12/1/2015

(/design/)

TheChangingNatureofOrganizations,Work,andWorkplace|WholeBuildingDesignGuide

(/project/)

(/om/)

(/references/)

(/tools/) (/education/)

(/bim/)

TheChangingNatureofOrganizations,Work,andWorkplace
byJudithHeerwagen,Ph.D.,J.H.Heerwagen&Associates
KevinKellyandKevinKampschroer,U.S.GeneralServicesAdministration(http://www.gsa.gov/portal/category/100000)
Lastupdated:12152010

INTRODUCTION
Imagineyouwenttosleepandwokeuptoaworkdayin1960.Howdifferentisyourworklifetoday,comparedtowhatitwas40yearsago?Clearly,therewould
notbeaStarbucksoneverycorneroracellphoneineverypocketbutwhatelsehaschangedandwhy?
Intoday'sworld,thestructure,content,andprocessofworkhavechanged.Workisnow:
morecognitivelycomplex
moreteambasedandcollaborative
moredependentonsocialskills
moredependentontechnologicalcompetence
moretimepressured
moremobileandlessdependentongeography.
Intoday'sworld,youwillalsobeworkingforanorganizationthatislikelytobeverydifferentduetocompetitivepressuresandtechnologicalbreakthroughs.
Organizationstodayare:
leanerandmoreagile
morefocusedonidentifyingvaluefromthecustomerperspective
moretunedtodynamiccompetitiverequirementsandstrategy
lesshierarchicalinstructureanddecisionauthority
lesslikelytoprovidelifelongcareersandjobsecurity
continuallyreorganizingtomaintainorgaincompetitiveadvantage.
ThisResourcePageexploresthechangingnatureoforganizationsandwork,thedriversbehindthechanges,andtheconsequencesforworkersandthe
workplace.

DESCRIPTION
A.TheKeyDriversforChangingNatureofWork
Althoughmanyfactorsultimatelycontributetothechangingpatternsofwork,organizationaltheoristspointtotwokeydrivers:
Increasingpressuresonorganizationstobemorecompetitive,agile,andcustomerfocusedtobea"leanenterprise."
Communicationandinformationtechnologybreakthroughs,especiallymobiletechnologiesandtheInternetthatenableworktobeseparatedfromtimeand
space.
ChangesinOrganizationalFocus:WhatdoesitMeantobeLean?
TheLeanEnterprisemodelwasintroducedtotheworldbyToyotainthe1970s.Sincethen,ithasfueledchangesinorganizationsacrosstheglobe,particularly
butnotexclusivelyinmanufacturingandproductdevelopment.
ThekeyprinciplesofLeanEnterprise(or"leanthinking",asitissometimescalled)are:
Definevaluefromthecustomer'sperspective.
Identifyinternalactivitiesandprocessesthataddvalueforthecustomerandidentifylinkagesbetweenthem(the"valuechain").
Eliminatenonvalueaddedactivities(or"waste")acrosstheorganization.
Reducewasteandinefficienciesinsupport(e.g.,overhead)functions.
Theleanenterpriseprinciplesenabledmanyorganizationstorespondmorerapidlytothemarketplacebyreducingcycletime,developingmasscustomization
processes,andsupportingcontinualchangeandinnovation.
CreatingtheLeanMachine:ChangesinOrganizationalStructureandRelationships
Adoptingleanprinciplesandleanthinkinghasledtonumerouschangesinorganizationalstructuretoimprovetheefficiencyofinternalprocesses,withagoalof
eliminatingwasteanddefiningcustomervalue.
Thesechangeshavebeensupportedandenabledbytransformationsininformationandcommunicationstechnology,especiallytheInternetandmobilecomputing
andcommunicationdevices.
Keyorganizationalchangesinclude:
ReducedhierarchicalstructureHierarchiesarecumbersomeandcannotrespondquicklytochangingmarketdemands,suchaspressuresforreducedcycle
timeandcontinuousinnovation.Hierarchiesarebeingreplacedbycrossunitorganizationalgroupingswithfewerlayersandmoredecentralizeddecision
making.
BlurredboundariesAsorganizationsbecomemorelaterallystructured,boundariesbegintobreakdownasdifferentpartsoftheorganizationneedtowork
moreeffectivelytogether.Boundariesbetweendepartmentsaswellasbetweenjobcategories(manager,professional,technical)becomelooserandthereis
agreaterneedfortaskandknowledgesharing.
TeamsasbasicbuildingblocksThemovetowardateambasedorganizationalstructureresultsfrompressurestomakerapiddecisions,toreduce
inefficiencies,andtocontinuallyimproveworkprocesses.
NewmanagementperspectiveWorkersarenolongermanagedtocomplywithrulesandorders,butrathertobecommittedtoorganizationalgoalsand
mission.Theblurringofboundariesalsoaffectsorganizationalroles.Asemployeesgainmoredecisionauthorityandlatitude,managersbecomemoresocial
supportersandcoachesratherthancommanders.

https://www.wbdg.org/resources/chngorgwork.php

1/5

12/1/2015

TheChangingNatureofOrganizations,Work,andWorkplace|WholeBuildingDesignGuide

ContinuouschangeOrganizationsareexpectedtocontinuethecyclesofreflectionandreorganization.However,changesmaybebothlargeandsmalland
arelikelytobeinterspersedwithperiodsofstability.KlingandZmuidzinasidentifythreetypesofchange"metamorphosis"(farreaching,fundamental
change),"migration"(shiftstowardanewform),and"elaboration"(changesthatenhancesomeaspectofwork).

B.HowWorkisChangingforIndividualsandGroups
Overthepasttwodecades,anewpatternofworkisemergingastheknowledgeeconomyrealizesthefullpotentialofbothnewtechnologiesandnew
organizationalmodels.Thechangesfallintothefollowingdomains:
Cognitivecompetence
Socialandinteractivecompetence
Thenew"psychologicalcontract"betweenemployeesandemployers
Changesinprocessandplace
Althoughthesedomainsarediscussedseparately,theyoverlap.Webrieflydiscusstheoverlaps,wheretheyexist,andpointtothebenefitsandconcernsthenew
workpatternspresentforworkersandmanagers.
CognitiveCompetence
Cognitiveworkersareexpectedtobemorefunctionallyandcognitivelyfluidandabletoworkacrossmanykindsoftasksandsituations.Thebroaderspanof
work,broughtaboutbychangesinorganizationalstructure,alsocreatesnewdemands,including:
IncreasedcomplexityofworkWorkersneedtoknowmore,notonlytodotheirjobsandtasks,butalsotoworkeffectivelywithothersonteams.Many
knowledgebasedtasksrequiresoundanalyticalandjudgmentskillstocarryoutworkthatismorenovel,extemporaneous,andcontextbased,withfewrules
andstructuredwaysofworking.Althoughdemandforhighcognitiveskillsareespeciallyprominentinprofessional,technical,andmanagerialjobs,even
administrativetasksrequiremoreindependentdecisionmakingandoperationaldecisionmaking.
ContinuouscompetencydevelopmentNotonlydoworkersneedtokeeptheirtechnologyskillsuptodate,theyneedtobecontinuouslearnersintheir
knowledgefieldsandtoalsobemoreconversantwithbusinessstrategy.Timetoreadandattendtrainingclassesisnolongeraperquisiteofonlyafew,itis
essentialforallworkers.
DifferentwaysofthinkingRosabethKantorarguesthatcrossfunctionalandcrossboundaryteamsrequire"kaleidoscopethinking,"theabilitytosee
alternativeanglesandperspectivesandtocreatenewpatternsofthinkingthatpropelinnovation.Workersalsoneedtobeabletosynthesizedisparateideas
inordertomakethecognitiveleapsthatunderlieinnovation.
CognitiveOverload:TheCostofComplexity
Vastlyincreasedaccesstoinformationhasmadeworkbotheasierandmoredifficult.Theeasecomesfromabilitytorapidlylocateanddownloadinformationfrom
diversewebsites.Thedifficultycomeswiththeneedtoconsumeandmakesenseofnewinformationinatimelyfashion.Informationoverload,coupledwithtime
pressuresandincreasedworkcomplexity,leadtowhatpsychologistscall"cognitiveoverloadsyndrome(COS)."SymptomsofCOSincludestress,inabilityto
concentrate,multitasking,taskswitching,andatendencytofocusonwhatiseasytodoquicklyratherthanwhatisimportant.
SocialandInteractiveCompetence
Ina2001reportonthechangingnatureofwork,theNationalResearchCouncilcalledattentiontotheimportanceofrelationalandinteractiveaspectsofwork.As
collaborationandcollectiveactivitybecomemoreprevalent,workersneedwelldevelopedsocialskillswhatthereportcalls"emotionallabor."
Goodsocialskillsarenecessaryfor:
TeamworkandcollaborationConflictresolutionandnegotiationskillsareessentialtocollaborativework.Conflictsoftenoccuraboutgroupgoals,work
methods,assignments,workloads,andrecognition.Teammemberswithgoodconflictandnegotiationskillsarebetterequippedtodealopenlywithproblems,
tolistenandunderstanddifferentperspectives,andtoresolveissuesinmutuallybeneficialways.
RelationshipdevelopmentandnetworkingSharingimportantinformation,fulfillingpromises,willingnesstobeinfluenced,andlisteningarebuildingblocksof
reciprocityandthedevelopmentoftrust.Whenworkerstrustoneanother,theyaremorecommittedtoattainingmutualgoals,morelikelytohelponeanother
throughdifficulties,andmorewillingtoshareanddevelopnewideas.
LearningandgrowthManyorganizationsstrivetobelearningcenterstocreateconditionsinwhichemployeeslearnnotonlythroughformaltrainingbut
throughrelationshipswithcoworkers.Learningrelationshipsbuildonjointproblemsolving,insightsharing,learningfrommistakes,andworkingclosely
togethertoaidtransmissionoftacitknowledge.Learningalsodevelopsfrommentoringrelationshipsbetweennewcomersandthosewithexperienceand
organizationalknowhow.
TheCostsofCollaborativeEnvironments
Inacollaborativeworksetting,thefateofindividualsisinextricablyboundtocollectivesuccess.Dependenceonothersforone'sownsuccessisoften
uncomfortable.AsSusanMohrmanandSusanCohenwriteinachapterfromTheChangingNatureofWork:
"Wehavebeensocializedtovalueindividualresponsibilityandindividualachievement,andfeeldiscomfortwiththethoughtofrelyingonothers."
Commentsaboutthefearofnothavingindividualeffortsrecognizedarecommonintheliteratureonteamwork.
Collaborationandrelationshipdevelopmentalsotaketimeandeffort.Understandingcoworkers'perspectivesand"thoughtworlds"requirestimespentlistening,
integrating,andsynthesizing.Forthoseworkersrecognizedasbothknowledgeableandapproachable,thedemandsofinteractionmaybeespeciallyhigh.

C.TheNewPsychologicalContract
Asworkchanges,sodoesthenatureoftherelationshipsbetweenemployeesandemployers.Inthenewworkcontext,theinformal,"psychologicalcontract"
betweenworkersandemployerswhateachexpectsoftheotherfocusesoncompetencydevelopment,continuoustraining,andwork/lifebalance.Incontrast,
theoldpsychologicalcontractwasallaboutjobsecurityandsteadyadvancementwithinthefirm.Asalreadydiscussed,fewworkersexpect,ordesire,lifelong
employmentinasinglefirm.
Asjobsecuritydeclines,manymanagementscientistsseecloudsonthehorizon,including:
CorporateindifferenceShoshanaZuboffandJamesMaxmin,inTheSupportEconomy,describeanewindividualismamongU.S.workers.Thesenew
individualsareinvestedin"psychologicalselfdetermination."Theydesireparticipation,expression,identity,andqualityoflifeallvalueswhichareespoused
byorganizations,butlargelyignoredinpracticeasorganizationscontinuetofocusonreducingfixedlaborcosts.
ReducedloyaltyandcommitmentWithlittleexpectationforadvancement,workersfeellesscommittedtoorganizationalgoalsandmorecommittedtotheir

https://www.wbdg.org/resources/chngorgwork.php

2/5

12/1/2015

TheChangingNatureofOrganizations,Work,andWorkplace|WholeBuildingDesignGuide

ownlearninganddevelopment.Theknowledgeandtechnologicalskillsthatemployeesbringwiththemtotheworkplacearetransportableandarenotlost
whenanewjobistaken.
IncreasedtimeburdensYearsofdownsizingandoutsourcinghaveproducedwhatLesiePerlowcallsa"timefamine"thefeelingofhavingtoomuchtodo
andtoolittletimetodoit.Inordertokeepupwithworkloads,manyworkersarespendinglongerhoursatwork,accordingtoreportsbytheBureauofLabor
StatisticsandtheCenterforWorkforceDevelopment.
FlexibleworkarrangementsdonotkeepupwithemployeepreferencesTheWorkTrends2000reportfoundthat74%ofworkerswerenotallowedflexible
hoursandworkarrangements(suchastelecommuting).Thosewithflexhourshavelimitedfreedomregardingwhenandwheretowork.Thevastmajorityof
workershavetocommittoaspecificdaytoworkathomeoraspecificdaytotakeoffiftheyworkfour10hourdays.

D.TheChangingWorkplace
Thechangingworkplaceisdrivenbytheorganizationalissuesdescribedaboveandenabledbytechnologiesthatsupportmobilityandeasyaccesstoinformation.
Thesepressuresandopportunities,however,havenotresultedinaspecificnewworkplacemodel.Manymodelsandideasexistconcurrently,withdesigns
dependingupontheorganization,itsworkpractices,culture,andcustomers.Table1highlightskeydrivers,solutions,andpotentialissuesraisedbythesolution.
Table1.Drivers,Solutions,andIssuesfortheChangingWorkplace
Drivers

Workplaceandtechnologysolutions

Issuesandconcerns

Increaseduseofteamsand
crossunitworkmore
pressureforcommunication
andinformationflow

Moremeetingspace
Greatervarietyofmeetingspaces(open&enclosed,large&
small)
Smallerindividualworkspaces
Moreopenindividualworkspaces
Unassignedworkspaces
Greaterinteriorvisibilitytosupportawareness
Mobilesupports(/design/integrate_tools.php)(phones,laptops,
PDAs,wireless)
Personalvideo,instantmessaging,desktopteamsoftware
Moreuseofprojectrooms
Displayedinformationandworkprogress
Smallroomsforindividualfocus
Lockersforpersonalbelongings

Increasednoise
Increaseddistractionsandinterruptions
Potentialfor"overcommunicating"
Culturalbarrierstobehavioralchange
Individualsworkinglongerhourstocompensateforlackof
timetodoindividualtasks
Expectationsthatworkersarealwaysavailable

Greateruseofdispersedwork
groupsoftenglobal

Increaseduseofvideoconferencing,computerbasedteamtools
Morerelianceonconferencecalls
Greaterneedformobiletechnologicalsupportsformeeting
rooms
Useoffacilitiesbeyondnormalworkinghours

Expansionoftheworkdaytoaccommodategeographically
dispersedteammeetings
Lossofopportunitytodeveloptrustthroughfacetoface
interaction
Moredifficultymanagingandcoordinating
Veryhighdependenceontechnological
reliability(/design/assure_spaces.php)

Continualreorganizationand
restructuring

Flexibleinfrastructure(/design/design_change.php)tosupport
rapidreconfiguration
Mobilefurnishings

Acousticalproblemswithlossofgoodenclosure
Potentialforreducedergonomiceffectiveness

Reducedcosts/moreefficient
spaceuse

Sharedorunassignedworkspaces
Centralizedfilingsystem
Reducedworkstationsizeandincreasedoveralldensities
Greateroverallspatialvarietytoenabledifferentkindsofworkto
beaccommodatedatsametime

Increaseddistractionsandinterruptions
Increasednoise
Maymeetwithemployeeresistance
Moredifficultforpaperintensivework

Improvedqualityofworklife
andattractionofnewworkers

Moreequitableaccesstodaylight(daylighting.php),views,and
otheramenities
Moreequitablespatialallocationandworkspacefeatures
Amenitiesforstressreductionandquietrelaxation

Resistancefromthosewhosupporthierarchicalspace
allocation

APPLICATION
Examples
DenverFederalCenter,Denver,Colorado.Owner:U.S.GeneralServicesAdministration(GSA)
TheDenverworkplaceprojectwasrespondinginitiallytoGSA's"WorldclassWorkplaceforaWorldclassWorkforce"
programtoprovidebetterworkenvironmentsforassociatesandtoultimatelyattractandretainnewworkers.However,
astheprojectdeveloped,theGSAPublicBuildingsService(PBS)teamgrewmoreinterestedinusingtheworkplaceas
acatalystforsocialchangeandthedevelopmentofworkrelationshipswiththeultimategoalofimproving
responsivenesstocustomers.
KeyGoals
Improveinternalworkingrelationships,especiallycrossgroupcommunicationandcollaboration
ReduceworkplacestressandincreasetheoverallqualityoflifeforGSAassociates
UsetheworkplaceaswaytoshowthatPBSisathoughtleader,notafollower,inworkplacedesign
WorkplaceSolutions
Openspacesatcentralnotesforspontaneousinteraction
Moremeetingspacesofagreatervariety
Acentrallylocatedcafformeetingsandlunch
Anewdaylitentryspace
A"destress"spacewithpooltable,pingpong,exerciseroomandloungefurnishings(allpaidforbythestaffthrough
fundraisingefforts)

https://www.wbdg.org/resources/chngorgwork.php

Photo1.Thenewdaylitentryspaceinthe
GSAbuildingattheDenverFederal
Centercreatesnotonlyapositive
impression,butalsoacentralsocial
spacewhereassociatesfrequently
encounteroneanotherontheirwayto
differentareasinthebuilding.

3/5

12/1/2015

TheChangingNatureofOrganizations,Work,andWorkplace|WholeBuildingDesignGuide

Photo2(Left)Thedestressspace(knownas"ThePit")supportsgroup
socialoccasions,exercise,andpoolplayingduringbreaks.The
furnishingsandequipmentin"ThePit"wereprovidedthrough
fundraisingeffortsbythestaff.
Photo3(Right)Theskylightcaf,locatedrightoffoftheentryway,is
usedforinformalmeetingsaswellaslunchtimegatherings.

OutcomesfortheDenverProject
Aresearchprogramiscurrentlyunderwaytoassesschangesinsocialnetworksandcommunicationbehaviors,workplacestress,andworkplacequality.
Preliminaryfindingsshowthat:
ComparedtootherGSAworkplaces,thenewDenverworkplacescoredhigheronanumberofsocialoutcomesasmeasuredbyawebbasedsurvey
administeredbytheUniversityofCalifornia,CenterfortheBuiltEnvironment.
ApreliminarysocialnetworkanalysisconductedbyresearchersatthePacificNorthwestNationalLaboratoryshowthatfacetofaceinteractionsare
significantlyhigherthanvirtualcommunicationsamongassociatesinthespace.Thesocialnetworksurveywillbeadministeredagainwhenthefinalphaseof
theworkplacerenovationiscompleted.
Workplacestressresearchiscurrentlyunderway.PhysiciansandpsychologistsattheNationalInstitutesofHealthareusinginnovativetechnologiestomonitor
stressovera24hourperiodandarealsousingbehavioralsamplingtogatherperiodicdataonmood,activity,andlocation.
CiscoSystems,ConnectedWorkplaceProofofConcept,SanJose,CA
Likemanyotherorganizationstoday,Ciscocametotheconclusionthattheirworkplaceenvironmentwasatoddswith
thewaytheyworked.Peoplewereseldomattheirdesks.Meetingspaceswereinshortsupply.Communicationwas
evermorevariablefacetoface,instantmessaging,desktopvideo,phone,email.Andworkhoursshifteddramaticallyas
theneedtoworkgloballyincreased.Withthesechangesinmind,Ciscocreatedthe"ConnectedWorkplace."Itis
currentlyintheProofofConceptphasewithanewdemonstrationofficespaceontheircampusinSanJose.
KeyGoals
Encouragecollaboration
Reducerealestatecosts
Reduceinfrastructurecosts
Accommodatedifferentworkstyles

Photo4.TheConnectedWorkplace
enablesCiscoemployeestoworkalone
orinsmallgroupsatworkstationsorin
informalworkareas.
(CopyrightbyCiscoSystems)

ProjectHypothesis
Aflexible,collaborativeworkspacecouldimproveproductivityandincrease
employeesatisfactionwhilereducingrealestatespaceandcostsbyincreasing
userdensity(from"CiscoConnectedWorkplaceEnhancesWorkExperience
andCutsCosts,"www.cisco.com(http://www.cisco.com)).
WorkplaceSolutions
Unassignedworkspaces
Increasednumberandvarietyofmeetingspaces,fromenclosed
conferenceroomsandinformalareaswithcomfortablechairstoacentrally
locatedcaf
Smallindividualworkstations
Highlymobilefurnishingsandspacedividers
Lockersforpersonalitems
IncreaseddensitythespaceusedforthePOCwouldnormallyhold88
employeescomparedtothe140actuallyassignedtotheworkplace
Highvisibilitythroughoutthespace
Highdaylightandviewstothesurroundingoutdoorlandscape

Photo5.Alongtablenexttothewindow
servesasaworksettingforbothasmall
groupandindividualsworkingontheir
laptops.
(CopyrightbyCiscoSystems)

EnablingTechnologies
WirelessinfrastructureandwirelessLANS
Laptopsanddockingstations
Ciscoworksupportsoftwareforindividualsandgroups
CiscoIPCommunicationsTechnology,includingsoftwarethatenablescallsoverPCsusingwiredorwireless
headsets
Mobilevideoconferencingtoolsandsoftwareforwebmeetings
Interactivewhiteboards
Instantmessaging,emailandvoicemail
Toolsforenablingworkerstoquicklylocateeachotherindifferentareasofthebuilding
Outcomes
Althoughprojectevaluationisstillunderway,preliminaryresultsshow:
Employeesexpressedgenerallyhighlevelsofsatisfactionwiththetechnologies,light,openness,andincreased

https://www.wbdg.org/resources/chngorgwork.php

Photo6.AwirelessBluetoothheadset,
coupledwithCiscodevelopedsoftware,
enablesworkerstousetheirlaptopsto
sendandreceivephonecallswhilethey
areworkinginadhocspacesinthe

4/5

12/1/2015

TheChangingNatureofOrganizations,Work,andWorkplace|WholeBuildingDesignGuide

ConnectedWorkplace.
opportunityforcollaboration
Thosewhotypicallyspentthemosttimeattheirdesksweremorechallengedbythemobility
Costsavingsof37%to60%acrosscategoriessuchasrent,construction,furniture,cabling,andworkplaceservices.

ADDITIONALRESOURCES
WBDG
Building/SpaceTypes
Applicabletobuildingtypes(/design/buildingtypes.php)andspacetypes(/design/spacetypes.php)thatareregularlyoccupiedorvisited.
DesignObjectives
Accessible(/design/accessible.php),Aesthetics(/design/aesthetics.php),CostEffective(/design/cost_effective.php),Functional/
Operational(/design/func_oper.php),Productive(/design/productive.php),ProductiveIntegrateTechnologicalTools(/design/integrate_tools.php),Productive
AssureReliableSystemsandSpaces(/design/assure_spaces.php),ProductiveDesignfortheChangingWorkplace(/design/design_change.php),Secure/
Safe(/design/secure_safe.php),Sustainable(/design/sustainable.php)
ProjectManagement
BuildingCommissioning(/project/buildingcomm.php)
Tools
BuildingLifeCycleCost(BLCC)(/tools/blcc.php)

Publications
"AFewThoughtsonCognitiveOverload"byD.Kirsh.Intellectia,1(30):1951,2000.
TheChangingNatureofWorkbyA.Howard,Ed.SanFrancisco,CA:JosseyBass,1995.
TheChangingNatureofWork:ImplicationsforOccupationalAnalysisbyNationalResearchCouncil,CommitteeonTechniquesforEnhancementofHuman
Performance:OccupationalAnalysis.Washington,DC:NationalAcademyPress,2001.
CiscoConnectedWorkplaceEnhancesWorkExperienceandCutsCostsbyCiscoSystems,2003.Available:www.cisco.com(http://www.cisco.com).
CiscoITCaseStudy/RealEstate/CiscoConnectedWorkplaceAvailable:www.cisco.com(http://www.cisco.com).
TheMachinethatChangedtheWorldbyJ.P.Womack,D.T.Jones,andD.Roos.OldTappan,N.J.:Macmillan,1990.
"TheNewWorkforceMeetstheChangingWorkplace"byR.M.Ranter.InTheNatureofWork:SociologicalPerspectives.K.EriksonandS.P.Vallas(Eds).
NewHavenandLondon:YaleUniversityPress,1990.
TheSupportEconomybyS.ZuboffandJ.Maxmin.NewYork:PenguinGroup,VikingPress,2002.
"Technology,Ideology,andSocialTransformation:TheCaseofComputerizationandWorkOrganization"byR.Kling,andM.Zmuidzinas.Revue
InternationaledeSociologie,23:2856,1994.
TheTimeBindbyA.Hochschild.NewYork:MetropolitanBooks,1977.
"TheTimeFamine:TowardaSociologyofWorkTime"byL.Perlow.AdministrativeScienceQuarterly,44:5781,1999.
Tomorrow'sOrganizationbyS.A.Mohrman,J.A.Gailbraith,E.E.LawlerIII,andAssociates.SanFrancisco:JosseyBass,1998.
TheToyotaWaybyJ.Liker.NewYork:McGrawHill,2003.
WhenPeopleGetOutoftheBoxbyS.A.MohrmanandS.G.Cohen.InTheChangingNatureofWork.A.Howard(Ed).SanFrancisco,CA:JosseyBass,
1995.
WorkTrends,2000.NothingbutNet:AmericanWorkersandtheInformationEconomybyJohnJ.HeldrichCenterforWorkforceDevelopment,Rutgers
UniversityandCenterforSurveyResearchandAnalysis,UniversityofConnecticut.

NationalInstituteofBuildingSciences(http://www.nibs.org/)|AnAuthoritativeSourceofInnovativeSolutionsfortheBuiltEnvironment
1090VermontAvenue,NW,Suite700|Washington,DC200054950|(202)2897800|Fax(202)2891092
2015NationalInstituteofBuildingSciences.Allrightsreserved.Disclaimer(/about.php)

https://www.wbdg.org/resources/chngorgwork.php

5/5