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Journal of Economic

North-Holland

Psychology

13 (1992) 153-166

153

Career decisions of dual military career


couples: A multidisciplinary
analysis
of the U.S. Army
Hyder Lakhani
and Paul A. Gade
U.S.Army Re.wurcl~ Institute for the Behu~%mzl ad
Received

May IO, 198X: accepted

November

*
Social Sciences, Alexandria,

USA

4, 1991

Dual career or two earner couples have been a significant and a growing component
of both the
civilian and the military labor force. Further. the number of dual military career couples has
increased as the number of women in the U.S. Armed Forces has increased.
In this paper, we
hypothesized
that career intentions
of these couples were interdependent
and a function of
variables from economics, psychology, and sociology. Results, based on the 1985 U.S. Army Dual
Career Survey, supported
this hypothesis. Soldiers intentions to remain in the US. Army were
positively related to perceived spouses intention to stay in the Army, family income, family size,
career commitment,
and job satisfaction.
Policy implications of these results are discussed in the
context of military downsizing.

1. Introduction

In the last few years, considerable


progress has been made in
steering neoclassical economic theory towards a multidisciplinary
theory of behavioral
economics.
Simon (1986) notes that economics,
without psychological
and sociological research, is a one bladed scissors. Sen (1985: 92-93, 99) suggests that psychological variables such
as commitment
involve, in a very real sense, counterpreferential
* The authors are a Principal Scientist and Chief, Personnel Utilization Technical Area, U.S.
Army Research
Institute (AR]), Alexandria,
Virginia. The views. opinions,
and/or
findings
contained
in this paper are the authors and should not be construed
as the official position of
ARI, or an official U.S. Department
of the Army position.
policy, or decision.
unless so
designated
by other official documentation.
The authors are grateful to Dr. Martha Teplitzky for
comments on an earlier draft.
Corresponderzcr to: H. Lakhani, U.S. Army Research Institute for the Behavioral and Social
Sciences, PERI-RP.
5001 Eisenhower
Avenue, Alexandria,
VA, 22333, USA.

0167.4870/92/$05.00

% 1992 - Elsevier

Science

Publishers

B.V. All rights reserved

choice and thus, it drives a wedge between personal choice and


personal welfare. Frank (1989) provides marriage as an example of
the paradox
created
by the commitment
variable.
He notes that
marriage
requires substantial
investment
and its dissolution
brings
substantial
and disproportionate
penalties. The dissolution
problem
could, however, be solved by writing a detailed pre-nuptial
marriage
contract
that would levy substantial
penalties on whichever
of the
partners attempted
to leave. In modern western societies, however,
few such contracts are written because socio-psychological
values such
as commitment,
trust, and love swamp the economic values.
We hypothesized
that career decision-making
by dual U.S. Army
career couples, i.e., couples where both partners are soldiers, would
be a joint rather than an individual
decision-making
process. We
further hypothesized
that the career decisions of dual U.S. Army
career soldiers were likely to be based largely on psychosocial
variables such as family commitment
and family welfare rather than on
individual economic variables affecting the welfare of the decisionmaker. In addition to economic wellbeing, family welfare, as used in
this paper, refers to the sum total of family happiness derived from
commitment,
job satisfaction,
life styles, values, beliefs, and culture.
As such, it is analogous to the concept of a multiple-utility
function
(Etzioni 1986). Hence, even if the family economic welfare associated
with career change of an individual were lower, the aggregate family
welfare might be high enough to accept the change.

2. Background

and literature

review

In the 1980s the U.S. Army dual career couples comprised approximately six percent of the total active force of about 775,000. About
8% of the married officers and 12% of the married enlisted soldiers
were in dual career marriages. The Army, which is 11% female, has
86,000 women in total. Women soldiers have been more likely to have
a soldier as a marital partner than are men soldiers (Moskos 1990).
For example, Teplitzky
et al. (1988) report that 63% of married
enlisted women and 68% of married women officers were in dual
Army career marriages.
Although
the U.S. Armys joint domicile policy and program of
co-locating
husbands and wives who are serving on active duty may

H. Lakhuni, P.A. Gade / Career decisions

155

have contributed
to the growth of dual Army career couples, this
program is probably more crucial to couple retention than to couple
accession or formation.
Marsh (1990) noted that, starting with the
fiscal year 1990, the U.S. Army can expect to lose an annual average
of more than 5,000 noncommissioned
officers with from 7 to 18 years
of service. The current official U.S. target is to reduce the total Army
strength by 25% by 1995. This downsizing may differentially
affect
dual Army career couples if, as we hypothesize,
couples make joint
career decisions. If this is so, the Army may well lose both service
members if one of the soldiers is forced out or induced to leave by
proposed incentive programs. Further, the loss of dual career couples
will adversely impact women soldiers since the vast majority of married women soldiers are in dual Army career marriages.
The available scientific literature on dual military career couples is
mostly restricted
to variables of a single discipline, namely, that of
social psychology (Teplitzky et al. 1988). The literature
in economics
concentrates
only on the economic
variables such as earnings of
individual soldiers. For example, Warner and Goldberg (1984) related
retention to the Annualized
Cost of Leaving (ACOL) the U.S. Navy.
A limitation of this model is that it considers only the earnings of an
individual soldier instead of the more appropriate
family earnings.
Hogan (1990) included earnings of both the members of the family but
excluded socio-psychological
variables. Consequently,
policy decisionmakers are limited in their options for modifying existing policies or
adopting new policies that can increase retention.
Our research reported here attempted
to overcome this limitation by incorporating
family earnings and other socio-psychological
variables in our analyses.

3. Method
The retention intention of dual Army career couples implies career
commitment
- a psychological
variable. Typically, psychologists
consider intention to be an intervening variable between the antecedent
conditions
for behavioral
action and the actual behavior.
As an
intervening
variable, intention
is usually highly correlated
with the
respective behavioral outcome. For example, Motowidlo and Lawton
(1984) correlated
the retention intentions and actual retention behav-

ior of married as well as single enlisted soldiers in the U.S. Army. The
Beta coefficients of retention behavior on retention intention for their
two Army samples of enlisted soldiers were 0.59 and 0.61. Johnston
(1988) has shown similar results for U.S. Army junior officers. Therefore, career intention
appears to be a good proxy variable for the
actual retention behavior of officers and enlisted soldiers. An advantage of using retention intention (ex ante) instead of actual retention
behavior (ex post) data from a policy perspective
is that the Army
management
may be able to intervene
to change the intentions
of
those who might be negative toward or indecisive about an Army
career.
We expected several psychological,
sociological, and economic variables to influence
the career intentions
of dual U.S. Army career
soldiers. More specifically, we hypothesized
that the career intentions
of a soldier primarily would be a function of the soldiers perceived
career intention of his/her
spouse. The remaining psychological variables consisted of job satisfaction and job tenure. Increases in either
of these variables tends to enhance organizational
commitment
which,
in turn, tends to enhance retention intention.
The sociological variables were family happiness and family size.
Wilenskys (1960) theory of spillover between work life and family life
provided the theoretical
rationale for including the family happiness
variable.
The three economic variables were: family earnings, payments for
home mortgages or rents, and car loan payments.
The hypothesized
relationships
of the explanatory
variables
referred to above with the dependent
variable of Army soldier career
intention were as follows:
Based on the theory of
(a> Perception of spouses career intention.
interdependent
utility functions, we expected to find that when the
perceived
retention
intentions
of ones spouse are high, ones own
retention intention will be high as well. The interdependence
hypothesis is based on the growth of human capital due to a commonality
of
interests (Benham 19741. For example, physicians are more likely to
marry physicians,
perhaps
to expand their knowledge
for mutual
benefit. The U.S. Armys joint domicile program of co-location helps
to foster this interdependent
relationship.
The joint domicile program
of the Army does not help co-locate all dual career couples. Segal

H. Lakhani,

P.A. Gadr

/ Career deci.sions

(1986) noted that 38% of Army dual-service


proved for joint domicile in 1984.

couples

157

were

not ap-

(b)

Family earnings.
An increase in family earnings was expected to
increase the probability of making the Army a career for both husband and wife due to an increase in family economic welfare brought
about by the combined
military compensation
of the dual career
couple (Lakhani 1988). Based on Hogans work on the family ACOL
model (Hogan 19901, we also hypothesized
that an increase in either a
soldiers own earnings/ income or a spouses earnings/ income would
tend to increase retention probability.
(c)

Mortgage or rent payments.


An increase in mortgage or rent
payment was expected to reduce the probability of staying in the Army
since these payments indicated an increased cost of living. The rents
or mortgages were likely to be higher in remote U.S. Army locations
where the supply of reasonably-priced
housing is limited because of
inadequate
demand. Furthermore,
soldiers owning houses were not
likely to accumulate
equity in their houses because . . . half of all
military members move every two years, and many move more frequently . . . (Vernez and Zellman 1987). Hence, the increase in equity
was likely to be more than offset by the closing costs associated with
any purchases and sales of houses due to these relocations.
(d)

Car payments.

We hypothesized
that an increase in car payments would tend to be associated with an increased probability
of
retaining dual career soldiers since these payments, presumably,
reflect an increase in economic well-being
associated
with the U.S.
Army service. Most of the cars financed by these soldiers are likely to
be relatively new cars. This hypothesis is based on the institutional
framework of car financing in the United States where cars that are
older than seven years are rarely financed. For example, the National
Automobile
Dealers Association
(1988) reference
book used by car
financing agencies does not list values of cars older than seven years.
(e)

Number of children.
Having a greater number of children in the
family was expected to induce a soldier to have a greater propensity
for staying in the Army because of the family-related
subsidized
programs provided by the U.S. Army (Smith 1988). These programs

include day care centers, library services, Department


of Defense
Dependents
Schools in Europe and Section 6 schools in the Continental United States, quality health care programs, child development
services, exceptional
family member
assistance
program,
and Post
Exchanges and commissaries.
( f > Years of serrice.
An increase in the number of years of service
completed
by a soldier was hypothesized
to be associated with increased retention intentions. Smith (1988) noted that increased tenure,
as reflected in the years of service, increased organizational
commitment, which, in turn, increased career intentions
in mid-career
soldiers. Increased years of service also results in the golden handcuffs
of accrued but not yet vested retirement
benefits.
Based on Wilenskys (19601 theory of spillover
( g > Family happiness.
of work life and family life, increased family happiness was hypothesized to be associated with an increased probability of staying in the
military service. This model has received empirical support in civilian
(Lieu et al. 1990) and military research (Lakhani 1989).
Job satisfaction,
as an indicator
of organiza(h) Job satisfaction.
tional commitment,
was expected to be correlated
with an increased
likelihood of staying in the Army. This hypothesis has been empirically supported
by the work of Motowidlo
and Lawton (1984) and
Smith (1988) for enlisted soldiers.

4. Data
To help understand
the career decision-making
processes of dual
career couples better, the U.S. Army Research Institute conducted
a
survey of dual career officers and enlisted personnel
in 1985. Five
hundred and ninety-five dual Army career soldiers were sampled from
an administrative
list of all dual Army career couples assigned to each
of nine major Army installations in the United States. The sample was
limited to those couples where both husband and wife were assigned
to the same post and unmarried cohibiters were excluded. Most of the
installations
where the respondents
were located were in remote
places where the supply of housing was relatively limited. A survey

H. Lukhuni,
Table 1
Descriptive

statistics

of key variables

Variable

N = X5; Male = 47; Female


U.S. Army

Research

15)

for the U.S. Army


Mean

Retention intention of
respondent
Perceived spouses
career intention
Family income ($/month)
Own income
Spouses income
Mortgage or rent ($/month)
Car payment(s) ($/month)
Number of children
Years of service
Family happiness
Job satisfaction

Source:

P.A. Gudr / Career decisions

Min.

Max.

SD

0.5

0.5

0.6
2,584
1,31Y
1,217
461
259
0.6
8.5
3
0.6

6,763
3,404
3,404
2,332
767
3
2)
5

0.5
1,ll~S
586
569
442
lhl
0.9
5.2
1
0.5

0
0

= 38.
Institute,

Dual Army Couple

Survey (10X5).

instrument comprising over 150 questions was administered


personally
by an interviewer to each soldier in each dual Army career marriage
in the sample.
Economic
data were only available for a smaller sample of 89
respondents.
They included 68 enlisted soldiers, 13 active Army officers, and 8 officers in the Reserve Component.
The deletion of three
respondents
who had missing values and the deletion of one out of
range respondent,
who claimed to have had 67 years of active military
service, reduced the sample size from 89 to 85. Descriptive statistics,
reported in table 1, reveal that the values of the variables are realistic.
Comparison of the smaller sample of 85 with the larger sample of 595
in the Teplitzky et al. (1988) study confirmed
that the two samples
were comparable.
For example, the average years of service for male
soldiers in the larger sample at 9.06 is comparable
with 8.5 in our
smaller sample. Approximately
two-thirds of the sample were soldiers
whose spouses were also included in the sample. The development
of
some of the complex variables is discussed below.
The dependent
variable, career intention of the respondent,
was
developed from the soldiers response to the question: What are your
career intentions
at the present time ? Response alternatives
varied
from: I will stay in the Army until retirement
to I will definitely

leave before the end of present enlistment/obligation


along a sevenpoint scale. The responses to the questions were given independently
by each person in each of the dual Army career couple. We defined
career-oriented
soldiers as those who responded:
I will stay in the
Army until retirement
or I will stay after completion
of my current
enlistment/
obligation, but am undecided
about staying until retirement. Soldiers who responded with one of the five other alternatives
were considered
to be non career-oriented.
Career-oriented
soldiers
were scored as 1 and non career-oriented
soldiers scored as 0 on the
dummy variable constructed
for career-orientation.
Since the dependent variable was binary, a non-linear
probit model was used for the
analyses rather than an ordinary least squares regression
to avoid
biased and inconsistent
estimates (Amemiya 198 1).
The psychological
predictor of perceived spouses career intention
was developed from the soldiers response to the question: What are
your spouses career intentions
at the present
time?. The seven
rcsponsc alternatives
varied from (s)he will stay in the Army until
retirement
to (s)he will definitely leave before the end of present
enlistment obligation. Soldiers who rcspondcd:
(s)he will stay in the
Army until retirement,
or (s)he will stay after completion
of enlistment/ obligation, but (was) undecided about staying until retirement
were assumed to have pcrceivcd that their spouses were carecr-oriented. Those who answered otherwise were considered
to perceive
their spouses as non career-oriented.
The two career commitment
variables were job tenure and job
satisfaction.
The former was simply the number of years of service
completed
by the respondent.
The affective job satisfaction
variable
was measured by a job satisfaction scale developed by Teplitzky et al.
(1988). This job satisfaction
index was based on responses
to five
questions dealing with a soldiers feelings related to work. The five
questions asked if the soldier was: (i) successful in her/his work, (ii) if
s/he thought the work s/he was doing was important, (iii) if the work
was satisfying, (iv) if s/he thought s/he was doing her/his
best, and
(v) if the work was interesting or boring. Responses were combined to
obtain the following five-point increasing scale of job satisfaction: very
dissatisfied = I, dissatisfied = 2, neither satisfied nor dissatisfied = 3,
satisfied = 4 and very satisfied = 5. The two upper values of the
consolidated
scale, scores of 4 and 5, were re-coded by us as a dummy
variable equal to 1; the two lower values of the scale were re-coded 0.

H. Lakhani,

P.A. Gadr

/ Career decisiom

161

Soldiers with the middle value of 3 were considered


to be indifferent
with respect to job satisfaction and were excluded from the analysis.
The two sociological variables were family size and family happiness. The family size variable was denoted simply by the number of
children of the respondent.
The family happiness variable was measured by using the family happiness scale developed by Teplitzky et al.
(1988). The 10 items in this scale asked, for example, about the extent
to which the respondents
family life was: happy, enjoyable, worried,
important, satisfying, and successful. The responses were recorded on
a five-point Likert scale and varied from very sad = 1, to very happy =
5. Responses to the IO-item scale were combined on a five-point scale
(Teplitzky et al. 1988).
The three economic variables were family earnings, mortgage or
rent payments,
and car payments. The family earnings variable included the sum of gross (prior to taxes and other deductions) monthly
pay of both members of the couple. These self-reported
data for
income of individual soldiers were verified for accuracy by comparing
them with the information
in the U.S. Army pay tables. These tables
provided gross pay, including allowances, given the pay grades and
years of service. The mortgage or rent payment variable was the
monthly mortgage payment (which includes PIT1 i.e., principal, interest, real estate taxes, and home insurance) for home owners and gross
monthly rents for the tenants. The car payments variable was the
monthly payment for one or more cars owned by the couple. Although
the car payments variable excluded soldiers who did not own cars or
those who paid cash for them, we did not consider this to be a serious
problem because no soldiers were eliminated from the analysis for not
having reported a monthly car payment.

5. Results and discussion


The results of the probit model estimates, shown in table 2, reveal
that all of the coefficients
have the hypothesized
relationships
with
the intentions to stay in the U.S. Army. Consistent with our hypothesized interdependency
of retention
intentions
in dual U.S. Army
career couples, the standardized
probit coefficient of 0.916 shown in
table 2, demonstrates
that perceived spouses retention intention was
the most important predictor of a soldiers own retention intention.

Table

Probit results for probability


Predictor

of retention

intentions

variable

of dual U.S. Army career soldiers. I


Standardized

Standard

regression

error

coefficient

0.15

Perceived spouses career intention

0.916

Family earnings (th.dollars/month)

0.448 h

0.16

Mortgage/rent

0.536 I

0.232 h

I
0.01
0.01
0.09

Satisfied with job

0.7X8

0.24

Family happiness

0.144

0.17

Intercept

0.386

0.54

payment (dollars/month)

Car payments (dollars/month)

0.401 h

Number

0.755

of children

Years of service

0.0

N = X5
Dependent

variable

equals unity if the respondent

intends to stay in the Army

p < 0.01,

The standardized
probit coefficient
for the psychosocial
variable,
job satisfaction,
was positive and significant (0.788). U.S. Army soldiers who were satisfied with their jobs had a higher probability
of
making the U.S. Army a career. The third most important
variable
was family size measured
by the number of children (0.755). The
fourth and the fifth contributors
to the increase in the probability of
career retention
intentions
were the economic
variables of family
earnings (0.448) and car payments (0.401). These are followed by the
psychosocial
variables, career commitment,
denoted by the years of
service (0.232), and family happiness (0.144). Since all of these variables contribute
to the probability
of staying in the U.S. Army, the
U.S. Army management
may find it useful to attempt to manipulate
any or all of them to influence career intentions.
The only negative predictor
of the probability
of staying was the
mortgage or rent payments variable - increased
rent or mortgage
payments reduced the probability
of retention
( - 0.536). This result
suggests that the U.S. Department
of Defense
policy of paying a
variable housing allowance
dependent
on the local cost of living
probably should be continued and perhaps increased if one wishes to
encourage
Army retention.
Even in the face of downsizing, the military services may need to increase housing allowances to encourage
the retention of soldiers at strategic locations.

H. Lakhani, P.A. Gudr / Carerr decisions


Table 3
Probit results
probability.
Predictor

for the effects

of own income,

Standardized

variable

Intercept
Own income
Spouses income
Family income
Note: Dependent
a p < 0.01.

spouses

variable

equals

income

and family

income

on retention

coefficients

Eq. (1)

Eq. (2)

- 1.293
2.385
- 0.673
_

- 1.786
_

unity if respondent

163

- 1.45
2.249 <
intends

to stay.

To determine
the relative effects of ones own income, spouses
income, and family income on retention intentions, we estimated two
separate
probit equations.
The standardized
probit coefficients
for
these equations are reported in table 3. The results for eq. (1) show
that the coefficient for ones own income was positive and significant
(p < 0.01). Spouses income is negative but not significant. Therefore,
the importance
of spouses income is diluted. Such a dilution is
further confirmed
in the results reported
in eq. (2) where we compared the effect of spouses income and family income. The results
reveal that the standardized
coefficient
for spouses income in this
equation is also negative and nonsignificant.
In sharp contrast to this,
the standardized
coefficient for family income is positive and significant (p < 0.01). However, a nearly perfect correlation of 0.97 between
own income and family income suggests that own income is the prime
economic variable in determining
retention intention. It may also be
that the incomes of the two service members in dual U.S. Army career
couples are highly correlated
because they tend to be both of similar
rank and therefore
have similar pay.
The finding that spouse income does not contribute
to soldier
retention
intentions is at odds with those of Hogan (1990: 140) who
found that spouse income was positively related to soldier retention
intentions and three times more important than soldiers own income
in determining
retention intentions. This difference may be due to the
fact that Hogan (1990) used imputed values of spouse income based
on spouse demographic
characteristics,
estimated opportunity
cost of
spouses time, and estimated value of frequent
moves; whereas we
used actual spouse income in our equations.
Sample differences

between our two studies are also likely to be responsible,


at least in
part, for the differences
between our results. Our sample was taken
from dual U.S. Army career couples only; Hogans analyses were
based on a sample of all military spouses, to include those not working
and those working in civilian jobs.

6. Conclusions
The number of dual earner families has been increasing
at an
accelerating
rate in both the U.S. civilian and military sectors. Sixty
percent of all married women soldiers in the U.S. Army were married
to other U.S. Army soldiers. Analyses of the 1985 U.S. Army Dual
Career Survey revealed that career intentions
of dual Army career
couples were jointly determined
as a function of economic, psychological, and sociological variables. Perhaps the most important
application of our findings is in the current downsizing of military services
that seems to be taking place around the world and especially in the
United States. Below we discuss briefly what we think our results
imply for the downsizing of the U.S. Army. Although our data are
drawn only from dual U.S. Army career couples, we believe that the
implications
for downsizing we make from those data have much
wider application.
The most important predictor of retention intentions, perception
of
spouses career intention, indicates that the Army is likely to retain or
lose both soldiers in dual Army career marriages depending
on the
effects of its policies and programs on either partner. For example,
the planned downsizing of the Army could adversely affect the careers
of women soldiers who, even though not specifically
targeted
for
release, would be likely to leave the Army if their husbands left the
Army. Such an inadvertent
loss of career oriented women from the
Army is likely to receive very negative attention from the media and
may further aggravate the problems associated with such organizational downsizing.
The second important
predictor, job satisfaction,
has implications
for Army downsizing as well. The Army must attend to the work
environment
that is created for the survivors of the downsizing effort.
If downsizing survivors experience
greater work loads and work demands because of fewer people to accomplish the same amount of

H. Lakhani, P.A. Gade / Career decisions

165

work, the Army is likely to loose the very soldiers it wants and needs
to keep. It is important,
therefore,
for the Army to restructure
the
work environment
with the idea of improving or at least maintaining
the job satisfaction levels of downsizing survivors.
The third most important predictor we found, family size, indicates
that the Army is most likely to retain those soldiers who have the
largest families. The implications for downsizing are that family issues
may actually increase rather than decrease in importance
for those
who remain in the Army.
The fourth most significant predictor, mortgage or rent payments,
indicates that the U.S. Army needs to continue to monitor and adjust
basic allowances for quarters in locations where these housing costs
are unduly high. If, as a result of downsizing, the Army retains older,
more high ranking soldiers with larger families, the Army will need to
closely monitor
housing allowances
to make sure they accurately
reflect local costs.
Military wage, our next most important
predictor,
can play an
important
role in downsizing as well. For example, in a downsizing
environment,
wage increases may be a cost effective way to help retain
those the U.S. Army wants to retain who might otherwise voluntarily
leave. Further, such wage increases might also improve job satisfaction
as well.
Like most of the other predictors of retention intentions, the years
of service predictor has implication for the impending Army downsizing as well. This result shows older higher ranking soldiers are likely
to be retained if downsizing is accomplished
on a strictly volunteer
basis. Further, if downsizing is involuntary, it may be that those with
more service time will need more help in making the transition to
civilian life.
At the very least the results we have presented here have relevance
to the changes in force structures that are likely to be experienced
by
many military services over the course of the next several years. Our
results clearly indicate some of the most important social-psychological and economic variables that will need to be addressed to manage
such structural changes effectively.
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