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Which is called the Laplaces equation. In addition, under static conditions, the
equation
is valid everywhere.
Solutions of Laplaces equation are known as Harmonic functions.
The expressions for the Laplacian operator in Cartesian, spherical and cylindrical
coordinates are given by the following expressions :
Cartesian
2 2 2
=
+
+
x 2 y 2 z 2
Spherical (r , , )
2
2
1 2
1
1
=
r
+
sin
+
r 2 sin 2 2
r 2 r r r 2 sin
Cylindrical ( , ,z)
2
1 1 2 2
=
+
+
r
2 2 z 2
2
(It may be noted that we have used the symbol for the potential and a closely
similar symbol for the azimuthal angle of the spherical coordinate system,
which should not cause confusion).
The formal solution of Poissons equation has been known to us from our
derivation of the form of potential using Coulombs law. It is easy to check that
1
the expression
Where we have used the primed variable to indicate the integrated variable
and as the position coordinate of the point where the potential is calculated.
We will operate both sides of the above equation with . Since
acts on the
variable , we can take it inside the integral on the right and make it operate on
the function
, and get,
Recall that
There may be many solutions to Poissons and Laplaces equations. However, the
solutions that interest us in Physics are those which satisfy the given boundary
conditions. Other than the assumed existence of the solutions subject to given
boundary conditions, one theorem that comes to our help is what is known as
the Uniqueness Theorem. The theorem basically states that corresponding to
various possible solutions of Laplaces or Poissions equation, the solution that
satisfies the given boundary condition is unique, i.e., no two different solutions
can satisfy the given equation with specified boundary conditions.
The great advantage of the theorem lies in the fact that if we obtain a solution by
some technique or even by intuition, we need not look any further, the solution
that we have at hand is the only possible solution.
What are these boundary conditions? Consider, for instance, a situation in which
we are required to find the solution of either of these equations in a region of
volume V bounded by a surface S. Within this region, we have, for instance, a set
of conductors with surfaces S1, S2, on which we know the values of the
potential. In addition, we are given the potential function on the surface S itself.
This is an example of boundary condition, known as the Dirichlet boundary
condition.
It is also possible that instead of specifying the values of potential on the
conductors, we are given the electric fields on the surface of the conductors,
which as we know, are directed normal to the surface of the conductors. This
would be yet another example of boundary conditions. Boundary conditions
where the normal derivatives of the function to be derived are specified on some
surface or surfaces are known as the Neumann boundary condition.
In addition to these two types of boundary conditions, there are other possible
boundary conditions. For instance in Cauchy boundary condition, the value of
both the potential and its normal derivative are specified. There could be mixed
2
To prove the uniqueness theorem, let us assume that contrary to the assertion
made in the theorem, there exist two solutions
of either Poissons or
Laplaces equation which satisfy the same set of boundary conditions on surfaces
S1, S2, and the boundary S. The conditions, as stated above, may be either of
Dirichlet type or Neumann type :
OR
(Neumann).
Further, whether
difference
are
In order to prove the Uniqueness theorem we will use Greens First Identity,
derived in Module 1, which states that for two arbitrary scalar fields and ,
the following identity holds,
, to get,
Since on the surface , either the Dirichlet or the Neumann boundary condition is
valid, the right hand side of the above is zero everywhere. (Note that the surface
consists of
, with the direction of normal being outward on S and
inward on the conductor surfaces enclosed).
. The
Since satisfies Laplaces equation, we are then left with
integrand, being a square of a field is positive everywhere in the volume and its
integral can be zero only if the integral itself is identically zero. Thus we have,
, which leads to
everywhere on the volume. If Dirichlet
boundary condition is satisfied, then
on the surface and therefore, it is
zero everywhere in the volume giving,
. If, on the other hand,
Neumann boundary condition is satisfied, we must have
, i.e.
everywhere. Since the constant can be chosen arbitrarily, we take
the constant to be zero and get
.
Example 1 : Parallel Plate Capacitor :
Likewise, the normal to the lower plate being in the positive z direction, the
charge density on that plate is equal and opposite. If we multiply the charge
density by the area of the plate A, we get (area is taken to be large so that the
edge effects are neglected),
to be the charge on the upper plate. The lower plate has equal but opposite
charge. Dividing the amount of charge on the positive plate by the potential
difference
between the plates, we get the capacitance of the parallel plate
capacitor to be
.
Example 2 : Coaxial Cable :
Consider a coaxial cable of inner radius a and outer radius b. The outer
conductor is grounded while the inner conductor is maintained at a constant
potential . Taking the z axis of the cylindrical coordinate system along the axis
of the cylinders, we can write down the Laplaces equation in the space between
the cylinders as follows :
at
gives
gives
, so that
, so that
Substituting these in the expression for the potential, we get the potential in the
region between the cylinders to be given by
5
The electric field in the region is given by the negative gradient of the potential
which is simply the derivative with respect to
Since
, the direction of the electric field is outward from the inner
conductor, which gets positively charged. The charge density of the inner
conductor is given by
where we have taken care of the minus sign by inverting the argument of log.
Note that the expression for the charge density on the outer plate will not be
identical because of the fact that the radii of the two cylinders are different. The
total charge per unit length on the inner conductor is given by
The magnitude of the charge per unit length on the outer conductor can be seen
to be the same. The capacitance per unit length is thus given by
gives
gives
given by
1.
2. The inner surface of the conductor which encloses the hollow is an
equipotential. Let the potential be . If there are no charges in the
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hollow, the potential there must satisfy Laplaces equation. We know that
solutions to Laplaces equations have no local minima or maxima. Thus
the potential inside the hollow must be the same as that on its boundary,
i.e., the potential has a constant value . Thus the electric field inside the
hollow is zero.
3. Conductor is an equipotential. Thus the inner surface of the hollow is also
at a potential . The potential inside the hollow must have the same
value of the potential because (i) being a constant, it satisfies Laplaces
equation and (ii) it satisfies Dirichlet boundary condition on the surface.
By uniqueness theorem, this is the only possible solution.
4. Let the first conductor be located at the origin and the second at x=10.
On the entire x axis other than at these two points, Laplaces equation is
applicable, which has the solution
. Inserting boundary
conditions we have,
so that the potential is
Volts. The electric field is
V/m.
10