UNIT-1

Basic Concept Of Vibration

Ans. All bodies having mass and elasticity are capable of vibration. When external force is
applied on the body, the internal forces areset up in the body which tend to bring the body in the
original position. The internal forces which are set up are the elastic forces which tend to bring
the body in the equilibrium position. Consider an example of swinging of pendulum.At extreme
position whole of the kinetic energy of the ball is converted into elastic energy which tends to
bring the ball in the equilibrium/mean position. At mean position whole of the, elastic

energy is converted into kinetic energy and body continues to move in opposite direction because
of it. Now the whole of kinetic energy is converted into elastic energy and this elastic energy
again brings the ball to the equilibrium position. In this way, vibratory motion is repeated
indefinitely and exchange of energy takes place. This motion which repeats itself after certain
interval of time is called vibration.

Main Causes Of Vibration

Ans. The main causes of vibration are:
1. Unbalanced centrifugal force in the. system due to faulty design and poor manufacturing.
2. Elastic nature of system.
3. External excitation applied on the sysbm
4. Winds may cause vibration of cerim sv stem such as electricity lines, telephone lines etc

Disadvantages Of Effects Of Vibration

Ans. Disadvantages harmful effects vibration:
1. Vibration causes excessive and unpleasant stresses in the rotating system.
2. Vibration causes rapid wear and tear of machine parts such as gears and bearings.
3. Vibration causes loosening of parts from the machine.
4. Due to vibrations locomotive can leave the track causing accident or heavy loss.
5. Earthquakes are the cause of vibration because of which buildings and other
structures (like bridges) may collapse.
6. Proper readings of instruments cannot be taken because of heavy vibrations.
7. Resonance may take place if the frequency of excitation matches with the natural
frequency of system causing large amplitudes of vibration thereby resulting in
failure of systems e.g. Bridges
How can you eliminate/reduce unnecessary vibrations?
Ans. Unwanted vibrations can be reduced by:
1. Removing external excitation if possible.
2. Using shock absorbers.
3. Dynamic absorbers.
4. Proper balancing of rotating parts.
5. Removing manufacturing defects and material inhomogeneities.
6. Resting the system on proper vibration isolators.
What are the advantages of vibration?
Ans. Advantages of vibration
1. Musical Instruments like guitar.

2. In study of earthquake for geological reasons.

3. Vibration is useful for vibration testing equipments.
4.. Propagation of sound is due to vibrations.
5. Vibratory conveyors are based on concept of vibration.
6. Pendulum clocks are based on the principle of vibration.

What is the importance of vibration study?

Ans. Importance of vibration study. The imp of vibration study is to reduce or eliminate
vibration effects over mechanical components by designing them suitably. Proper design and
manufacture of parts will reduce.unbalance in engines which causes excessive and
unpleasent stress in rotating system because of vibration, roper design of machine parts will
reduce and tear due to vibration and loosening parts. The proper designing and material
distribution prevent the locomotive m leaving the track due to excessive vibration which may
result in accident or heavy loss. Proper designing of structure buildings can prevent the condition
of resonance which causes dangerously large oscillations which may result in failure of that part.
Define the following:
(i) Periodic Motion (ii) Time period (iii) Frequency (iv) Amplitude (v) Natural frequency
(vi) Fundamental mode of vibration (vii) Degree of freedom (viii) Simple Harmonic Motion
(S.H.M.) (ix) Resonance
(x) Damping (xi) Phase Difference (xi,) Spring stiffness

Ans. Definitions
(i) Periodic motion: A motion which repeats itself after certain interval of time is
called periodic motion.
(ii) Time Period : It is time taken to complete One cycle.
(iii) Frequency: Nos of cycles in one sec. Units = H
(iv) Amplitude: Maximum displacement of a vibrating body from mean position is
called Amplitude.

(v) Natural frequency: When there is no external force applied on the system and it is given a
slight displacement the body vibrates. These vibrations are called free vibrations and frequency
of free vibration is called Natural frequency.

(vi) Fundamental mode of vibration: Fundamental mode of vibr!sternis a mode

(vii) Degree of freedom:

The minimum nos of co-ordinates required to specify motion of a system at any instant is
called degree of freedom.
(viii) Simple Harmonic Motion (S.H.M..) : The motion of a body to and fro about a fixed
point is called S.H.M. S.FLM.. is a periodic motion and it is function of Sine or Cosine.
Acceleration of S.H.M. is proportional to displacement from the mean position and is directed
towards the centre.

In S.H.M. acceleration is directly proportional to the displacement from the mean position and is
directed towards the centre.

(zx) Resonance : When the frequency of external force is equal to the natural frequency of a
vibrating body, the amplitude of vibration becomes excessively large. This is known as
Resonance . At resonance there are chances of machine part or structure to fail due to
excessively large amplitude. It is thus important to find natural freuqencies of the system in order
to avoid resonance.

(x) Damping: It is resistance provided to the vibrating body and vibrations related to it are called
damped vibration.
(xi) Phase difference : Suppose there are two vectors

(xii) Spring stiffness : It is defined as unit deflection. Units : N/m.

What are the various parts of a vibrating system?

Ans. Various parts of the mechanical system (vibratory system) are :
(A) Spring
(B) Damper
(C) Mass

Damping force c acting upwards Accelerating force m i acting downwards

Spring force kx acting upwards

Explain different methods of vibration analysis ?

Ans. Different methods of vibration analysis are:
Energy method : According to this method total energy of the system remains constant i.e. sum
of kinetic energy and potential energy always remains constant.

Rayleigh Method : This method is based on the principle that maximum kinetic energy of the
term is equal to the maximum potential energy of the system.

According to this method the sum of forces and moments acting on the system is zero if no
external force is applied on the system.
Consider fig. I

. Classify different types of vibrations.

Ans. Types of Vibrations
I. Free and Forced

To and fro motion of the system when disturbed initially without any extornal force acting on it
are called free vibrations. e.g. pendulum. To and fro motion of the system under the influence of
external force are called forced vibrations. e.g. Bell, Earthquake.
II. Linear and Non-linear vibrations
Linear vibrations : The linear vibrations are those which obey law of superimposition. If a1 and
a2 are the solutions of a differential equation, then a1 + a2 should also be the solution.

Non-linear vibrations : When amplitude of vibrations tends towards large value, then vibrations
become non-linear in nature. They do not obey law of superimposition. III. Damped and
Undamped vibrations
Damped vibrations are those in which amplitude of vibration decreases with time. These
vibrations are real and are also called transient vibrations.

Undamped vibrations are those in which amplitude of vibration remains constant. In ideal system
there would be no damping and so amplitude of vibration is steady.

1V. Deterministic and Random vibrations (Non-Deterministic).

Deterministic vibrations are those whose external excitation is known or can be determined
whereas Random vibrations are those whose external excitation cannot be determined. e.g.
Earthquake

V. Longitudinal, Transverse and Torsional vibrations

What are beats?

Ans. When two harmonic motions pass through some point in a medium simultaneously, the
resultant is the sum of two motions. This superimposition of harmonics is called interference.
When two harmonics are in phase then their resultant amplitude is maximum and the resultant
amplitude is minimum when two harmonics are out of phase. This phenomenon continuously
occurs i.e. amplitude becomes maximum and minimum repeatedly. This is called beats. For
beats to occur, the difference in frequencies of two waves should be very less.

Maximum amplitude = 2A
Minimum amplitude 0.

Derive the relation for the work done by the harmonic force
Ans. Let harmonic force F = F0 sin cot is acting on a vibrating body having
motion

Add the following harmonic motions analytically and check the solution graphically.

Graphically:

Draw BC parallel to OD and DC parallel to OB

Measure OC, OC = 9.6 cm at an angle 76
Hence by graphically we get the same result as by analytical method.

Split the harmonic motion x = 10 sin (wt + 2r/6) into two harmonic motions one having
phase angle of 00 and other having 45 phase angle.

Ans. Let the equations are:

Show that the resultant motion of three harmonic motions given below is zero.

Hence proved.

How do you add two harmonic motions having different frequencies?

Ans. Let two harmonic motions with slightly different frequencies be: -

How can we make a system vibrate in one of its natural mode?

Ans. When a system is displaced slightly from its equilibrium position and allowed to vibrate
then these are called free vibrations and the system is said to vibrate m its natural mode without
any external force impressed on it.
How does a continuous system differ from a discrete system in the nature of its equation of
motion?
Ans. Continuous systems have infinite degree of freedom and so the no. of solutions are infinite.
The equation of motion for continuous system involve both displacement (x) as well as time (t).
Discrete systems have finite degree of freedom and so the no. of solutions are finite. The discrete
systems may be single degree of freedom system, 2 degree freedom system and so on. The
number of equations depends upon the degree of freedom of discrete system. Further equation of
motion of discrete systems involve only position (x) and not time (t).

What do you mean by undamped free vibrations?

Ans. If the body vibrates with internal forces and no external force is included, it is Further
during vibrations if there is no loss of energy due to friction or resistance, it is known as
undamped free vibration.

Consider the relation for the frequency of spring mass system in vertical position.
Ans.

What is DAlemberts Principle?

Ans. DAlemberts principle states that if the resultant force acting on a body along with the
inertia force is zero, then the body will be in static equilibrium.
Inertia force acting on the body is given by

Assuming that the resultant force acting on body is F, then the body will be in static equilibrium
if

Consider fig. 2.2., the spring force of the body Kx is acting upwards and acceleration of the body
i is acting in downward direction. The accelerating force is acting downward so inertia force is
acting upwards, so the body is
M static equilibrium under the action of the two forces Kx
and mi. Mathematically it can be written as

Derive the relation for natural frequency of torsional vibrations.

Ans. Consider a rotor having mass moment of inertia I connected at end of the shaft having
torsional stiffness KT and is rotated by an angle 0 as shown in fig. 2.3.
According to Newtons law equation of motion can be written as:

Derive the relation for natural frequency of the compound pendulum.

Ans. The system which is suspended vertically and oscillates with small amplitude under the
action of force of gravity is known as compound pendulum (Fig. 2.4)
Let W = Weight of rigid body
o = Point of suspension
k = Radius of gyration about an axis passing
through centre of gravity G.
h = Height of point of suspension frQm G.
I = Moment of Inertia of the body about 0.
I = + mh2 (Parallel axis theorem)

Find the natural frequency of the column of liquid contained in a simple a-Tube
manometer as shown in figure 2.5. Length of tube is 0.2 m.

Ans. Let p mass density of liquid

A cross-sectional area of tube.
length of the column of liquid
or monometer tube.
Let at any moment liquid is displaced by a
distance x from its mean position.
Applying Energy method

Determine the effect of mass of spring on natural frequency of the system as shown in Fig.
2.6.

Ans. Let x be the displacement of mass m and so velocity

will be x. The velocity of spring element at distance y from the fixed end is given
by

where 1 is the total length of spring.

Let p be the mass per unit length of spring element, the

Differentiating the above equation

Determine the natural frequency of spring mass pulley system as shown in Fig. 2.7.

A cylinder of diameter D and mass in floats vertically in a liquid of mass density p as

shown in Fig. 2.8. Find the period of oscillation if it is depressed slightly and released. .

Ans. Let us assume x be the displacement of the cylinder,

Determine the frequency of oscillation of the system shown in Fig. 2.9.

Determine the natural frequency of spring controlled simple pendulum as shown in Fig.
2.10.

Ans. Let us say the system is displaced by an angle 0 to the right. Equation of motion can be
written as;

Determine the natural frequency of the system shown in Fig. 2.11.

Ans. Let m be the mass of circular cylinder and r be the radius of the cylinder.

Differentiating the above equation

The natural frequency of a. spring-mass system is 20 Hz and when extra 3 kg mass is

attached to its mass the natural frequency reduces by 4 Hz. Determine the mass and
stiffness of the system.

A spring-mass system has a time period of 0.25 sec. What will be the new
time period if the spring constant is increased by 30%?
Ans. We know

A car is having a mass of 1000 kg and its spring gets deflected 3 cm under its own load..
Find the natural frequency of car in vertical direction.

Ans. Stiffness of spring is given by

Natural frequency of spring-mass system in vertical position is given by

A torsional pendulum has a rod of 5 mm diameter. Find out its length for natural
frequency of 10 Hz. The inertia of the mass fixed at the free end is 0.0120 kg rn2., Take G =
0.84 x 1011 N/m2.

Ans. The natural frequency of pendulum is given as

. Find the natural frequency of the system shown in Figure 2.12.

Ans. Since the three springs are in parallel1 their equivalent sfess can be calculated

What is damping?
Ans. Damping is the resistance offered by a body to the motion of a vibratory system.
The resistance may be applied to liquid or solid internally or externally At the start of the
vibratory motion the amplitude of vibration is maximum wkij6es on decreasing with time. The
rate of decreasing amplitude depends upon the amount of damping.

Classify different types of damping.

Ans. Types of Damping
1. Viscous
2. Coulomb
3. Structural
4. Non-linear, Slip or interfacial damping
5. Eddy current-damping
1. Viscous damping: When the system is allowed to vibrate in viscous medium the damping
is called viscous Viscosity is the property of the fluid by virtue of which it offers resistance to
moment of one over the other.

The force F required . to maintain the velocity

x of plate is given by:

The force F can also be written as:

where c is called viscous damping coefficient

From (1) and (2),

The main components of viscous damper are cylinder, piston and viscous fluid.

The damping resistance depends upon pressure difference on both sides of piston in viscous
medium. The clearance is left between piston and cylinder walls. More the clearance, more will
be the velocity of piston and less will be the value of viscous damping coefficient.

Equation of Motion

and B = specific damping capacity

2. Coulomb Damping: When a body is allowed to slide over the other body the surface of o
offers resistance to the movement of 9Lod over it. This resisting force is called force of friction.

coefficient of friction

Some of the energy is wasted in friction and amplitude of vibrations goes on decreasing. Such
type of damping is called coulomb damping.

3. Structural damping : This type of damping arises because of intermolecular

friction beti- the molecules of structure which opposes its movement. The magnitude

of this damping is very small as compared to other damping. Elastic materials during
loading and unloading from a loop or stress strain curve known as_hysteresis loop. The area of
this loop gives the amount of energy dissipated in one cycle during vibrations. This is also called
hysteresis damping.
The energy loss per cycle is given as;

If energy dissipated is treated equal to energy dissipated by viscous damping then;

The dampingforce, F =

The amplitude decay is of exponential nature.

4. &on-linear, p or Interfacial damping : Machine elements are connected through various joints
and microscopic slip occurs over the joints of machine elements which usdisspoint of energy
when machine elements are in contact with fluctuating load. The energy dissipated per cycle
depends upon coefficient of friction, pressure at contacting surface and amplitude of vibration.
There is an optimum value of contact pressure at which energy dissipated is maximum for
different amplitudes.

5. Eddy current damping : If a non-ferrous conducting object (e.g. plater d etc.) moves in a
direction perpendicular lines of magnetic flux is produced by current is induced in the
object.1iiiiIrent is proportional to vlocity of the object. The current induced is called eddy current
which set up its own magnetic field opposite to original magnetic field that has induced it. This
provides resistance to motion object It forms magnetic field . This type of damping produced by
eddy currents is
called eddy current damping. it is used in vibrometers and in some vibration control
systems.

Derive the relation for energy dissipated in viscous damping per cycle.

Ans. Energy dissipated in viscous damping per cycle

Prove that frequency of vibration of system having coulomb damping is same as that of
undamped system.

Ans. Frequency of damped oscillations

Free vibrations with dry friction or coulomb damping

(b) Mass displaced towards rigit & moving towards right

The frequency of vibration of system having coulomb damping is same as that of undamped
system

Prove that amplitude loss per cycle in c4 damping is :

Ans. Rate of Decay of oscillation: Let 1A be the amplitude of body from mean position to start
and after half cycle, let x be its amplitude. The velocity of mass =0 at two extreme positions.
(Refer Fig. 3.9)
Therefore, total energy of the system at two extreme positions be

The difference between the two energies must be equal to energy dissipated or work done
against friction.

Differentiate between Coloumb and Viscous damping.

Ans. Differences between Viscous damping & Coulomb damping

1. In case of viscous damping ratio of any two successive amplitudes is constant whereas in
coulomb damping difference between two successive amplitudes is constant.

2. In viscous damping envelope of the maximas in displacement-time plot is an

exponential curve here as in coulomb damping envelope of maximise of displacement-time plot
is a straight line.
3. In case of viscous damping the body once disturbed and from equilibrium position will come
to rest in equilibrium position although it make theoretically infinite time to do so Whereas in
case of coulomb damping the body may finally come to rest in equilibrium position or in
displaced position depending upon initial amplitude and amount of friction present.

. What is the response of single degree of freedom system with viscous damping when it is:

Ans. Differential equation of damped free vibrations

Solution of equation (1) can be written as

where A1, A2 = Arbitrary constants

Critical damping constant and damping ratio

The critical damping c is defined as value of damping coefficient c for which

Depending upon the value of damping ratio e, the damped systems are categorized as:

This motion is also called a periodic motion. When t =0, x = A1 + A2. This system is nonvibratory in nature. When once the system is disturbed, it will take infinite time to come back to
the equilibrium condition.
The values of A1 and A2 can be found by initial conditions.

The value of displacement x goes on decreasing with time.

In critical damping both roots are equal and are equal to - (0.

The solution of critically damped system is given as;

I.

The amplitude vary exponentially with time. As time increases amplitude decreases.

An underdamped system is an oscillatory system whose amplitude decreases with time.

Theoretically the system will never come to rest although the amplitude of vibration may be very
very small.

What is the importance of critical damping?

Ans. Out of the three modes the vibrating body which has been displaced from its
mean position would come to state of rest in smallest possible time without overshooting i.e.
without executing oscillation about mean position in critical damping mode.
So critical damping is used for practical applications in large guns so that after firing the
returning to original position in minimum time without vibrating and ready for next firing
without delay. If damping provided is overdamped or underdamped, then there will be delay.
This property is also design of an instrument

Ans. Logarithmic Decrement (Underdamped system)

It is defined as the natural logarithmic of ratio of any two successive amplitudes on same side of
mean time.
Consider fig. 3.13(a).
Let us take two successive amplitudes be x1 and x2.
Logarithmic decrement 6 is given by;

The time period of damped oscilliations

Q 10. If an underdamped system executes n cycles then prove that logrithimic decrement

Q 11. A damping .force having magnitude 2 cos (23rt-44) N, gives 5 cos 2t m displacement.
Calculate
(a) Energy dissipated during first 5 seconds and
(b) Energy dissipated during the first 3/4 sec.
Ans. We know the force and displacement are given as:

In Question No. 13 if m = 1.5 kg, K 4900 N/m, a 6 cm and b = 14 cm, determine the value of
c for which the system is critically damped.
Ans. The equation of motion can be written as;

The system is critically damped when radical is zero

A torsional pendulum when immersed in oil indicates its natural frequency as 200 Hz. But
when it was put to vibration in vacuum having no damping, its natural frequency was
observed as 250 Hz. Find the value of damping factor of oil.
Ans. The expression for torsional vibrations in vacuum (c = 0) is;

A mass is suspended from a spring system as shown in figure 2.13. Determine the natural
frequency of the system.

Ans. Since spring k2 and k3 are connected in parallel1 so their equivalent k is given as k = + k3.
Again k and k1 are connected in series, so the equivalent ke is given as

The natural frequency

A cantilever beam of negligible mass is loaded with mass 4m at the free end. Find the
natural frequency of the mass sm.

Ans. Deflection of cantilever beam loaded at one end can be given as

and therefore stiffness of beam can be calculated as

General equation of motion for undamped free vibration is given as

Determine the natural frequency of the system as shown in figure.

Ans. Deflection of such a system is given as

Equation of motion for undamped free vibration is given as

A simply supported beam of square cross section 5 mm x 5 mm and length 1 m, carrying a

mass of 2.3 kg at the middle, is found to have a natural frequency of transverse vibrations
of 30 rad/s. Determine the Youngs modulus of elasticity of the beam.

A simple pendulum of length L, bob mass m, and rod mass M, is vibrating in the vertical
plane. Calculate the frequency of free vibrations.

where u max - frequency corresponding to maximum amplitude.

(ii) Putting this value in equation (I), we get;

A -, Max Amplitude
X5 -, Zero frequency deflection

What are characteristic curves? Draw them.

Ans. Characteristic Curves

A curve between frequency ratio and magnification factor is known as frequency response curve.
Similarly, a curve between phase angle and frequency ratio is called phase- frequency response
curve.

UNIT-II
Two Degree of Freedom System
What are the two degree of freedom system?
Ans. The system which requires two co-ordinates to describe its motion completely
is called two degree of freedom system. In a two degree of freedom system there
are two masses which have two natural frequencies and two co-ordinates are
required to specify the configuration of the system completely.
Define Normal mode of vibration?
Ans. In a two degree freedom system there are two natural frequencies of the
system. The system at its lowest or first natural frequency its first and next higher
i.e. second natural frequency is called its second mode. If the two masses vibrate at
same frequency and in phase it is called principal mode of vibration. If prncipa1
mode of vibration the amplitude of one of the masses is then it is known as normal
mode of vibration.
Draw the mode shapes for two rotor system.
Ans.

Torsional Vibrations : Consider fig. 5.2. A shaft AB is carrying two rotors of

moment of inertia I and 2 Let and 2 be the angular displacements of rotor at any
.instant from mean position. The equation of motion can be written s,

Put,

Putting these values in (II) and (IV)

Solving by determinant

From (VIII)

It shows that the angular displacements of rotors are inversely proportional to their
inertia.
The section of the shaft where angular displacement is zero Is known as node. First

Mode shape

Second Mode Shape

What is a semi definite system? Determine the frequencies of the system?

Ans. Semi-Definite Systems : The system having one of their natural frequencies
equal to zero are known as semi-definite systems. The example of the type of
system is when two masses m1 and m2 are connected by spring K

What is co-ordinate coupling? Determine the natural frequencies of such

systemwith dynamic coupling? (V.V. Imp.)
Ans. Co-ordinate coupling. When we apply brakes on a automobile two motions of
car body occur simultaneously.

(1) Translatory (x)

(2)angular.
This type of unbalance occurs on the
system because centre of gravity (C) of car
and centre of rotation do not coincide.
mMassofcar
I-*MOI
x Translatory motion
0 Angular Motion
Equation of motion can be written as :

= n (I) and (II) are coupled equations as both equations contain x and 0 terms

If

Equation III is of translator nature.

Equation IV is of oscillator nature.

These are uncoupled differential equations and when

dynamic coupling.

then it is called

The natural frequencies of the system are:

What are vibration absorbers ? Prove that spring force of the absorber
system is equal and opposite to the excitition force for main system to be
stationary?
Ans.Vibration Absorber. When a structure which is excited by an external harmonic
force has undesirable vibrations, it becomes necessary to eliminate them by
coupling some vibrating system to it. The vibrating system is known as vibration
absorber or dynamic vibration absorber. Vibration absorbers are used to control the
structural resonance (consider the main figure)

The natural frequency of this system is

When forcing frequency (0

becomes equal to natural frequency of main system then resonance takes place. In
order to reduce the amplitude of mass nz1 it is coupled with spring mass system
(m2 K2) called Vibration absorber. The spring mass system (ni2 K2) will acts
as vibration absorber andies the amplitude of ni1 to zero if its natural frequency is
equal to the excitation frequency

Equations of Motion

Where

In order that amplitude of mass ni1 is zero

Put A1 =0 (so that mass rn1 must not vibrate)

Simlilarly

when A1 0, from VII

Hence when the amplitude A1 = 0 i.e. main system becomes stationary the spring
force
of the absorber is equal and opposite to exciting force. The energy of the main
system is absorbed by vibration absorber which is also called auxiliary system.
Amplitude of the auxiliary system is inversely proportional to spring constant K2.
This equation is used for design of absorber.
Discuss the effect of mass ratio on natural frequency of the vibration
absorber.
Ans. We know that

By puffing w = W2 and equating denomination of the above equation equal to 0, we

Get

(i) What are the disadvantages of dynamic vibration absorber?

Ans. Demerits of Dynamic vibration Absorber : Th dynamic vibration absorber
whether for the rectilinear torsional system is fully effective at a particular
impressed frequency for which it is designed This means that main system will be
stationary only for particular frequency. Thus dynamic vibration absorbers are
effectivefor constant speed machine but lose their effectiveness with any change in
speed of machines. Most rotors are likely to run throw wide range speeds
so dynamic vibrations absorbers become ineffective.
(ii) Prove that all frequency of centrifugal pendulum absorber is always
proportional to the speed of rotating body.
Ans. Centrifugal Pendulum Absorber: It is effective at all speeds of rotation and
is improvement over conventional dynamic vibration absorbers. A pendulum PB of
length L is attached to rotating member at point P which is at radius R from
centre of rotation O. The mass of bob of pendulum is m and string is assumed
to have a negligible mass. The pendulum is subjected to centrifugal force which is
neglected. The body is rotating with angular velocity w rad/s and of centrifugal
force mw2r is experienced by bob of the pendulum. at radius r from 0.

Equation (I) becomes,

Natural frequency of pendulum is proportional to speed of rotational body.

(iii) Define order No.
Ans. Order No: The torsional system receives certain number of torques per
revolution. The no. of these disturbing torques per revolution Is known as order no.
of the system

2-cylinder engine working on 4-stroke - Order No. = 1

4-cylinder engine working on 4-stroke - Order No. = 2
6-cylinder engine working on 4-stroke - Order No. 3
Design of centrifugal pendulum absorber

For pendulum absorber to be effective its natural frequency must be equal to

excitation frequency or frequency of disturbing torques.

where f, is Natural frequency of pendulum absorber.

For effective working of pendulum absorber

i.e. natural frequency must he equal to excitation frequency/frequency of disturbing

torque.
from (i) & (ii)

Hence order no. is ratio of natural frequency of the pendulum absorber f in rps to
the forcing frequency N in rps.
Order No. is also defined as:

for particular IC. engine is known

For known values of R, the length of pendulum can be calculated.

Write short notes on:

(A) Untuned Dry friction damper
(B) Untuned Viscous damper
Ans. (A) Untuned Dry friction damper or Untuned vibration Absorber
(Lanchester Damper) : This type of damper is very advantageous to use for
torsional vibrations near resonance conditions. It consists of two fly wheels
mounted freely over a hub. The hub is rigidly fixed to shaft undergoing vibrations.
There are friction plates attached to the extension of the hub. These friction plates
apply pressure on the flywheel and are responsible for driving the flywheel.
When the pressure. between the friction plates and flywheel is zero the relative
velocity is maximum but frictional torque is zero. There is no energy dissipation in
such case. When the pressure between the friction plate and flywheel is large due
to large friction torque there is no relative velocity between flywheel and shaft and
energy dissipation is zero.
When the speed of the main system is such that torsional vibrations are present in
the system then the pressure between the friction material and flywheel is such
that both frictional torque and relative rubbing is present then there is dissipation of
energy in the absorber which causes, reduction in amplitude of the vibrations of the
man system.

(B) Untuned Viscous damper (Houdaille Damper) : this types of damper is

similar in principle to the Lanchester Damper except that instead of using friction
plates for dry friction damping, this system uses friction damping. It consists of a
freely rotating disc enclosed in the close-fitting case which is keyed to the shaft.
Normally the disc rotates at the shaft speed owing to the viscous drag of the oil
between the disc and the case. However if the shaft vibrates torsionally, viscous
action of the oil between the disc and casing gives a damping action.

Determine the two natural frequencies of vibration and the ratio of

the amplitudes of motion of mass m1 and m2 for the system shown in Fig.
5.11.

Equations of motion can be written as

Assuming the solution of the form

The frequency equation can be written as

Solve the problem shown in Fig. 5.12; m1 10 kg, m2 = 15 kg, k = 320.N/m.

Ans. The equations of motion can be written as

Assuming the solution of the form

The frequency equation is obtained as

A vibratory system performs the motions as expressed by the

following equations:

If the system is turned through 1.5 radians and released, find the
frequencies and mode shapes
Ans. Adding both the equations, we get

Again rewriting the given equations and substituting the values of and 0

A machine runs at 5000 rpm. Its forcing frequency is very near to its
natural frequency. If the nearest frequency of the machine is at least 20%
from the forced frequency, design a suitable vibration absorber for the
system. Assume the mass of the machine as 30 kg.

Ans. The natural frequency of the system at 5000 rpm.

Assuming w = we can find two resonant frequencies from equation:

The resonant frequencies are at least 20% away from the forced frequency of the
main system. So, we have

Find the frequencies of the system shown in Fig. 5.13.

Ans. Initially the pendulum rod is vertical and it is displaced by an angle 0 as

shown
in figure (a) and free body diagram of forces is shown in figure (b). Let us assume
that T is the tension in the pendulum rod.
Resolving the forces vertically for

Resolving the forces horizontally, T sin 0 will be known as restoring force as

it downwards and brings
to its original state. Horizontal displacement
of

Consider forces for mass rn1. All the forces are acting horizontally,

Let us assume the solution of the form

Substituting these solutions in the above two equations, we get

The frequency equation can be written as

Substituting the numerical values in the above equation

Find the natural frequencies of the there is no slip between cord and
cylinder.
system shown in Fig. 5.14. Assume that

Ans. Let us give x vertical displacement to mass as shown. Since there is no slip
between the cord and cylinder, so vertical displacement x causes the cylinder to
rotate by angle 0.
Writing the equations

Substituting these values in the above equations

Substituting the values of various parameters

Two bodies having equal masses as 60 kg each and radius of gyration 0.3
m are keyed to both ends of a shaft 0.80 m long. The shaft is 0.08 m in
diameter for 0.30 m length, 0.10 diameter for 0.20 m length and 0.09 m
diameter for rest of the length. Find the frequency of torsional vibrations.

Parts of shaft are connected in series

Two equal masses of weight 400 N each and radius of gyration 40 cm are
keyed to the opposite end of a shaft 60 cm long. The shaft is 7.5 cm
diameter for the first 25 cm of its length, 12.5 cm diameter for next 10 cm
and 8.5 cm diameter for the remaining length. Find the frequency of free
torsional vibrations of the system and position of node. Take G = 0.84 106
kg/cm2
Ans. The system is shown in figure

The expression for frequency is

The middle of equivalent shaft is 20.72 cm from the left hand side.
Find the natural frequency of the system shown in Fig 5.17.

Q. 19. Derive the natural frequencies of the system shown in Fig. 5.19.

Ans. The equations of motion for the system shown in figure can be written as

Rearranging the above equations, we can write them as

Let us assume the solution of the form

The above equations can be written as

Two rotors A and B are attached to the end of a shaft 50 cm long. Weight
of rotor A is 300 N and its radius of gyration is 30 cm and the
corresponding values of B are 500 N and 45 cm respecitvely. The shaft is
7cm in diameter for first 25 cm, 12 cm in diameter for next 10 cm and 10
cm diameter for remaining length. Modulus of rigidity for shaft material is
8 x 106 kg/cm2 Find:
(i)the position of node and
(ii) the frequency of torsional vibrations.

Ans. The configuration diagram is shown in

The shaft may be converted into a torsionally equivalent shaft the length of which is
given by (Assuming d = 7 cm)

Let N be the position of node for the two rotor system and the length of two parts
of equivalent shaft be 1A and 1B as shown in Fig. 5,21.

We know that,

From equations (i) and (ii), we get

what is a two degree system?

Ans. In a two degree freedom system, any point in the system may execute
harmonic of the two natural frequencies and these are known of vibration. Let us
assume the motion of two masses is simple harmonic and is represented as

where X1 and X2are the amplitudes of two masses respectively and are referred as
principal co-ordinal.
Derive the equation of motion of the system shown in figure below and
find its frequencies.

Ans.

The frequency equation can be written as

What are various methods available for vibration control?

Ans. Various methods of vibration control are
1. Vibration Absorbers (centrifugal pendulum absorber, Lanchester damper,
Houdaille damper).
2. Vibration Isolation materials like rubber, cork, felt, pad etc.
Calculate the natural frequency of a shaft of diameter 10 cm and length
300 cm carrying two discs of diameters 125 cm and 200 cm respectively at
its ends and weighing 480 N and 900 N respectively. Modulus of the
rigidity of the shaft may be taken as 2 x 1011 N/m2.

Ans.

What is the difference between a vibration absorber and a vibration

isolator?
Ans. Vibration absorber is a s ring mass system attached to the main
vibratory system to absorb the vibrations whereas vibration isolators are material
like cork , rubber, felt, pad etc. which are used to isolate machines from its
foundation and support. These vibration isolation absorb the shocks forces set up in
the machinery and prevents the damage of foundations and supports.

UNIT-III
Continuous Systems

Derive the general solution for lateral vibrations of the string.

Ans. Lateral vibrations Of a string. Consider a vibrating string of mass /per length unit (m)
having transverse vibrations under tension T.

-. For small amplitude of string vibration -T remains constant throughout.

Resolving the tension along y-axis

This is 1- dimensional wave equation for lateral vibrations of the string

Solution of wave Equation:

Solution of equation (II) can be written as,

Now equation (II) can be written as;

from (II) and (B)

L.H.S. is a function of x and R.H.S. is a function of

Solutions of equations IV and V are;

The general solutions can be written as;

Boundary conditions.

- String fixed at both ends.

This equation is called Frequency Equation

where p is the frequency of vibration

where n = 1 for first mode, n = 2 for second mode and so on

Equation (VI) can be written

The values of C, and D have to be determined for initial conditions

Equation (viii) can be written as

Derive the frequency equation for longitudinal vibrations of bars and hence
determine the general solution.
Ans. Longitudinal Vibration of Bar : Consider thin and uniform bar subjected to
axial force

Change in position of element dx

Strain in element dx is given by:

Net force on element is given by:

Equation (I) can be written as:

According to Hookes law

Equation (II) can be written as:

Equation (IV) becomes

This is the wave/frequency equation.

Its solution is:

General solution is;

Determine the wave equatiofrequencyequation for torsional vibrations of a uniform shaft

and hence deduce the general solutions of the equation.
Ans. Torsional vibrations of uniforn shaft
An element of length dx of uniform shaft is put to torsional vibrations and it is assumed that
distortion of the shaft is very small.

0 = Twist at distance x from left side due to torque T.

Equation (2) can be written as:

This is a wave equation identical to previous equations

The general solution of equation (4) can be written as;

Determine the differential equation for transverse vibrations of beams and hence find its
solution.
Ans. Transverse vibrations of Beams V If cross-sectional dimensions of beam are small in
comparison to its length, the system is known as Euler-Bernoulli beam.

Putting in (1) we get;

Further

Putting in (3) we get

Equation (4) is the general equation for transvetse vibrations of beans

Equation (5) becomes

The solution of equation (6) is:

where A, B, C, D are constants whose values can be determined from boundary conditions.

Derive the frequency equation for longitudinal vibrations for a free-free beam with zero
initial displacement.

Ans . The general solution for longitudinal vibration can be written as

Applying the above two conditions, we get

Derive suitable expression for longitudinal vibrations for a uniform cross-section bar of
length 1 fixed at one end and free at the other end.

Ans. The general solution can be written as rectangular

Boundary conditions are:

Applying these conditions to the general solution, we get

The general solution of the equation can be written as

Find the natural frequency of a bar shown in Fig.

1. fl general expression for longitudinal vibrations is shown as

2.

Applying third boundary condition

Comparing the results of second and third boundary condtions, we get

Ans. The general expression for governing longitudinal vibrations can be written as

Initial conditions are:

Since the bar is fixed at both ends, so with the help of two boundary conditions, we
Get

Applying first initial condition, we get

Applying second initial condition

UNIT IV
DETERIMINATION OF NATURAL FREQUENCIES AND MODE SHAPES

Introduction
In earlier classes we have discussed analysis of single degree of freedom systems. It is
well known that Degree of freedom is the number of independent co-ordinates
required to describe the motion of a vibratory system
Degree of freedom of a system=(Number of masses in a system) x (number of
possible types of motion of each mass.
A two-degree freedom system is one that requires two coordinates to describe its
motion. These coordinates are called generalized coordinates when they are
independent of each other. A two DOF system has two equations of motion, which
can be solved to obtain two natural frequencies
Examples of 2 DOF linear and torsional systems are shown in Fig.1.

Kt

K1
J1

m1

x1
Kt

K2
J2

m2
x2
Fig.1 Examples of 2DOF linear and torsional systems

Obtain the equations of the motion of the linear system shown in Fig.1.
Governing equations can be obtained by
(i) Newtons method
(ii) Lagranges method (Generalized energy method).
Newtons method
The Newtons method use force balance equations to obtain governing equations. The
Force equilibrium diagram of given 2DOF linear system is shown in Fig.2.
K1x1
m1

m1x1

K2(x2-x1)
m2

m 2 x 2

Fig.2 Force equilibrium diagram of 2DOF linear system

From Force equilibrium diagram of mass m1:
m1x1 K 1x1 K 2 (x 2 x1 ) 0

m1x1 (K1 K 2 )x1 K 2 x 2 0

From Force equilibrium diagram of mass m2 :
m 2x 2 K 2 (x 2 x1 ) 0

m2 x 2 K 2 x1 K 2 x 2 0

(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

Eqns. (2) and (4) are Eqns of motion of the system.

Lagranges method (Generalized energy method).
The Lagranges equation is :
d
dt

T T U

Qi
x i x i x i

where,
T - Kinetic energy of the system,
U - Potential energy of the system,
xi - independent generalized displacement vector,
x i -independent generalized velocity vector and
Qi- generalized force vector.

(5)

1 2 1
m1x1 m 2 x 22
2
2
1
1
U K 1x12 K 2 (x 2 x1 ) 2
2
2
T

(6)
(7)

x1

x
2

x i

substitute Eqn.(6) and (7) in (5). The part differentials are given below.
T
m1x 1
x 1
d T

m1x1
dt x 1
T
0
x1
U
K 1x1 K 2 (x 2 x1 )(1)
x1
U
x1(K 1 K 2 ) K 2 x 2
x1
Substitute above differentials in Eqn. (5), to obtain the equations of motion.
m1x1 (K1 K 2 )x1 K 2 x 2 0

m2 x 2 K 2 x1 K 2 x 2 0
The above equations are similar to the equations obtained by Newtons method. So,
one can use any one method to obtain the Eqns of motions.
Solution of governing equations
It is possible to have pure harmonic free vibration for both the masses.
Let us assume

x1 A 1sint

(8)

x 2 A 2 sin(t )

(9)

The above equations have to satisfy the governing equations of motions. Substitute
Eqns. (8) and (9) in (2 ) and (4).

(K

K 2 ) m1 2 A 1sin(t ) K 2A 2sin(t ) 0

K 2 A 1sin(t ) (K 2 m 2 2 )A 2 sin(t ) 0

(10)
(11)

In above equations sin(t ) 0

The above equations reduces to: (characteristic equation)

(K

K 2 ) m1 2 A 1 K 2 A 2 0

K 2 A1 (K 2 m2 2 )A 2 0

(12)
(13)

The solution of equations is:

K2
(K1 K 2 ) m12
........
0
K2
K 2 m 2 2

(14)

The above equation is referred as a characteristic determinant. Solving, we get :

m1m 2 4 m 2 (K 1 K 2 ) m 1K 2 2 K 1K 2 0

(K K 2 ) K 2 2 K 1K 2
4 1

m m 0
m 2
1
2
m1
For simplification, let us consider :
K1 K 2 K
m1 m2 m

(15)
(16)

The frequency equation changes to:

K 2 K2
2K

2 0
m
m
m

(17)

K2
3K 2
2 0
m
m

(18)

put 2 , in the above equation:

2

K2
3K
2 0
m
m

1, 2 12 , 22

- b b 2 4ac
2a

2
2
3K
3K 4K

2
m
m m
1, 2 12 , 22
2

,
2
1

2
2

3 5 Km
2

3K 5K 2

m2
12 , 22 m
2
1
m

3 5 K

and 2

3 5 Km
2

2
1 0.61n and 2 1.61n radians/sec
As the system has two natural frequencies, under certain conditions it may vibrate
with first or second frequencies, which are referred as principal modes of vibration.

First principal mode of vibration

The system vibrates with first fundamental natural frequency, i.e 1
For vibrations under Mode-I, consider.
A11-amplitude of first mass (m1) due to frequency 1
A21-amplitude of second mass (m2) due to frequency 1
Characteristic equations of the system changes to:

2K m A
2
1

11

KA 21 0

(19)

KA 11 (K m12 )A 21 0
Let

(20)

A 21
1 be amplitude ratio, from Eqn. (19) we get,
A 11

2K m12
A

1 21
A 11
K

(21)

Substitute 1 in the above equation.

A 21
2 (0.61)2 1.63
A 11

(22)

First modal vector is:

A11

A 11

A
21 1 11 1.63

(23)

Second principal mode of vibration

The system vibrates with first fundamental natural frequency, i.e 2
For vibrations under Mode-II, consider
A12-amplitude of first mass (m1) due to frequency 2
A22-amplitude of second mass (m2) due to frequency 2
Characteristic equations of the system changes to:

2K m A
2
2

12

KA 22 0

KA 12 (K m 22 )A 22 0
Let

(24)
(25)

A 22
2 be amplitude ratio, from Eqn. (24) we get,
A12

2K m A
2
2

12

KA 22 0

2K m 22
A

2 22
A12
K

(26)
(27)

Substitute 2 in above equation,

A 22
2 (1.61)2 0.59
A 21

(28)

Second modal vector is:

A 12

A 12

A
22 2 12 0.59
The modal matrix is:

A A1A2

A 11
A12
...

1A 11 2 A12

(29)

1
1

1.63... 0.59

(30)

Mode shapes of the system

The given vibratory system has two principal modes, mode shapes of the system are
shown in Fig.3.

A
K1
B A11

A12
1

m1

x1
Node

C
x2

A21= 1A11
A21=1.63
Mode-I

A22= 2A12
A22=-0.59
Mode-II

Fig.3 Mode shapes of the system

Torsional Vibratory systems

A torsional system is a rotor system as shown in Fig.4.

Kt
J1

1
Kt

J2

Fig.4 Examples of 2DOF torsional system

Obtain the equations of motion of the system shown in Fig.4.
Newtons method
The Newtons method use force balance equations to obtain governing equations. The
Force equilibrium diagram of given 2DOF torsional system is shown in Fig.5.

K 11

J1
1
1

Disc-1

K 2 (2 1 )

Disc-2

J2
2
2

Fig.5 Force equilibrium diagram of 2DOF torsional system

From Force equilibrium diagram of disc 1
J1
1 K11 K 2 ( 2 1 ) 0
(K K ) K 0
J1
1
1
2
1
2 2
From Force equilibrium diagram of disc 2
K ( ) 0
J2
2
2
2
1

(31)

J2
2 K 21 K 2 2 0

(32)

Eqns.(31) and (32) are the governing Eqns. of the system.

Equivalent shaft for a torsional system
Many engineering applications we find stepped shaft as shown in Fig.6. For
vibration it is required to have an equivalent system for the analysis. In this section
how to obtain the torsionally equivalent shaft is illustrated.
JB

JA
d1

d2

d3

d4

J1

J2

J3

J4

L2

L1

L3

L4

Fig.6. Stepped shaft

Let be the twist in the shaft by application of torque T, and 1, 2, 3 and 4 be
twists in section 1, 2, 3 and 4 respectively.
1 2 3 4

(33)

From theory of torsion,

T
G

J
L

(34)

Where,
d4
32
TL 1
TL 2
TL 3
TL 4

J1G1 J2G 2 J3 G3 J4 G 4
J

(35)
(36)

If material of shaft is same, then above equation can be written as:

32 T L1 L 2 L 3 L 4

d4
4
4
G d1
d3 d4
2
If de and Le are equivalent diameter and lengths of the shaft, then:

(37)

L
L
L
L
14 42 34 44
d
d3 d4
de d1
2

(38)

Le
4

(39)
d
d
d
d
L L e L e L e L e

e
1
2
3
4

d1
d2
d3
d4
The equivalent shaft of a system shown in Fig.6 given by Eqn.(39) is shown in Fig.7.

JA

JB
de

Le

Fig.7. Equivalent shaft of the system shown in Fig.6

Definite and semi-definite systems
A system, which is free from both the ends, is referred as semi-definite system.
Ex: Train, Turbo-generator, etc.
For semi-definite systems, the first natural frequency is zero. A simple semi-definite
linear and a torsional systems are shown in Fig.8.

x1
m

(a)

(b)

x2
K

J2
J1
Fig.8. Semi-definite systems (a) linear and (b) torsional.

A system, which is fixed from one end or both the ends is referred as definite system.
A definite system has nonzero lower natural frequency. Various definite linear and a
torsional systems are shown in Fig.9.
(a)

(b)
K1

K1
J1

m1

x1
K2

K2
J2
m2

x2
x1
K

(c)

x2
K

Fig.9. Various definite systems

Example 1
For the torsional system shown in the Fig.10,
(i) derive the equations of motion,
(ii) setup the frequency equation and obtain the fundamental natural frequencies
(iii) obtain the modal vectors and modal matrix
(iv) draw mode shapes of the system.

1
J1

2
J2

Fig.10. Turbo-generator
Solution:
Write the Equations of motions of the system, use Lagranges equation.
The Lagranges equation is :

d
dt

T T U

Qi

i i i

(40)

where,
1
2
2
J1 1 J2 2
2
2
1
U K 2 ( 2 1 ) 2
2

i 1
2
substitute Eqn. (41) and (42) in Eqn.(40) to get the equations of motion:
K K 0
J
1

1 1

K K 0
J2
2
1
2

(41)
(42)

(43)
(44)

Assuming the vibration of the system is SHM,

1 A 1sint

(45)

2 A 2 sin(t )

(46)

The above equations have to satisfy the governing equations of motions Eqn. (43) and
(44). Simplifying, we get.

K J A sin(t ) KA
2

sin(t ) 0

KA 1sin(t ) (K J2 2 )A 2 sin(t ) 0

(47)
(48)

In above equations
sin(t ) 0
The above equations reduces to: (characteristic equation)

K J A
2

KA 2 0

KA 1 (K J2 )A 2 0
2

(49)
(50)

The above equations can be written in the determent form as:

K
K J12
........
0
K J22
K

(51)

The above equation is referred as a characteristic determinant. Solving, we get the

determinant,
J1J2 4 J1 K J2K 2 0

(52)

K
K
4 2 0
J
J
1
2

(53)

The above equation is referred as frequency equation. Solving the frequency

equations, we get.

1 0 rad/s and

J J2
rad/s.
K 1
JJ
1 2

For simplification, let us consider,

J1 J2 J ,

(54)

2K
rad/s
J
As the system is semi-definite system, the estimated first natural frequency is found to
be ZERO. The system has two natural frequencies, under certain conditions it may
vibrate with first or second frequency, which are referred as principal modes of
vibration.
Now, the characteristic equations of the system due to condition in Eqn.(54) are:
then 1 0 rad/s and

K J A
2

KA 2 0

KA 1 (K J2 2 )A 2 0

(55)
(56)

First principal mode of vibration

The system vibrates with first fundamental natural frequency, i.e 1.
For vibrations under Mode-I, consider,
A11-amplitude of first disc (J1) due to frequency 1
A21-amplitude of second disc (J2) due to frequency 1
Characteristic equations of the system changes to:

K J A
2

11

KA 21 0

KA 11 (K J2 )A 21 0
2

Let,

(57)
(58)

A 21
1 be amplitude ratio
A 11

Then, from Eqn. (57) one can obtain,

A 21 K J12

A 11
K

(59)

Substitute 1 in above equation.

A
1 21 1
A 11
First modal vector is:

A 11

A 11 1

A
21 1 11 1

(60)

Second principal mode of vibration

For vibrations under Mode-II, consider,
A12-amplitude of first disc (J1) due to frequency 2
A22-amplitude of second disc (J2) due to frequency 2
Characteristic equations of the system changes to:

K J A
2

12

KA 22 0

(61)

KA 12 (K J22 )A 22 0
Let

(62)

A 22
2 is the amplitude ratio,
A 12

From Eqn. (61) on can obtain,

A 21 K J 22

A 11
K

Substitute 2 in the above equation,

2K

K J
A
J 1
1 21
A11

Second modal vector is:

A
A12 1
A 12

2

A 22

2 A12

(63)

(64)

Modal matrix

A A1A2 11A
A

A12 1 1
...
1 1

11 2 A12

Mode shapes of the system

The mode shapes obtained from modal matrix Eqn. (65) are shown in Fig.11.

K
1

J2

J1
Mode I
Mode II

1
1
Node

-1

Fig.11. Mode shapes of the system

(65)

Various geared systems

A Turbo-generator geared system is shown in the fig.12. The analysis of this system is
complex due to the gears. The system can be made simple as discussed below.
Turbine
K1

Gears
J3
Generator

Shaft-1
J1

K2
J4

Shaft-2
J2

Fig.12 Turbo-generator geared system.

The speed ratio, n of the system is:

n

speed of turbine
speed of generator

For the system given in Fig. 12, the simplification can be made by,
(i) considering inertia of gears and (ii) neglecting inertia of gears.
Inertia of gears is considered
The system becomes 3 DOF system as shown in Fig.13.
Generator

Turbine
K1

n2K

J2+n2J3
J2
J1
Fig.13 Turbo-generator geared system considering the inertia of gears
Inertia of gears is neglected
The system becomes 2 DOF system as shown in Fig.14.
J1
K1
Turbine

J2

n K2
Generator

Fig.14 Turbo-generator geared system neglecting the inertia of gears

Two torsional springs are in series, therefore the effective stiffness can be obtained
from,
1 1 1
(66)
K eq K 1 n 2K 2
Practice problems (Linear definite systems)
For the syetms shown in the Fig.15,
(i) derive the equations of motion,
(ii) setup the frequency equation and obtain the fundamental natural frequencies
(iii) obtain the modal vectors and modal matrix
(iv) draw mode shapes of the system.

x1
K

x2
K

m
x1
K
K
K

m
x2

x1

x2

Fig.15 Linear vibratory systems

Practice problems (Torsional semi-definite systems)

For the systems shown in figure, obtain natural frequencies and mode shapes

2K

K
1

2
J2

J1
Turbine
K

Gears
J3

n=2
Generator

Shaft-1
J

K
J4

Shaft-2
J

Fig.16 Torsional vibratory system.

Pendulum systems (double pendulum)
Estimate the natural frequencies of the double pendulum shown in the Fig.17. For
simplicity take m1=m2=m and l1=l2=l.
T
l1
l1

m1
l2

m1g

T
l2
T

m2
Fig.17 Double pendulum.

m2g
Fig.18 Static forces in Double pendulum.

Due to self weight of masses, the pendulum roads are in tension, the static forces in
the double pendulum is shown in the Fig.18. From this figure one can write,

T2 m2g

(67)

T1 m1g T2

(68)

T1 m1g m2g (m1 m2 )g

(69)

Above equations holds good for small oscillations.

When the system is disturbed, it starts vibrating, a position at any instant of
time with forces is shown ion Fig.19.

1 l1
T

m1x1
T
l2

x1

m 2 x 2
x2

Fig.19 Dynamic forces on Double pendulum

Consider x1 and x2 are generalized co-ordinates. From Fig.19, the relation between x
and can be written as:
sin1 1

x1
l1

(70)

sin 2 2

x 2 x1
l2

(71)

Resolving the forces on the mass m1, (Ref. Fig.19) we get,

m1x1 T11 T22 0
Substitute, Eqns. (67), (69), (70), and (71) in eqns. (72).
x x1
x
m1x1 T1 1 T2 2
0
l1
l2
x
x x1
m1x1 (m1 m 2 )g 1 (m 2 g) 2
0
l1
l2
Substitute m1=m2=m and l1=l2=l in the above Eqn.
x
x x1
mx1 (2m)g 1 (mg) 2
0
l
l

(72)

(73)
(74)

(75)

3mg
mg
mx
x
x 0

2
1
1
l
l
Above Eqn. is first Eqn. of motion.
Resolving the forces on the mass m2, (Ref. Fig.19) we get,
m2x 2 T22 0

(76)

(77)

Substitute, Eqns. (67), (69), (70), and (71) in eqns. (77).

x 2 x1
0
l2

x 2 x1

m2 x 2 m2 g
0
l2
Substitute m1=m2=m and l1=l2=l in the above Eqn.
m 2 x 2 T2

mg
mg
mx
x
x 0

2
2
1
l
l
Above Eqn. is second Eqn. of motion.
Eqns.(76) and (80) are governing equations of motion of the system.

(78)

(79)

(80)

Solution to governing eqns.:

Solution to governing eqns. can be obtained by considering the response of each mass
as SHM:

x1 A 1sint

(81)

x 2 A 2 sin(t )

(82)

The above equations have to satisfy the governing equations of motions Eqns.(76) and
(80). Substitute eqns. (81) and (82) in Eqns.(76) and (80).
mg
3mg

m 2 A 1sin( )
A 2sin( ) 0
l
l

mg
A1sin( )
l

mg
2
l m
A 2sin( ) 0

(83)
(84)

In above equations sin(t ) 0

Therefore, the above equations reduces to: (characteristic equation)
mg
3mg

A2 0
m 2 A 1
l
l

(85)

mg
mg

A1
m 2 A 2 0
l
l

(86)

The above Eqns can be written in determinant form as:

3mg
mg
m 2

l
l
........
0
mg
mg
2

m
l
l

(87)

The above equation is referred as a characteristic determinant, Solving, we get :

4m 2 2g 2m 2g 2

l
l2
The above equation is referred as a frequency equation
Solving Eqn. (88), we get:
Natural frequencies of the system
m 2 4

(88)

g
g
radians/s
radians/s 2 3.73
l
l
Modal vectors and the mode shapes can be obtained by usual meaner, as explained
earlier.
1 0.27

String systems
Obtain the natural frequencies of the string system shown in the Fig.20. For simplicity
take m1=m2=m and l1=l2=l3=l

m1
l1

m2
l2

l3

Fig.20 String system

For the above system, small angular oscillations, it can be assumed that the tensions in
the string (T) do not change. The free body diagram of the system at any instant of
time is shown in Fig.21.
m1
T
1
l1

x1

m2

T
2
x2
l2

l3

Fig.21 Free body diagram of the system at time, t

Consider x1,x2 as generalized co-ordinates, from Fig.21, the relations between and x
are:
x
1 1
l
x x 2
2 1
l
x
3 2
l
Considering the force equilibrium of first mass, m1
(89)
mx1 T1 T2 0
Substitute for angular motions 1, 2, 3 from above eqns.
x
x x 2
mx1 T 1 T 1
0
l
l
2T
T
mx
x x 0

1 2
1
l
l
Considering the force equilibrium of second mass, m2
mx 2 T 2 T 3 0

(90)

(91)

Substitute for angular motions 1, 2, 3 from above eqns.

x
x1 x 2
T 2 0
l
l
T
2T
mx x
x 0
1
2
2
l
l
Eqns. (90) and (92) are two equations of motion of the system.
mx 2 T

(92)

Solution to governing eqns.:

Solution to governing eqns. can be obtained by considering the response of each mass
as SHM:

x1 A 1sint

(92)

x 2 A 2 sin(t )

(93)

The above equations have to satisfy the governing equations of motions Eqns.(90) and
(92). Substitute eqns. (92) and (93) in Eqns.(90) and (92).
T
2T

m 2 A 1sin( ) A 2 sin( ) 0
l
l

T
2T

A1 sin( )
m 2 A 2 sin( ) 0
l
l

In above equations sin(t ) 0

Therefore, the above equations reduces to: (characteristic equation)

(94)
(95)

T
2T

m 2 A 1 A2 0
l
l

T
2T

A1
m 2 A 2 0
l
l

(96)
(97)

The above Eqns can be written in determinant form as:

T
2T

m 2
l
l
0
........
2T
T
2
m

l
l
The above equation is referred as a characteristic determinant, Solving, we get :

(98)

4Tm 2 3T 2
(99)
2
l
l
The above equation is referred as a frequency equation. Solving Eqn. (99), we get:
Natural frequencies of the system
m 2 4

3T
T
radians/s 2
radians/s
ml
ml
As the system has two natural frequencies, under certain conditions it may vibrate
with first or second frequency, which is referred as principal modes of vibration.
1

First principal mode of vibration

The system vibrates with first fundamental natural frequency, i.e 1.
For vibrations under Mode-I, consider,
A11-amplitude of first mass (m1) due to frequency 1
A21-amplitude of second mass (m2) due to frequency 1
The characteristic Eqns.(96) and (97) of the system changes to:
T
2T

m 12 A 11 A21 0
l
l

Let

T
l

A 11

2T

m12 A 21 0
l

(100)
(101)

A 21
1 is amplitude ratio. To compute 1 one can use any of the above eqns.
A 11

Consider Eqn.(100), we get 1 as:

2T
m12

A
l
21

1
A11
T

l
Substitute 1 in the above Eqn.

(102)

A
1 21
A11

T
2T
m

ml 1
l
T

First modal vector is:

A
A 11
1

A 21

(103)

A11 1

1A11

(104)

Secondprincipal mode of vibration

The system vibrates with first fundamental natural frequency, i.e 2.
For vibrations under Mode-II, consider,
A12-amplitude of first mass (m1) due to frequency 2
A22-amplitude of second mass (m2) due to frequency 2
The characteristic Eqns.(96) and (97) of the system changes to:
T
2T

m 22 A 12 A22 0
l
l

Let

T
2T

A 12
m 22 A 22 0
l
l

(105)
(106)

A 22
2 is amplitude ratio. To compute 2 one can use any of the above eqns.
A 12

Consider Eqn.(105), we get 2 as:

2T

m 22

2 22 l
A12
T

(107)

Substitute 2 in the above Eqn.

2

A 21
A11

3T
2T
m

ml 1
l
T

(108)

Second modal vector is:

A 12

A 12 1

A
22 2 12 1

(109)

Modal matrix

A A1A2

A11
A12 1 1
...

1A 11 2 A12 1 1

(110)

Mode shapes of the system are shown in Fig.22.

m1
l1

Mode I
Mode II

m2
l2

l3
1

1
-

Fig.22. Mode shapes of the system

UNIT V
ROTATING SHAFTS

Critical Speed/Whirling Speed

Ans. Critical Speed : When the natural frequency of the system coincides with external forcing
frequency lit f vibration is maximum and this condition is known as resonance. The speed at
which resonance occurs is called critical/whirling speed. At critical speeds the amplitude of
vibration of rotors is excessive and large amount of force is transmitted to foundation or bearings
At critical speed the system mav7iidue to excessive amplitude. 1tisyery important to find natural
frequency of shaft to avoid occurs of resonance at critical speeds and thus prevent excessive
noise and breakage Critical speed may occur because of eccentric mounting rotor, nonuniform distribution of rotor material, bending of shaft etc.

Prove that

in case of eccentric mounting of rotor on a shaft.

Ans. Let us consider shaft rotating in bearing A and B.

Shaft is of negligible weight.

W weight of rotating disc.

k1 stiffness of shaft
e eccentricity = CC
C geometric centre of disc
C Centre of gravity of disc which is at distance from C (geometric centre)
x Lateral deflection of shaft centre (OC)
w Uniform angular velocity of shaft
Wc Critical speed of shaft. At equilibrium:
Centrifugal force = Elastic force

At equilibrium:

Centrifugal force = Elastic force

Further

Where

From (I)

Considering damping :

A vibrating body having mass 1 kg is suspended by a spring of stiffness 1000 N/rn and it is
put to harmonic excitation of 10 N. Assuming viscous damping, determine;
(a) the resonant frequency
(c) amplitude at resonance
(b) phase angle at resonance
(d) frequency corresponding to peak amplitude
(e) damped frequency.
Take c =40 N - sec/m

Ans. (a) Frequency at resonance

Damping factor E is given as

(b) Phase angle at resonance

(c) Amplitude at resonance

(d) The frequency corresponding to the peak amplitude

(e) The damped frequency is given as

The total mass of the system having rotating unbalance is 25 kg. At speed of 1000 rpm, the
system and the eccentric ma have a phase angle of 90 and the corresponding amplitude is
1.5 cm. The eccentric unbalance mass of 1 kg has radius of rotation 4 cm. Determine:
(a) Natural frequency of the system
(b) The damping factor
(c) The amplitude at 1500 rpm
(d) The phase angle at 1500 rpm.

Ans.Given :

At phase angle 90, the condition of resonance will occur i.e. w =Wc

The weight of an electric motor is 125 N and it runs at 1500 rpm. The armature weighs 35
N and its centre of gravity lies 0.05 cm from the axis of rotation. The motor is mounted on
five springs of negligible damping so that force transmitted is one-eleventh of the impressed
force. Assume that the weight of motor is equally distributed among the five springs.
Determine:

(a) Stiffness of each spring

(b) Dynamic force transmitted to the base at operating speed
(c) Natural frequency of the system.

The springs of an automobile trailer are compressed 0.1 m under its own weight. Find the
critical speed when the trailer is passing over a road with a profile of sine wave whose
amplitude is 80 mm and the wavelength is 14 m. Find the amplitude of vibration at speed of
60 km/hr.

Let us assume the critical speed of the trailer as Vm/sec

The value of forced frequency w at speed of 6p km/hr is

. The damped natural frequency of a system as obtained from a free vibration test is 9.8
c.p.s. During the forced vibration test, with constant excitation force on the same system
the maximum amplitude of vibration is found to be 9.6 c.p.c. Find the damping factor for
the system and its natural frequency.
Ans. We know that

From the above two equations, we find

Natural frequency of the system, Wn

Unbalanced force (force because of unbalance mass)

The force transmitted to the foundation is given by the expression

An instrument of 50 kg mass is located in an airplane cabin which vibrates at 2000 c p m

with an amplitude of 0.1 mm. Determine the stiffness of the four steel springs required as
supports for the instrument to reduce its amplitude to 0.005 mm. ft !so calculate the max.
Total load for which each spring must be designed.

Ans.

So using general relation

maxx. dynamic load on the springs :

Hence, each spring is subjected to load

A rotor of mass 12 kg is mounted in the middle of 25 mm diameter shaft supported

between two bearings placed at 900 mm form each other. The rotor is having 0.02 mm
eccentricity. If the system rotates at 3000 rpm, determine the amplitude - of steady state
vibrations and the dynamic force on the bearings. -Take E = 2 x i05 N/mm2
Ans. Let us assume the shaft simply supported, its stiffness is given by:

The negative sign indicates that the displacement is out of phase with centrifugal force
Dynamic load on bearings :

An air compressor of 450 kg operates at constant speed of 1750 r.p.m. Rotating parts are
well balanced. The reciprocating part is 10 kg and crank radius is 100 mm. The mounting
introduces a viscous damping of damping factor 0.15. Specify the spring for the mounting
such that only 20% of the unbalanced force is transmitted to the foundation. Find out the
amplitude of transmitted force.

Ans.

Mass of compressor = 450 kg, speed 1750 r.p.m.

We know that

The amplitude of unbalance force because of reciprocating parts

The amplitude of force transmitted

A vibrating body is supported by six isolators each having stiffness 32000 N/m and 6
dashpots having damping factor as 400 N-sec/m. The vibrating body is to be isolated by a
rotating device having an amplitude of 0.06 mm at 600 rpm. Take m3Okg. Determine: .
(a) Amplitude of vibration of the body (b) Dynamic load on each isolator due to vibration.

Amplitude A can be determined as

A weight of 2 kg is suspended by means of a spring having a stiffness of 4 kg/cm. The point

of support (top of spring) is given a vertical periodic displacement (S.H.M.) at 1200 cycles
per minute of maximum amplitude 0.32 cm. Determine (a) the absolute motion of the
weight, and (b) the relative motion between the weight and the support.
Ans. The natural frequency,

Given

We know that

The motion is harmonic

The ye sign indicated that motion of support and weight are 180 out of phase.
The relative motion between support and weight

Finally the equation of motion can be written as

A vibratory body of mass 150 kg-supported on springs of total stiffness 1050 kN/m has a
rotating unbalanced force of 525 N at a speed of 6000 r.p.m.If the damping factor is 0.3,
determine (a) The amplitude caused by the unbalance and its phase angle, (b) The
transmissibility, (c) The actual force transmitted and its phase angle.
Ans.

Unit-VI
APPROXIMATE METHODS OF VIBRATION ANALYSIS

Define the term influence co-efficient?

Ans. The influence coefficient a is defined as the static deflection at point because of
unit load acting at point j Similarly, a is the deflection at point j due to unit lad at point .
According to Maxwell Reciprocal Theorem

What are flexibility an stiffness matrix?

Ans. If a system made of several points is acted by several forces F1, F2 .... F causing respective
deflections x1, x2 x , it can be mathematically expressed as:

In matrix form it can be written as;

In short we can write as :

K12, are called stiffness influence coefficients

Prove Maxwells reciprocal theorem for simply supported beam with concentrated loads.

Ans. Consider fig. 6.1.

Let w1 is applied at point I from zero to full value. The deflection at point 1 is a11 w1.

Similarly, when is applied at point 2 gradually from zero to maximum value then

But when w2 is applied at point 2 the deflection at point 1 due to load

w is a12 w2. But already a force w1 is acting at point 1. The work done by force a corresponding
to deflection a12 w2 at point I is = W1 co a12
So total work done in first mode

Similarly, work done in second mode is given as;

Write short note son:

(a) Dunkerleys Method
(b) Rayleighs Method.

Ans. (A) Dunkerleys Method : This method is used to find the natural frequency of transverse
vibrations of structures. The load of the system is uniformly distributed. Dunkerleys equation
can be written as:

Assumptions:
1. The weight of shaft is neglected.
2. Each mass is acting separately at its pint of application m absence of other mass. Consider
fig. 6.4.

Let us neglect the weight of beam AB. Say the natural frequency of the system is cv and
corresponding to three loads being w1, w2 and w3.

From strength of materials

Applying boundary conditions.

y = 0 at x = 0
y = 0 at x = l

So

c2 = 0

(B) Rayleighs Method: This method is used to find natural frequency of the system when the
transverse point loads are act ton beam of shaft. It is based on the principle of conservation of
energy. The maximum kinetic energy is equated to maximum potential energy of the system to
determine the natural frequency.

Let us assume shaft of negligible weight AB is acted upon by number of point loads P, P3, P
which are acting transversely. Suppose y1 Y2 y3, y4 be the deflections under the influence of
point loads.
The maximum potential energy of the system

The maximum kinetic energy of the system can be written as;

Equating the maximum kinetic energy to fliaximum potential energy, we get

Find the lowest natural frequency of vibration for the system shown in Fig. 6.6 by
Rayleighs method.

Ans. According to Rayleighs method

Explain Holzer method with suitable example.

Ans. Hoizer Method: This is a trial and error method used to find the natural frequency and
mode shape of multimass lumped parameter system. This can be applied for both free and forced
vibrations. Consider Fig. 6.7 The fig. 6.7 shows four disc semi-definite system and its equations
of motion can be written as;

The motions are assumed to be harmonic so;

Summing the various terms of above equations, we get;

4. The value of 2 4. are put in equation (v) to check whether equation is satisfied or not If the
equation is not satisfied as new trial frequency w is assumed and whole process is repeated.

A shaft of negligible weight, 6 cm diameter and 5 metres long is simply supported at the
ends and carries four weights 50 kg each at equal distance over the length of the shaft. Find
the frequency of vibration by Dunkerleys method. Take E =2 x 106 kg/cm2.

Ans.

The general expression for static deflection because of point load W is given by;

According to Dunkerleys relation

Use Stodolas method to find the natural frequency of the system shown in Fig. 6.9.

Ans. Influence coefficients are;

This ratio is much different from the assumed ratio i.e. I : 1.

Second Trial

This ratio is also quite different.

Third Trial

values of ratios are equal.

This ratio is equal to the starting value for this trial. Thus the assumed and calculated

Determine the influence coefficients of the system shown in Fig. 6.10.

First trial

Let us assume deflections as

The inertia forces are given by

The corresponding deflections are given by

The ratios are different from the starting values.

Second trial

The ratios are again different from the starting values.

Third trial

The values of ratios are close to the starting values, hence the assumed and derived values of
deflection are approximately equal.

Use Hoizer method to find the natural frequencies of the system shown in Fig. 6.12.

Ans. The solution of the problem is presented in Table I and Fig. 13.

Ans. Sample calculation of Row 1.

What is generalized mass matrix?

Ans. Consider three degree freedom system as shown in figure.

The equations of motion can be written as

Rearranging, we get

Equation (I) can be written in matrix form as;

where [m] is called generalised mass matrix.

Calculate the natural frequency and mode shapes of the vibrating string as shown in figure
below, by influence coefficient method.

Ans.

Let T be the tension in the string. VAt point 1 unit load is acting downward and the vertical
components of tension balance the unit load.

Hence influence coefficients are;

Differential equation of motion is written as;

Equations IV, V and VI can be written as;

UNIT VII
MATRIX METHODS

Determine the natural frequencies of the system shown in Fig. 6.2. using matrix method.

Ans. The equations of motion can be written as;

In matrix form, the equation can be written as;

Put

The solution of the above equation is

Solving, we get

From the above cubic equation we get;

Determine the fundamental frequency and first mode of the system shown in Fig. 6.3 using
matrix iteration method.

Ans. Influence coefficients are

Putting values of various influence coefficients

This can be written in matrix form as:

Now assume

Third iteration

Fourth Iteration

The ratio obtained in fourth iteration is very close to the initial value; so

UNIT VIII
INTRODUCTION TO AEROELASTIC STABILITY

Aeroelasticity:
Aeroelasticity deals with the interaction between aerodynamic, elastic and inertial forces acting
on atmospheric flight vehicles. The aerodynamic and inertial loads deform the structure. The
deformations affect the airloads, which closes the aeroelastic loop.

Collars triangle
Static aeroelasticity deals with the effects of structural deformations on steady aerodynamic
load distributions and total force and moment coefficients, and with static instability
(divergence). It is assumed that:
The 6 d.o.f. airplane maneuvers are slow compared to the structural dynamics. The structure
deforms but structural vibrations have negligible effects.
The aerodynamic loads due to change in local angles of attack develop with no delays
Dynamic aeroelasticity deals with the interaction between structural dynamics and unsteady
aerodynamics. Delays in the development of aerodynamic loads are important. The main topics
are dynamic instability (flutter) and response to atmospheric gusts (deterministic and stochastic)
Dynamic Response
Buffeting

 Flutter
Why is it important?

The interaction between these three forces can cause several undesirable phenomena:
Divergence (static aeroelastic phenomenon)
Flutter (dynamic aeroelastic phenomenon)
Limit Cycle Oscillations (nonlinear aeroelastic phenomenon)
Vortex shedding, buffeting, galloping (unsteady aerodynamic phenomena

Dynamic response or forced response

Dynamic Response is the response of an object to changes in a fluid flow such as aircraft to gusts
and other external atmospheric disturbances. Forced response is a concern in axial compressor
and gas turbine design, where one set of aerofoils pass through the wakes of the aerofoils
upstream.
Buffeting
Buffeting is a high-frequency instability, caused by airflow separation or shock wave oscillations
from one object striking another. It is caused by a sudden impulse of load increasing. It is a
random forced vibration. Generally it affects the tail unit of the aircraft structure due to air flow
down stream of the wing.
Response due to time-dependentseparated ows (usually vortical) impinging on structural
surfaces.

Bluffed bodies on horizontal and vertical surfaces

Wings, strakes etc.. on vertical tails (often a twin tail problem).
Reduces structural life.

Flutter
Dynamic instability where-by the system extracts energy from the free stream ow producing a
divergent response.

Usually resultant of coupling of 2 or more structural modes

Wing bending and torsion
Wing bending control surface hinge torsion
Wing torsion fuselage bending
Horizontal or vertical tail and fuselage

Divergent behavior can occur within a few cycles

Aeroservoelasticity (ASE) deals with the interaction between aero elastic and Control systems.
The control system reads structural vibrations and activates Aerodynamic control surfaces, which
closes the aeroservoelastic loop.The models in this lecture series assume linearity of the
aerodynamic, structural and control systems
Flutter

Flutter is a self-feeding and potentially destructive vibration where aerodynamic forces

on an object couple with a structure's natural mode of vibration to produce rapid periodic
motion.
Flutter can occur in any object within a strong fluid flow, under the conditions that
a positive feedback occurs between the structure's natural vibration and the aerodynamic
forces.
That is, the vibrational movement of the object increases an aerodynamic load, which in
turn drives the object to move further. If the energy input by the aerodynamic excitation
in a cycle is larger than that dissipated by the damping in the system, the amplitude of
vibration will increase, resulting in self-exciting oscillation.
The amplitude can thus build up and is only limited when the energy dissipated by
aerodynamic and mechanical damping matches the energy input, which can result in
large amplitude vibration and potentially lead to rapid failure. Because of this, structures

exposed to aerodynamic forces including wings and aerofoils, but also chimneys and
bridges are designed carefully within known parameters to avoid flutter.

In complex structures where both the aerodynamics and the mechanical properties of the
structure are not fully understood, flutter can only be discounted through detailed testing.
Even changing the mass distribution of an aircraft or the stiffness of one component can
induce flutter in an apparently unrelated aerodynamic component
At its mildest this can appear as a "buzz" in the aircraft structure, but at its most violent it
can develop uncontrollably with great speed and cause serious damage to or lead to the
destruction of the aircraft
Flutter can also occur on structures other than aircraft. One famous example of flutter
phenomena is the collapse of the original Tacoma Narrows Bridge.

Flutter speed or critical utter speed:

Flutter is an aeroelastic instability involving 2 degrees of freedom (DoF), one apwise

and one torsional. The torsional structural mode (usually the rst mode) couples with a
apwise bending mode in a utter mode through the aerodynamic forces.
The aerodynamic forceslead to torsion of the structure. The torsion changes the angle of
attack and thus the aerodynamic lift force .

Flutter occurs when the change of angle of attackdue to torsion changes the lift in an
unfavourable phase with the apwise bending.
Flutter causes violent vibrations with rapidly growing amplitude. The utter modehas a
highly negative damping which can not be compensated by the structural damping.
Flutter only happens above a certain relative wind speed on the structure, known as the
critical utter speed.
The denition of the critical utter speed limit, is the wind speed at which the aeroelastic
system will oscillate harmonically without further excitation after an initial disturbance

Types of flutter
Binary wing torsion-wing bending flutter
Complex couplings between:
Wing-engine pods or wing-stores
Tail plane-fin
Wing-tail plane-fuselage-fin
Control surface flutter
Coupling of control surfaces with wing, tail, fin
Tab coupled with control surface
Whirl flutter
Stall flutter
Panel flutter
Aeroelastic Design
Aero elastic design occurs after the general aircraft configuration has been fixed.
There are no empirical or statistical design methods for aeroelastic design; flutter is a very
complex phenomenon.
Aero elastic design begins with the development of an aeroelastic mathematical model of the
aircraft.
This model is a combination of a structural model (usually a Finite Element model) with an
aerodynamic model (usually a doublet lattice model).

It is an adverse effect on the controllability of aircraft. The flight controls reverse themselves in a
way that is not intuitive, so pilots may not be aware of the situation and therefore provide the
wrong inputs; in order to roll to the left, for instance, they have to push the control stick to the
right, the opposite of the normal direction.

Divergence occurs when a lifting surface deflects under aerodynamic load so as to increase the
applied load, or move the load so that the twisting effect on the structure is increased. The

increased load deflects the structure further, which brings the structure to the limit loads and to
failure.
One such example case where this occurs is the divergent loading of a wing whose span-wise
stiffness increases across the wing chord. In this case the trailing edge of the wing is stiffer along
the wing span than the leading edge.
When the wing is loaded aerodynamically, under lift, the leading edge deflects faster than the
trailing edge yielding an increased angle of attack. This, in turn, increases the coefficient of lift
resulting in increased lift load which further increases the wing loading. Failure to arrest this
divergence is likely to result in structural failure of the wing.

Inertial coupling: