Tutorial 4

SC-116 Algebraic Structures Autumn 2015

(Groups and Subgroups)

1. .
i) S = {(x, y) R R : x y is even}.
reflexive : (x, x) S x R, since x x = 0 is even.
symmetric : (x, y) S x y is even y x is even (y, x) S.
transitive : (x, y), (y, z) S (x y) + (y z) = x y is even (x, z) S.
ii) S = {(x, y) : x y Q}.
reflexive : x x = 0 Q (x, x) S.
symmetric : x y Q y x Q (y, x) S.
transitive : (x y) + (y z) = x z Q (x, z) S.
2. .
i) Left cosets : {4Z, 1 + 4Z, 2 + 4Z, 3 + 4Z}.
ii) Left cosets : {< 2 >, 1+ < 2 >}.
3. .
Conjugacy class of D8 .
Let G be a group. x y if g G such that y = gxg 1. We say x is conjugate to
y. This forms equivalence relations so conjugacy classes partitions the set G.
Now, if xg = gx g G. Then [x] = {gxg 1 : g G} = {x}.
So, in D8 , [1] = {1} and [r 2 ] = {r 2 }.
So, any other conjugacy class will have more than one element.
Now, |x| = |gxg 1|, so if x y then |x| = |y|. However, the converse is not true,
i.e. |x| = |y| 6 x y.
So, |r| = 4 and |r 3 | = 4, so [r] = {r, r 3 }. (Since, [r] has more than one element
and only r 3 has possibility to be its member. Or you can check that srs1 = srs =
ssr 1 = r 1 = r 3 ).
In general, we can solve for [r a ].
sr s = sna .
And, r b s(r a )(r b s)1 = r b (sr a s)r nb = r b r na r nb = r na . So, [r a ] = {r a , r na }.
In our case [r] = {r, r 3 } and [r 2 ] = {r 2 }.
a

Next, r b sr b = r 2b s, and (r b s)s(r b s)1 = r 2b+1 s.

So, here [s] = {s, r 2s}.
1

Also, r b (rs)r b = r 2b+1 s and r b s(rs)(r bs)1 = r 2b1 s.

So, here [rs] = {rs, r s}.
Conjugacy classes are : {1}, {r, r 3}, {r 2}, {s, r 2 s}, {rs, r s}.
(Though it was not necessary to solve the way initially we tried above as the general
method is shown. We just wanted you to know some properties of conjugacy classes.)
4. .
i) Given G is a group. We have Z = {x G : xg = gx g G}.
Clearly, 1 Z, so Z 6= .
If y Z then yg = gy G gy 1 = y 1 (inverse).
Now, for x, y Z, (xy 1 )g = x(y 1 g) = x(gy 1) = (xg)y 1 = g(xy 1) xy 1 Z.
So, Z G.
ii) Given x Z, we have [x] = {gxg 1 : g G} = {x}. Thus, each conjugacy class
is a singleton. Hence, its partition sets are all singleton.
iii) To show gZ = Zg or gZg Z or gZg = Z. All of them are equivalent definitions of a normal subgroup.
Let gz gZ gz = zg Zg gZ Zg. Similarly, we get Zg gZ and hence
gZ = Zg. Thus, Z E G.
5. .
i) Let |G| = p where p is prime.
Let x G then | < x > | divides |G| (by Lagranges theorem). So, | < x > | = 1 or p.
Hence, G is cyclic.
(Note that Lagranges theorem is proved for a subgroup not an element, i.e given G
is finite group and H G then |H| divides |G|. And, since |x| = | < x > |, that is
why we can also say |x| divides |G|.)
iii) Given H < G with iG (H) = 2, i.e index of H is 2.
So, we have {H, gH} and {H, Hg} for some g 6 H.
Clearly, gH = Hg, since if gh gH gh = h1 H, then g = h1 h1 H().
Thus, H G.
6. .
Let G be a group. We have H = {xyx1 y 1 : x, y G}. The element xyx1 y 1 is
called commutator and the subgroup generated by H, i.e < H >= [G, G], is called
commutator subgroup.
To show [G, G] G, i.e gag 1 [G, G] a [G, G].
Note that any conjugate of a commutator is also a commutator, i.e g(xyx1y 1 )g 1 =
(gxg 1)(gyg 1)(gx1 g 1)(gy 1g 1) [G, G].

Now, any element of [G, G], say a, is of the form a = a1 a2 . . . ar , i.e product of com1
mutators, where each ai = xi yi x1
for some xi , yi G.
i yi
1
1
1
So, we get gag = (ga1 g )(ga2g ) . . . (gar g 1 ) [G, G]. Hence, [G, G] is normal
in G.
Next, to show G/[G, G] is abelian.
Let a[G, G], b[G, G] G/[G, G]. Then, (ba)1 ab = a1 b1 ab [G, G] ab[G, G] =
ba[G, G]. Hence proved.