harder. You start with one, say, Tak. Assume that it is the LR.
Then, according to the mole ratio, you would need at least half as much Asdf for Tak to become the LR. Do
you have a half? Well, one-half of .109 moles is about .05 something, and you do have that much. So if Asdf

isn't your LR, then Tak must be. (Of course if it was exactly equal to half, then you could use either one,
there would be no LR, and everything gets used up.)
What happens if you started with looking at Asdf? Well you need twice as much Asdf's. Twice .0890 is .17
something. You don't have that much Tak, therefore Tak is your LR, no matter how you look at it.
Once you find the LR, you can go ahead and finish the problem just like the others. So what's the
difference? Once you find the LR, you use that amount and throw away the other amount. So like in the
above example, you use the .0890 value, and forget about the .109. Of course, if they ask you to refer to
the original amount, such as how much reactant is left over, then you need to use it. But not for stoich.
Example:

In the previous example, how much Takalahium Asdfide is produced by

the reaction? And how much of each element is left over?
Answer
Since the Asdf was the limiting reactant, with .0890 moles, you use this
value for all remaining stoich problems. .109 moles is not how much Tak
reacts, it will be less than that. Since it's a one-to-one ratio, .0890 moles
of Tak will react with .0890 moles of Asdf to form .0890 moles of TakAsdf.
The question asks what mass was produced. That's easy:
Molar mass = 411 g/mol + 5620.5 g/mol = 6031.5 g/mol,
.0890 mol TakAsdf x 6031.5 g / mol = 537 grams of TakAsdf.
As to the second prompt, you know that .109 moles Tak was initially
present, and .0890 moles or Tak was consumed in reaction. A simple
subtraction and conversion, and there's your answer:
Moles left over = Moles initially there - Moles used up = .109 mol - .0890
mol = .020 mol.
.020 mol Tak x 411 g / mol = 8.22 g
As to the Asdf, all of it was used up, so there's 0 g left.

Percent Yield
One little thing. You can test the above stuff in a lab, like measuring out the reactants, and see if you get
the calculated amount of product. You probably won't get the exact number, but rather a number that's
below it. There could be many reasons for it, such as maybe the reaction doesn't go to completion, or
maybe there's impurities or something. The theoretical yield is how much you should get, according to

stoich. The actual yield is how much you actually get, determined in a lab. The percent yield is the ratio of
these two. The equation:

Yields are masswise. That is, how much you get is measured in kilograms, grams, mass.
Note that the percent yield will always be under 100%. The theoretical yield is the max you can get. (You're
not going to get more substance than calculations predict.)
Now it's time for the big example, that ties together balancing equations, stoich, LRs, and percent yield.
Example:

Here's the combustion of ethane (not balanced):

C2H6 + O2 ---> CO2 + H2O
32.0 g of ethane was burned with 15.0 grams of oxygen gas, and 10.8
grams of carbon dioxide was formed. Calculate the percent yield of carbon
dioxide.
Answer
Before doing anything, get the equation balanced!
2C2H6 + 7O2 ---> 4CO2 + 6H2O
(If you didn't know how to do that, review the rules of balancing. I do
have a 20 megabyte limit here!)
Now to convert all given masses into moles:
32.0 g ethane x 1 mol / 30.0 g = 1.07 mol
15.0 g oxygen x 1 mol / 32.0 g = .469 mol
Which one is the LR? Let's look at ethane first. If ethane is indeed the LR,
then the moles oxygen reacted would be:
1.07 mol ethane x 7 mol oxygen / 2 mol ethane = 3.74 moles oxygen
needed.
Since the oxygen will have run out first, oxygen is the limiting reactant.

Disregard the 1.07 mol.

Now to find the theoretical yield. 4 moles of carbon dioxide will form from
7 moles of oxygen:
.469 mol oxygen x 4 mol CO2 / 7 mol oxygen = .268 moles.
Now to get the mass:
.268 moles x 44.0 g / mol = 11.8 grams.
That's how much you should get. But experiment shows that you get only
10.8 grams. Finding theoretical yield:
10.8 grams / 11.8 grams x 100 % = 91.5%

Solutions to Stoichiometry Problems

1a) How many moles of chlorine gas (Cl2) would react with 5 moles of sodium (Na)
according to the following chemical equation? (Balance equation.)
2Na + Cl2 --> 2NaCl
[5 mol Na][1 mol Cl2] = 2.5 mol Cl2
[2 mol Na]
1b) Using the equation (after it is balanced) above, determine the amount of product that
can be produced from 24.7 g Na.
[24.7g Na][1 mol Na][2 mol NaCl][58g NaCl ] = 62 g NaCl
[23 g Na ][2 mol Na ][1 mol NaCl]
1c) How many molecules of product would be produced from 24.7g Na?
[24.7g Na][1 mol Na][2 mol NaCl][6.023 E23 molecules NaCl ] = 6.5 E23 NaCl
[23 g Na ][2 mol Na ][1 mol NaCl
]
molecules
________________________________________________________________________
__________
2a) In the reaction 2C8H18 + 25O2 --> 16CO2 + 18 H2O, the ratio of volumes of O2 to
CO2 is
25:16

2b) If 27.3g of C8H18 are combusted, what mass of water will be produced?
[27.3 g C8H18][1 mol C8H18 ][18 mol H2O][18g H2O ] = 37.8 g H2O
[114g C8H18 ][2 mol C8H18][1 mol H2O]
2c) How many molecules of CO2 will be produced?
[27.3 g C8H18][1 mol C8H18 ][16mol CO2 ][6.023 E23 molecules CO2 ] = 1.15 E24
[114g C8H18 ][2 mol C8H18][1 mol CO2]
molecules CO2
2d) How many atoms of H are in 2 mol of C8H18?
[2 mol C8H18][6.023 E23 molecules C8H18][18 atoms H
[1 mol C8H18
][1 molecule C8H18 ]

] = 2.2 E25 atoms

H

2e) What is the percentage, by mass, of the H in 2 mol of C8H18?

[2 mol C8H18][6.023 E23 molecules C8H18][114 amu C8H18 ] = 1.37 E26 amu
[1 mol C8H18
][1 molecule C8H18 ]
C8H18
[2.2 E25 atoms H][1amu H ] = 2.2 E25 amu H
[1 atom H]
2.2 E25 amu H * 100 = 16% H
1.37 E26 amu C8H18

Stoichiometry is a section of chemistry that involves using relationships between reactants and/or products in a
chemical reaction to determine desired quantitative data. In Greek,stoikhein means element and metron means
measure, so stoichiometry literally translated means the measure of elements. In order to use stoichiometry to run
calculations about chemical reactions, it is important to first understand the relationships that exist between products
and reactants and why they exist, which require understanding how to balanced reactions.

Balancing
In chemistry, chemical reactions are frequently written as an equation, using chemical symbols. The reactants are
displayed on the left side of the equation and the products are shown on the right, with the separation of either a
single or double arrow that signifies the direction of the reaction. The significance of single and double arrow is
important when discussing solubility constants, but we will not go into detail about it in this module. To balance an
equation, it is necessary that there are the same number of atoms on the left side of the equation as the right. One
can do this by raising the coefficients.

Reactants to Products
A chemical equation is like a recipe for a reaction so it displays all the ingredients or terms of a chemical reaction. It
includes the elements, molecules, or ions in the reactants and in the products as well as their states, and the
proportion for how much of each particle is create relative to one another, through the stoichiometric coefficient. The
following equation demonstrates the typical format of a chemical equation:

2Na(s)+2HCl(aq)2NaCl(aq)+H2(g)(1)
In the above equation, the elements present in the reaction are represented by their chemical symbols. Based on
the Law of Conservation of Mass, which states that matter is neither created nor destroyed in a chemical reaction,
every chemical reaction has the same elements in its reactants and products, though the elements they are paired up
with often change in a reaction. In this reaction, sodium ( Na), hydrogen (H), and chloride (Cl) are the elements
present in both reactants, so based on the law of conservation of mass, they are also present on the product side of
the equations. Displaying each element is important when using the chemical equation to convert between elements.

Stoichiometric Coefficients
In a balanced reaction, both sides of the equation have the same number of elements. The stoichiometric coefficient
is the number written in front of atoms, ion and molecules in a chemical reaction to balance the number of each
element on both the reactant and product sides of the equation. Though the stoichiometric coefficients can be
fractions, whole numbers are frequently used and often preferred. This stoichiometric coefficients are useful since
they establish the mole ratio between reactants and products. In the balanced equation:

2Na(s)+2HCl(aq)2NaCl(aq)+H2(g)(2)
we can determine that 2 moles of HCl will react with 2 moles of Na(s) to form 2 moles of NaCl(aq) and 1 mole
of H2(g). If we know how many moles of

Na we start out with, we can use the ratio of 2 moles of NaCl to 2 moles of
Na to determine how many moles of NaClwere produced or we can use the ration of 1 mole of H2 to 2 moles
of Na to convert to NaCl. This is known as the coefficient factor. The balanced equation makes it possible to
convert information about one reactant or product to quantitative data about another element. Understanding this is
essential to solving stoichiometric problems.

Example 1
Lead (IV) hydroxide and sulfuric acid react as shown below. Balance the reaction.

Pb(OH)4+H2SO4Pb(SO4)2+H2O
SOLUTION
Start by counting the number of atoms of each element.
UNBALANCED
Element

Reactant (# of atoms)

Product (# of atoms)

Pb

The reaction is not balanced; the reaction has 16 reactant atoms and only 14 product atoms and does not obey the
conservation of mass principle. Stoichiometric coefficients must be added to make the equation balanced. In this
example, there are only one sulfur atom present on the reactant side, so a coefficient of 2 should be added in front

of H2SO4 to have an equal number of sulfur on both sides of the equation. Since there are 12 oxygen on the
reactant side and only 9 on the product side, a 4 coefficient should be added in front of

H2O where there is a

deficiency of oxygen. Count the number of elements now present on either side of the equation. Since the numbers
are the same, the equation is now balanced.

Pb(OH)4+2H2SO4Pb(SO4)2+4H2O
BALANCED
Element

Reactant (# of atoms)

Product (# of atoms)

Pb

12

12

Balancing reactions involves finding least common multiples between numbers of elements present on both sides of
the equation. In general, when applying coefficients, add coefficients to the molecules or unpaired elements last.
A balanced equation ultimately has to satisfy two conditions.
1.
2.

The numbers of each element on the left and right side of the equation must be equal.
The charge on both sides of the equation must be equal. It is especially important to pay attention to charge
when balancing redox reactions.

Stoichiometry and Balanced Equations

In stoichiometry, balanced equations make it possible to compare different elements through the stoichiometric
factor discussed earlier. This is the mole ratio between two factors in a chemical reaction found through the ratio of
stoichiometric coefficients. Here is a real world example to show how stoichiometric factors are useful.

Example 2
There are 12 party invitations and 20 stamps. Each party invitation needs 2 stamps to be sent. How many party
invitations can be sent?
SOLUTION
The equation for this can be written as

I+2SIS2
where

I represents invitations,
S represents stamps, and
IS2 represents the sent party invitations consisting of one invitation and two stamps.

Based on this, we have the ratio of 2 stamps for 1 sent invite, based on the balanced equation.

Invitations

Stamps

Party Invitations Sent

In this example are all the reactants (stamps and invitations) used up? No, and this is normally the case with
chemical reactions. There is often excess of one of the reactants. The limiting reagent, the one that runs out first,
prevents the reaction from continuing and determines the maximum amount of product that can be formed.

Example 3
What is the limiting reagent in this example?
SOLUTION
Stamps, because there was only enough to send out invitations, whereas there were enough invitations for 12
complete party invitations. Aside from just looking at the problem, the problem can be solved
using stoichiometric factors.
12 I x (1IS2/1I) = 12 IS2 possible
20 S x (1IS2/2S) = 10 IS2 possible
When there is no limiting reagent because the ratio of all the reactants caused them to run out at the same time, it is
known asstoichiometric proportions.

Types of Reactions
There are 6 basic types of reactions.

Combustion: Combustion is the formation of CO2 and H2O from the reaction of a chemical and O2
Combination (synthesis): Combination is the addition of 2 or more simple reactants to form a complex
product.

Decomposition: Decomposition is when complex reactants are broken down into simpler products.
Single Displacement: Single displacement is when an element from on reactant switches with an element

of the other to form two new reactants.

Double Displacement: Double displacement is when two elements from on reactants switched with two

elements of the other to form two new reactants.

Acid-Base: Acid- base reactions are when two reactants form salts and water.

Molar Mass
Before applying stoichiometric factors to chemical equations, you need to understand molar mass. Molar mass is a useful
chemical ratio between mass and moles. The atomic mass of each individual element as listed in the periodic table established
this relationship for atoms or ions. For compounds or molecules, you have to take the sum of the atomic mass times the number
of each atom in order to determine the molar mass

Example 4
What is the molar mass of H2O?
SOLUTION

Molar mass=2(1.00794g/mol)+1(15.9994g/mol)=18.01528g/mol
Using molar mass and coefficient factors, it is possible to convert mass of reactants to mass of products or vice
versa.

Example 5: Combustion of Propane

Propane (C3H8) burns in this reaction:

C3H8+5O24H2O+3CO2
If 200 g of propane is burned, how many g of H2O is produced?
SOLUTION
Steps to getting this answer: Since you cannot calculate from grams of reactant to grams of products you must
convert from grams of C3H8 to moles of C3H8 then from moles of C3H8 to moles of H2O. Then convert from moles
of H2O to grams of H2O.

Step 1:

200 g C3H8 is equal to 4.54 mol C3H8 .

Step 2:

Since there is a ratio of 4:1 H2O to C3H8, for every 4.54 mol C3H8 there are 18.18 mol H2O.

Step 3:

Convert 18.18 mol H2O to g H2O. 18.18 mol H2O is equal to 327.27 g H2O.

Variation in Stoichiometric Equations

Almost every quantitative relationship can be converted into a ratio that can be useful in data analysis.

Density
Density () is calculated as mass/volume. This ratio can be useful in determining the volume of a solution, given the
mass or useful in finding the mass given the volume. In the latter case, the inverse relationship would be used.
Volume x (Mass/Volume) = Mass
Mass x (Volume/Mass) = Volume

Percent Mass
Percents establish a relationship as well. A percent mass states how many grams of a mixture are of a certain
element or molecule. The percent X% states that of every 100 grams of a mixture, X grams are of the stated element
or compound. This is useful in determining mass of a desired substance in a molecule.

Example 6
A substance is 5% carbon by mass. If the total mass of the substance is 10 grams, what is the mass of carbon in the
sample? How many moles of carbon are there?
SOLUTION
10 g sample x (5 g carbon/100 g sample) = 0.5 g carbon
0.5g carbon x (1 mol carbon/12.011g carbon) = 0.0416 mol carbon

Molarity
Molarity (moles/L) establishes a relationship between moles and liters. Given volume and molarity, it is possible to calculate
mole or use moles and molarity to calculate volume. This is useful in chemical equations and dilutions.

Example 7
How much 5 M stock solution is needed to prepare 100 mL of 2 M solution?
SOLUTION
100 mL of dilute solution (1 L/1000 mL)(2 mol/1L solution)(1 L stock solution/5 mol solution)(1000 ml stock solution/1L
stock solution) = 40 mL stock solution.
These ratios of molarity, density, and mass percent are useful in complex examples ahead.

Determining Empirical Formulas

An empirical formula can be determined through chemical stoichiometry by determining which elements are present in the
molecule and in what ratio. The ratio of elements is determined by comparing the number of moles of each element present.

Example 8: Combustion of Organic Molecules

1.000 gram of an organic molecule burns completely in the presence of excess oxygen. It yields 0.0333 mol of
CO2 and 0.599 g of H2O. What is the empirical formula of the organic molecule?
SOLUTION
This is a combustion reaction. The problem requires that you know that organic molecules consist of some
combination of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen elements. With that in mind, write the chemical equation out, replacing
unknown numbers with variables. Do not worry about coefficients here.

CxHyOz(g)+O2(g)CO2(g)+H2O(g)
Since all the moles of C and H in CO2 and H2O, respectively have to have came from the 1 gram sample of unknown,
start by calculating how many moles of each element were present in the unknown sample.
0.0333mol CO2 (1mol C/ 1mol CO2) = 0.0333mol C in unknown
0.599g H2O (1mol H2O/ 18.01528g H2O)(2mol H/ 1mol H2O) = 0.0665 mol H in unknown
Calculate the final moles of oxygen by taking the sum of the moles of oxygen in CO 2 and H2O. This will give you the
number of moles from both the unknown organic molecule and the O 2 so you must subtract the moles of oxygen
transferred from the O2.
Moles of oxygen in CO2:
0.0333mol CO2 (2mol O/1mol CO2) = 0.0666 mol O
Moles of oxygen in H2O:
0.599g H2O (1mol H2O/18.01528 g H2O)(1mol O/1mol H2O) = 0.0332 mol O
Using the Law of Conservation, we know that the mass before a reaction must equal the mass after a reaction. With
this we can use the difference of the final mass of products and initial mass of the unknown organic molecule to
determine the mass of the O2 reactant.
0.333mol CO2(44.0098g CO2/ 1mol CO2) = 1.466g CO2
1.466g CO2 + 0.599g H2O - 1.000g unknown organic = 1.065g O2
Moles of oxygen in O2

1.065g O2(1mol O2/ 31.9988g O2)(2mol O/1mol O2) = 0.0666mol O

Moles of oxygen in unknown
(0.0666mol O + 0.0332 mol O) - 0.0666mol O = 0.0332 mol O
Construct a mole ratio for C, H, and O in the unknown and divide by the smallest number.
(1/0.0332)(0.0333mol C : 0.0665mol H : 0.0332 mol O) => 1mol C: 2 mol H: 1 mol O
From this ratio, the empirical formula is calculated to be CH2O.

Determining Molecular Formulas

To determine a molecular formula, first determine the empirical formula for the compound as shown in the section
above and then determine the molecular mass experimentally. Next, divide the molecular mass by the molar mass of
the empirical formula (calculated by finding the sum the total atomic masses of all the elements in the empirical
formula). Multiply the subscripts of the molecular formula by this answer to get the molecular formula.

Example 9
In the example above, it was determined that the unknown molecule had an empirical formula of CH2O.
1. Find the molar mass of the empircal formula CH2O.
12.011g C + (1.008 g H) * (2 H) + 15.999g O = 30.026 g/mol CH2O
2. Determine the molecular mass experimentally. For our compound, it is 120.056 g/mol.
3. Divide the experimentally determined molecular mass by the mass of the empirical formula.
(120.056 g/mol) / (30.026 g/mol) = 3.9984
4. Since 3.9984 is very close to four, it is possible to safely round up and assume that there was a slight error in the
experimentally determined molecular mass. If the answer is not close to a whole number, there was either an error in
the calculation of the empirical formula or a large error in the determination of the molecular mass.
5. Multiply the ratio from step 4 by the subscripts of the empirical formula to get the molecular formula.
CH2O * 4 = ?
C: 1 * 4 = 4
H: 2 * 4 = 8
O1*4=4

CH2O * 4 = C4H8O4
6. Check your result by calculating the molar mass of the molecular formula and comparing it to the experimentally
determined mass.
molar mass of C4H8O4= 120.104 g/mol
experimentally determined mass = 120.056 g/mol
% error = | theoretical - experimental | / theoretical * 100%
% error = | 120.104 g/mol - 120.056 g/mol | / 120.104 g/mol * 100%
% error = 0.040 %

Example 10: Complex Stoichiometry Problem

An amateur welder melts down two metals to make an alloy that is 45% copper by mass and 55% iron(II) by mass.
The alloy's density is 3.15 g/L. One liter of alloy completely fills a mold of volume 1000 cm 3. He accidently breaks off a
1.203 cm3 piece of the homogenous mixture and sweeps it outside where it reacts with acid rain over years.
Assuming the acid reacts with all the iron(II) and not with teh copper, how many grams of H2(g) are released into the
atmosphere because of the amateur's carelessness? (Note that the situation is fiction.)
SOLUTION
Step 1: Write a balanced equation after determining the products and reactants. In this situation, since we assume
copper does not react, the reactants are only H+(aq) and Fe(s). The given product is H2(g) and based on knowledge
of redox reactions, the other product must be Fe2+(aq).

Fe(s)+2H+(aq)H2(g)+Fe2+(aq)
Step 2: Write down all the given information
Alloy density = (3.15g alloy/ 1L alloy)
x grams of alloy = 45% copper = (45g Cu(s)/100g alloy)
x grams of alloy = 55% iron(II) = (55g Fe(s)/100g alloy)
1 liter alloy = 1000cm3 alloy
alloy sample = 1.203cm3 alloy
Step 3: Answer the question of what is being asked. The question asks how much H2(g) was produced. You are
expected to solve for the amount of product formed.

Step 4: Start with the compound you know the most about and use given ratios to convert it to the desired
compound.
Convert the given amount of alloy reactant to solve for the moles of Fe(s) reacted.
1.203cm3 alloy(1liter alloy/1000cm3 alloy)(3.15g alloy/1liter alloy)(55g Fe(s)/100g alloy)(1mol Fe(s)/55.8g Fe(s))=3.74
x 10-5 mol Fe(s)

Make sure all the units cancel out to give you moles of Fe(s). The above conversion involves using
multiple stoichiometric relationships from density, percent mass, and molar mass.
The balanced equation must now be used to convert moles of Fe(s) to moles of H2(g). Remember that the balanced
equation'scoeffiecients state the stoichiometric factor or mole ratio of reactants and products.
3.74 x 10-5 mol Fe (s) (1mol H2(g)/1mol Fe(s)) = 3.74 x 10-5 mol H2(g)
Step 5: Check units
The question asks for how many grams of H2(g) were released so the moles of H2(g) must still be converted to grams
using the molar mass of H2(g). Since there are two H in each H2, its molar mass is twice that of a single H atom.
molar mass = 2(1.00794g/mol) = 2.01588g/mol
3.74 x 10-5 mol H2(g) (2.01588g H2(g)/1mol H2 (g)) = 7.53 x 10-5 g H2(g) released

Problems
Stoichiometry and balanced equations make it possible to use one piece of information to calculate another. There are countless
ways stoichiometry can be used in chemistry and everyday life. Try and see if you can use what you learned to solve the
following problems.
1) Why are the following equations not considered balanced?
a.

H2O(l)H2(g)+O2(g)

b.

Zn(s)+Au+(aq)Zn2+(aq)+Ag(s)
2) Hydrochloric acid reacts with a solid chunk of aluminum to produce hydrogen gas and aluminum ions. Write the balanced
chemical equation for this reaction.
3) Given a 10.1M stock solution, how many mL must be added to water to produce 200 mL of 5M solution?

4) If 0.502g of methane gas react with 0.27g of oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and water, what is the limiting reagent and how
many moles of water are produced? The unbalanced equation is provided below.

CH4(g)+O2(g)CO2(g)+H2O(l)
5) A 0.777g sample of an organic compound is burned completely. It produces 1.42g CO 2 and 0.388g H2O. Knowing
that all the carbon and hydrogen atoms in CO 2 and H2O came from the 0.777g sample, what is the empirical formula
of the organic compound?