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ROCKBREAKAGEANDBLASTDESIGNCONSIDERATIONSINOPENPIT
PARTHADASSHARMA
1.ExplosivesEnergyReleaseandRockBreakage:Mechanismofrockbreakagewhilereleaseof
Explosivesenergyupondetonationandotherrelevantpointsarediscussedbelow:
Whenanexplosivechargeisdetonated,chemicalreactionoccurwhich,veryrapidlychanges
thesolidorliquidexplosivemassintoahotgases.
Thisreactionstartsatthepointofinitiationwheredetonatorisconnectedwithexplosivesand
formsaconvexlikeshockwave(Compressivewave)onitsleadingedgethatactsonthe
boreholewallandpropagatesthroughtheexplosivecolumn.
Aheadofthereactionzoneareundetonatedexplosiveproductsandbehindthereactionzone
areexpandinghotgasses.
UnderstandingtheoryofdetonationofexplosivesTheselfsustainedshockwaveproduced
byachemicalreactionwasdescribedbyChapmanandJouquetasaspace.Thisspaceof
negligiblethicknessisboundedbytwoinfiniteplanesononesideofthewaveisthe
unreactedexplosiveandontheother,theexplodedgasesasshownintheFig.1.Therearethree
distinctzones:a)Theundisturbedmediumaheadoftheshockwave,b)ArapidpressureatY
leadingtoazoneinwhichchemicalreactionisgeneratedbytheshock,andcompleteatX,c)A
steadystatewavewherepressureandtemperaturearemaintained.Thisconditionofstability
conditionforstabilityexistsathypotheticalX,whichiscommonlyreferredtotheChapman
Jouquet(CJ)plane.BetweenthetwoplanesXandYthereisconservationofmass,momentum
andenergy.
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(https://miningandblasting.files.wordpress.com/2012/10/fig1.jpg)
Fig1
Velocityofdetonation(VOD)ofexplosiveisfunctionofHeatofreactionofanexplosive,
densityandconfinement.Thedetonationpressure(unitinN/m2)thatexistsattheCJplaneis
functionofVODofexplosives.Thedetonationofexplosivesincylindricalcolumnsandin
unconfinedconditionsleadstolateralexpansionbetweentheshockandCJplanesresultingin
ashorterreactionzoneandlossofenergy.Thus,itiscommontoencounteramuchlowerVOD
inunconfinedsituationsthaninconfinedones.
RockbreakagebyDetonationandInteractionofexplosiveenergywithrockTherearethree
sourcesofgenerationoffragmentsinmines:(a)Fragmentsformedbynewfracturescreatedby
detonatingexplosivecharge,(b)Insitublocksthathavesimplybeenliberatedfromtherock
masswithoutfurtherbreakageand(c)Fragmentsformedbyextendingtheinsitufracturesin
combinationwithnewfractures.
Rockfragmentationbyblastingisachievedbydynamicloadingintroducedintotherockmass.
Theexplosiveloadingofrockcanbeseparatedintotwophases,theshockwaveandgas
pressurephase(Fig.2).

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(https://miningandblasting.files.wordpress.com/2012/10/fig2.jpg)
Fig.2
Rapidthedetonationprocess,thequickertheenergyreleasefromexplosivesmass,inthe
formofashockwavefollowedbygaspressure,isappliedtotheboreholewall.Inotherwords,
fasterthedetonationvelocityoftheexplosive,quickeristheenergyappliedtotheborehole
wall,andforashortertimeperiod.
Conversely,withaslowerdetonationvelocity,theenergyisappliedmoreslowly,andfora
longertimeperiod.Thedegreeofcouplingbetweentheexplosiveandtheboreholewallwill
haveaneffectonhowefficientlytheshockwaveistransmittedintotherock.
Pumpedorpouredexplosiveswillresultinbettertransmissionofenergythancartridge
productswithanannularspacebetweenthecartridgeandtheboreholewall.
Again,thepressurethatbuildsupintheboreholedependsnotonlyuponexplosive
composition,butalsothephysicalcharacteristicsoftherock.
Strongcompetentrockwillresultinhigherpressuresthanweak,compressiblerock.
Whentheshockwavereachestheboreholewallthefragmentationprocessbegins.
Thisshockwave,whichstartsoutatthevelocityoftheexplosive,decreasesquiterapidlyonce
itenterstherockandinashortdistanceisreducedtothesonicvelocityofthatparticularrock.
Mostrockhasacompressivestrengththatisapproximately7timeshigherthanitstensile
strength,i.e.ittakes7timestheamountofenergytocrushitasitdoestopullitapart.
Whentheshockwavefirstencounterstheboreholewall,thecompressivestrengthoftherock
isexceededbytheshockwaveandthezoneimmediatelysurroundingtheboreholeiscrushed.

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(https://miningandblasting.files.wordpress.com/2012/10/fig3.jpg)
Fig.3
Astheshockwaveradiatesoutwardatdecliningvelocity,itsintensitydropsbelowthe
compressivestrengthoftherockandcompressivecrushingstops.
Theradiusofthiscrushedzonevarieswiththecompressivestrengthoftherockandthe
intensityoftheshockwave,butseldomexceedstwicethediameteroftheborehole.
However,beyondthiscrushedzone,theintensityisstillabovethetensilestrengthoftherock
anditcausesthesurroundingrockmasstoexpandandfailintension,resultinginradial
cracking.
Thehotgasfollowingtheshockwaveexpandsintotheradialcracksandextendsthemfurther.
Thisisthezonewheremostofthefragmentationprocesstakesplace.
However,ifthecompressiveshockwavepulseradiatingoutwardfromtheholeencountersa
fractureplane,discontinuityorafreeface,itisreflectedandbecomesatensionwavewith
approximatelythesameenergyasthecompressivewave.
Thistensionwavecanpossiblyspalloffaslabofrock(seefigure3).
Thisreflectionrockbreakagemechanismdependsheavilyuponthreeimportantrequirements:
(a)thecompressivewave(andresultingreflectedtensilewave)muststillbeofsufficientintensity
toexceedthetensilestrengthoftherock,
(b)thematerialonoppositesidesofthefractureplaneordiscontinuitymusthavedifferent
impedances,
(c)thecompressivepulsemustarriveparallelto,ornearlyparallelto,thefractureplaneorfree
face.
Ifcarriedtoextreme,whenthisreflectivebreakageorspallingprocessoccursatafreeface,it
canresultinviolentthrow,asituationthatisnotdesirable.
Thiscanbeovercomebydesigningblastswithburdenandspacingdimensionsthatarewithin
reasonablelimits.
Oncethecompressiveandtensilestressescausedbytheshockwavedropbelowthetensile

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Oncethecompressiveandtensilestressescausedbytheshockwavedropbelowthetensile
strengthoftherock,theshockwavebecomesaseismicwavethatradiatesoutwardatthesonic
velocityofthematerialthroughwhichitpasses.
Atthispoint,itisnolongercontributingtothefragmentationprocess.
Importantpointslearnedthroughexperience:
Withintherangeofconventionalblasting,thephysicalcharacteristicsoftherockaremore
importantthanthecharacteristicsoftheexplosivesusedandcanhaveagreaterimpacton
thesuccessorfailureofablast.
Finalsizefragmentationisusuallyobtainedbeforeanyappreciablerockmovementor
throwoccurs.
Rockcanabsorbonlysomuchenergyandonlyatacertainmaximumratebeforeitwillfail.
Thefinaldisplacementofthebulkoftherockismoreafunctionofthedurationofthegas
pressurethanitsintensity.
2.ContemplationofBlastDesign:Blastdesigningisnotascience,butknowledge,experience,
studyingandanalyzingpastpracticesinrelationtorockstrata&geologyetc.,makesblasterto
achieveperfection.Thus,forablaster,valuabletoolisthefileofblastreportsthathebuildsashe
gainsexperience.Notonlydotheseprovideevidenceofthequalityofhiswork,buttheyalso
provideawealthofinformationuponwhichhecandrawasfutureblastingsituationsdevelop.
BlastDesign:Thisismeanttobeatoolboxforblastdesigninconventionalrockquarryingand
openpitmines.Thiswriteupisnotmeanttogivestraightanswerstotheblastdesign
parameters,aseverysinglequarryisunique.However,thegeneralrelationsbetweenthemain
blastingparameters;geology,blastabilityandexplosives,willbeapplicable,andtheestimation
modelisaverygoodtoolforplanningtestblastsandexperiments,andalsoforadjustmentsof
theblastdesignwhenthisisnecessaryforoptimisingthequarryproductionlineastime
progresses.Highaccuracythroughoutthewholeblastingprocessisfundamentalforachievinga
properblastresult.Variouspointsassuccesscriteriaareshownbelow:
Planning
Surveyingandmarkingofholes
Adjustmentofdrillingpattern
Adjustmentofspecificcharge
Delaytimesandinitiationpattern
Accuratedrilling
Properlyselectedstemmingmaterial
Control,documentationandsupervisionofthework
Whenoptimisingquarryoperations,itisoftendifficulttoaccomplishseveralelementsof
improvementsimultaneously.Itisveryimportanttotryoneeffortatatimeandbesureofthe
conclusionsfromeachsinglespecificadjustmentbeforeintroducingnewadjustments.Elements
ofimprovementmustbeeffectuatedaccordingtoamutualsuperiorstrategy.

Itisimportanttocontinuouslykeepuptheprocessofimprovementandalwaysbeinterestedin

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Itisimportanttocontinuouslykeepuptheprocessofimprovementandalwaysbeinterestedin
increasingtheworkersknowledgeandskillsabouttheprocess.Thismustbedonetogain
competenceandeffectuatethepotentiallongtermoutlook.Itisimportanttodocumentthe
resultstoavoidlossofinformationifkeypersonnelquit.Thesumofimprovementswillmost
oftenbevisualisedintheformofhigherefficiencyandlowerrepairandmaintenancecosts.
Understandingthemeaningoftheblastingprocessasacontinuouscycle,howthevarious
parameterscanbechangedtooptimizewantedblastingresultandhowtoevaluatetheresult,is
essentialwhenoptimizingthequarryprocesses.
Beforeablastercandesignablast,thereareanumberofsitespecificthingsthathemusttakeinto
considerationthatwillhaveanimpactonhisdesign.Blastershoulddefineatleastthefollowing
itemsbeforeheundertakestodesignablast:
A.Fragmentationdesired:
Sizeofdigging/handlingequipment.
Sizeofcrushingequipment(ifrequired).
Riprapordimensionalstonedesired?
Sizelimitationsinprojectspecifications?
B.Rockquality/character:
Hard?Soft?Porous?
Holeswet?Dry?Variable?
Jointsandslipplanes?Beddingplanes?
Voidsorotherincompetentzones?
C.Sitelimitations:
Structuresorotherpropertytoprotect?Atwhatdistance?
Utilitiesnearby(undergroundoraboveground)?
Vibrationandairblastconsiderations?
Integrityofrocktobeleftinplace.
Onsiteoroffsitevehicletraffic?
Anyotherprojectspecificationlimitations?
D.Safetylimitations:
Adequateprotectionfromflyrock?
Weatherislightningapossibility?
Anynearbyelectricalhazards?
AnynearbyRF(radio)hazards?
Impacthazardsfromrockfall?
Ventilationneeded?
Trafficcontrolrequired?
Theimpactofpotentialmisfires.(Howisolatedisthesite?
Isdoubleprimingadvisabletominimizemisfires?)
E.Equipment/materialslimitations:

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E.Equipment/materialslimitations:
Drillingequipmentsize,condition.
Steellengthsavailabledepthofblast.
Explosives(includingdetonators)Type,size,quantityavailable.
Adequatemagazinesitenearby?
Blastingmatsavailableifneeded?
Otherblastingaccessories?
Apart,investigatetheareathoroughlyandidentifythoseitemsthatwillaffectyourblastorbe
affectedbyyourblastanddesignaccordingly.
3.BlastdesignCalculationsandempiricalformulas:Indesigningablast,followingprinciples
shouldbekeptinmind:
Explosiveforcefunctionsbestwhentherockbeingblastedhasafreefacetowardwhichitcan
break.
Theremustbeanadequatevoidoropenspaceintowhichthebrokenrockcanmoveand
expand(orswell).
Toproperlyutilizetheenergyavailable,theexplosiveproductshouldbewellconfinedwithin
therock.
Ifablastislackinginoneormoreoftheseaboveprinciples,theresultswillgenerallybelessthan
desired.
EmpiricalformulasdevelopedbyAshwithfewmodificationsarediscussedhere.Following
symbolsanddefinitionsaregiveninrelationtotheequationsdiscussed:
D=Diameter(ininches)oftheexplosiveintheborehole.
B=Burden,thedistance(infeet)fromachargetothenearestfreefaceinthedirectionthat
displacementwillmostlikelyoccur.
S=Spacing,thedistance(infeet)betweentwoholes,measuredperpendiculartothe
correspondingburden.
L=Holelengthordepth(infeet).
J=Subdrillinglength(infeet),thedepththattheholeextendsbelowtheanticipatedgradeor
floor.
T=Stemmingheightorcollardistance(infeet).Thetopportionoftheholecontaininginert
materialsintendedtopreventprematureejectionofgasses.
H=Benchorfaceheight(infeet).
Note:Intheserelationships,theBurdenandSpacingdimensionsaretheshotburdenand
spacing,whichmayormaynotbethedrilledburdenandspacing.Changesintheinitiation
timingschemewilldeterminethedifference(seeFig.4).Moreover,itisimportanttounderstand
thattheblastparameterslistedareinterrelatedandthatchangingoneparameterwillhavean
impactonothers.

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(https://miningandblasting.files.wordpress.com/2012/10/fig4.jpg)
Fig4
Discussion:
Theburdenthatcanbesuccessfullyblasteddependslargelyuponthestrengthoftherockand
theamountofenergythatisplacedbehindit.
Theamountofenergythatcanbeloadedisdependentupontheholevolume,ordiameter;
hence,theholediameterandrockstrengthlargelydeterminetheburdendistance.
Often,theholediameterhasalreadybeenestablishedbythedrillingequipmentonhand.
Ifithasnt,theoptimumholediametershouldbeselectedbaseduponconsiderationssuchas
fragmentationdesired,benchheight,rockquality,etc.
Inselectingholesize,smallerholediametersandtighterpatternswillresultinbetter
fragmentation,butwillincreasedrilling,loadingandproductcosts.
Tallerbenchheightswillallowlargerholediametersandlargerburdensandlessdrillingand
blastingcost.
Also,ifthematerialtobeblastedisblocky,itisquitelikelythatsomeblocksmayemerge
intactunlesssmallerholediametersandtighterpatternsplaceexplosiveswithinthem.
Oncetheholediameterhasbeenestablished,burdendistancecanbeselected.


Thefollowingratioscanbeusedasfirstapproximationsindesigningblasts.Bearinmindthatthe

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Thefollowingratioscanbeusedasfirstapproximationsindesigningblasts.Bearinmindthatthe
ratioswillusuallyhavetobeadjustedasonelearnsmoreabouthowtheparticularrockreacts
whenblasted:
Burden=roughly24to36timestheexplosivediameter.
1. UsingAN/FOataspecificgravityof0.82g/cc:
i)lightrock(2.2g/ccdensity)=28xdiameter
ii)mediumrock(2.7g/ccdensity)=25xdiameter
iii)denserock(3.2g/ccdensity)=23xdiameter
1. UsingSlurries,Emulsions,etcataspecificgravityof1.20g/cc:
i)lightrock(2.2g/ccdensity)=33xdiameter
ii)mediumrock(2.7g/ccdensity)=30xdiameter
iii)denserock(3.2g/ccdensity)=27xdiameter
Spacing=1.0to2.0timestheburden
i)holesshotinstantlybyrow=1.82.0xburden
ii)largediameterholesshotsequentially=1.21.5xburden
iii)smalldiameterholesshotsequentially=1.51.8xburden
Benchheight=1.5to4timestheburden,orpossiblyhigher
Benchheightisusuallylimitedonthelowendbytheheightofthestemmingcolumnrequired
anditslimitingeffectontheamountofexplosivethatcanbeloaded,andlimitedonthehighend
bytheheightofthediggingequipment(forsafetyreasons).
Subdrilling=0.1to0.5timestheburden
i)flatbeddingplaneattoe=0.00.1xburden
ii)relativelyeasytoe=0.10.2xburden
III)mediumtoe=0.20.4xburden
IV)difficulttoe(verticalbedding)=0.5xburden
Stemmingcolumnlength=0.5to1.3timestheburden
I)Increasedmultiplierifdrillcuttingsareusedforstemmingand/orholesarewet.
II)Decreasedmultiplierifstonechipsareusedforstemmingand/orholesaredry.

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II)Decreasedmultiplierifstonechipsareusedforstemmingand/orholesaredry.
III)Forverycautiousblasting(nothroworflyrockallowed):
IV)Stemming=upto36timestheholediameter,possiblymore
V)Stemminglengthbetweendeckstobefiredonseparatedelays:
VI)Decklength:dryhole=6timestheholediameter
VII)Decklength:wethole=12timestheholediameter
Note:
Acertainamountofcautionmustbeexercisedwhenselectingvalues.Forexample,toosmalla
burdenwouldresultinexcessiveforwardthrow,whiletoolargeaburdenwouldprobablyyield
inadequatefragmentationwithpossibleexcessiveupwardthrow.Inasimilarmanner,toowidea
spacingwouldresultinlossofinteractionbetweendetonatingcharges,whiletoolittlespacing
couldcausepartialcancellationofexplosiveforcesandcouldcontributetoexcessivevibration.
Thetypeofstemmingmaterialplaysanimportantpartinconfiningthegasgeneratedfrom
explosivesdetonatinginthehole.Angularcrushedstonechipsarepreferred.Roundpebbles,dirt
andwaterarenotandshouldbeavoided.Mostofthetime,drillcuttingsareused,buttheycanbe
marginal.
Ifsubdrillingisnotsufficientlydeep,theresultwillbehighbottom.Excessivesubdrilling,
however,iswastefulofdrillinglaborandexplosiveenergy.
Otherfactorssuchasinitiationtiminganddirectionhaveanimpactandwillhavetobe
considered.
POWDERFACTOR.Inconstructionblasting,powderfactor(PF)isexpressedasquantity(unit
mass)ofexplosiveperunitvolumeofmaterialblasted.Formining,itisusuallyexpressedas
quantityofexplosivepertonofmaterial(orsometimestonsofmaterialperunitmassof
explosive).

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(https://miningandblasting.files.wordpress.com/2012/10/fig5.jpg)
Fig5
DELAYTIMING:Veryseldomisaconventionalblastsetoffwhereallchargesaredetonatedin
thesameinstant.Usuallythereisaspecifictimeintervalanddirectionordirectionsfordelaying
thecharges.
Fortunnels,driftsandshaftswherethereisnofreefaceparalleltotheaxisoftheholes,longer
delayperiodsareutilized.Theseareintendedtoprovidesufficienttimedelayforthefractured
rockfromtheinitialholestobeexpelledsothatthereisroomfortherockblastedbythefollowing
holestoexpand.
Inconstructionandinsurfacemining,milliseconddelaysareusedbetweenchargesinablast.
Thereareseveralbasicreasonsfordoingso:

Toassurethatoneormorefreefacesprogressthroughtheshot,providingaconsistentburden.

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Toassurethatoneormorefreefacesprogressthroughtheshot,providingaconsistentburden.
Toenhancefragmentationbetweenadjacentholes.
Toreducegroundvibrationandairblast.
Toprovideameansofdirectingtheheaveordisplacementoftheblastedmaterial.

(https://miningandblasting.files.wordpress.com/2012/10/f91.jpg)

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Drilling(staggered)equilateraltriangularpatternrequiremoreoperatorskillandsupervision
ascomparedtoinlinepatterns.Clearmarkingoftheholepositionsinadvancebyaresponsible
personwouldhelpthedrillersimmensely.Fig.givesvariousdelaypatternsdiscussedabove.

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Theoretically,itispossibletofinetunethetimingofablasttoachieveidealresults.Although
rathersophisticatedelectronicdetonatorsareavailable,standardmillisecond(ms)delaysystems
canbeobtainedthatwillgenerallyprovideenoughflexibilityandasufficientrangeoftimingfor
mostapplications.Theremaybespecificapplicationswhereextremelyaccuratedelaydetonators
arenecessary,butformostconventionalblastingsituations,thestandardunitsaresatisfactory.In
manycases,asmallamountofscatterinthetimescanactuallybebeneficialinreducingvibration,
aslongastheaccuracyisadequatetopreventoverlap,ornearoverlap,ofdetonationtimes.
1. A.Thedelaytimebetweenindividualholesinarow:

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1. A.Thedelaytimebetweenindividualholesinarow:
i)Thedelaytimebetweenholesinarowshouldbebetween1msand5msperfootof
burden,with3msyieldinggoodresultsinmostinstances.
ii)Whereairblastisaproblemorpotentialproblem,thedelaytimebetweenholesinarow
shouldbeatleast2msperfootofspacing.
iii)Thiswillresultinablastprogressionalongthefaceoralongarowofholesthatis
approximatelyhalfthespeedofsound(orless)andreducesthelowfrequencyairblastgenerated
byfaceareamovementorbysurfaceareamounding.
iv)Wherepossible,cornerholesattheendofrowsshouldbegivenextradelaytimebecauseof
thegreaterdegreeoffixationoftherockinthoselocationsrequiresmoretimefortherockblasted
bypreviouslyfiredadjacentholestomoveaway.
1. B.Delayintervalbetweenrows:
i)Thedelayintervalbetweenrowsshouldbefromtwotothreetimeslongerthanthedelay
intervalbetweenholesinarow.
ii)Thelastrowintheshotshouldoftenbedelayedslightlymorethanprecedingrows.
iii)Thisservestoallowrockinpreviouslyfiredrowstimetomoveoutandtendstoreduce
backbreakintherockbehindtheblast.
Note:Regardlessofthedelaytimesselectedforholesinthesameroworforthedelaytime
betweenrows,itisabsolutelyessentialthatthedelayintervalsbesufficientlyshortthatthereisa
bufferzonebetweenadetonatingholeanddetonatorsthathaveyettoseetheirinitiatingsignal.
Thisisusuallyaccomplishedbyusinglongerdownholedelays.
Anadditionalhazardcanexistwheredelaytimes(comparedtoburdenandspacing)are
excessivelylong,causingcutoffsoftheinitiationsystemorpowdercolumnsduetogroundshift.
Again,thisneedstobeanalyzedonacasebycasebasisandaccountedforduringblastdesign.
Directionofheaveorthrow:Itisgenerallypossibletocontrolthedirectionofheaveofthe
materialfromablastthroughapplicationoftheinitiationsystemtimingsequence.Infig5,an
arrowshowsthedirectionsofmostlogicalheavewhenthevariousdelaysequencesshownare
used.Thenumbersinthevariousfiguresrepresenttheinitiationsequence.Shootingrowbyrow
willgenerallylaythemuckoutinfrontoftheshot.ShootingwithaVcuttimingpatternwill
usuallyresultinamuckpilethattendstomoundupinthecenterinfrontoftheshot.
Themethodofdiggingouttheshotwillusuallydeterminewhichispreferable.
Thedirectionofmaximumvibration(allotherthingsbeingequal)willtheoreticallybeinthe
directionoppositefromthedirectionofheave.

LocationandOrientationofPrimer:Inmostinstancestheprimingchargewillbelocatedatthe

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LocationandOrientationofPrimer:Inmostinstancestheprimingchargewillbelocatedatthe
bottomofthehole.Iftheprimingchargewaslocatedatthetopofthepowdercolumn,theenergy
wouldbreakthroughthesurfaceearlierintheexplosionprocess,gasseswouldventsoonerand
muchoftheircontributiontothefragmentationprocesswouldbelost.
Theorientationofthedetonatorintheprimingchargeshouldbesuchthatthedetonatoris
pointinginthedirectionoftheexplosivescolumn.I.e.thedetonatorwouldbepointingupwardin
abottomprimingchargeanddownwardinatopprimingcharge.
FRAGMENTATION:Primaryfragmentationoccursduringthedetonationphase.Theshock
wavesexceedthecompressiveandthetensilestrengthcapacityoftherock,andtherockis
crushedandpulverizedclosetothedrillhole,andradialcrackswillbecreatedoutfromthehole
toacertainextent(equalto45timestheholeradius).Thegaspressurewillpenetratenew
cracksandexistingfissuresandjoints,looseningtherockmassandthrowingitoutandoverthe
benchfloor.
Secondaryfragmentationbreakagestartswiththethrowwhenfragmentedmaterialaccelerates
outfromthebench.Thesecondarybreakageisattributedto:
Collisionsbetweenfragmentsintheairandbetweenfragmentsandthebenchfloor.
Highcompressivestresslevelsandconservedelasticenergyintherockarereleasedwhenthe
fragmentsareloosenedfromthebench.
Thefragmentationvariesthroughtherockpile.SeeFig.7.Thecoarserfragmentsoriginatefrom
thefirstrowandfromtheunchargedzoneintheupperpartoftheblast.
Controllablefactorswhichinfluenceprimaryfragmentation:
Drillholediameter
Massofexplosivecharge
Stresswavespeakvalues
Chargedistributioninthebench
Secondaryfragmentationmaybeincreasedbyaploughshapedfiringpattern.Fragmentationis
alsoinfluencedbytheoriginalfracturingoftherock.Thisappliesbothduringthedetonationand
inthefollowingoperations,suchasloading,transportation,crushingandplacingoftherock.

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Fig.7
Studiesoftherockpileshowthat:
Thecoarsestfractionsintherockpileoriginatesfromtheshoulder/edgesectionoftheblast,
andfromtheunchargedvolume.
Thecoarserfractionsformaskirtwhichcoversthetopofthepile.Increasedunchargedlength
rapidlyincreasesthedepthofthistoplayer.
Fragmentationoftheshouldersectionishighlydependentuponthebenchtopconditions.
Terrainblastsnormallyproducemoreblocksthanpreviouslysubdrilledbenchfloor
conditionswhichoriginatefromanoverlyingblast.Decreasingthestemminglengthtoreduce
theamountofoversizedblockwillnotnecessarilybeasuccess.Mostlikely,gasventingwill
appearresultinginexcessiveflyrocks.
Thepartoftherockpilewhichoriginatesfromthechargedpartoftheblastgivesthemost
fragmentedrock.
ROCKMASSFRACTURING:Thediscontinuitiesorweaknessplanesoftherockmassinfluence
theblastability.Theweaknessplanesarerecognisedbylittleornoshearstrengthalongthe
planes.Typicaldiscontinuityfeaturesare:
Systematicallyfracturedrockmass
i)parallelorientedjointsandfissures
ii)foliationplanesorbeddingplanes
Markedsinglejoints
Filledjoints
Crushedzonesandzoneswithmineralorclayfill


Fracturingischaracterisedbyrateoffracturing(typeandfrequency)aswellasorientation(angle

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Fracturingischaracterisedbyrateoffracturing(typeandfrequency)aswellasorientation(angle
betweenblastdirectionandweaknessplanes).Variousrockclassificationsystemscanbeusedto
characterizethefracturingoftherockmass.HerewementionRQD,RMRandRMi.Theymoreor
lessmeasurethesamerockparameters.
Thedifferentfracturingparameterscanbedescribedasfollows:
Jointsmeancontinuousplanesofweakness.Thesejointscanbeopen,e.g.beddingjointsin
granite,orfilledwithclayorweakminerals,e.g.calcite,chloriteorsimilarminerals.
Fissuresareplanesofweaknesswhichcanonlybefollowedoverpartsoftheface.Itcanbe
filledjointswithlowshearstrengthandbeddingplanefissures(partings)e.g.asinmicaschist
andmicagneiss.
Homogeneousrockmassmeansmassiverockwithoutjointsorfissuresandmayoccurin
intrusivedikes,sills,batholithsetc.
Increasedfissurejointdegreegivesbetterblastability.Thisistypicalinregionalmetamorphicrock
types.
Systematicallyorientedjointsetsmaketherockmoredifficulttoblast.Largeblocksareisolatedin
thethrowwithoutbeingcrushed.Fracturedconditionsarecharacteristicforrocksinsurface
blasting.
BLASTINGDIRECTION:Normallytheblastingdirectionisperpendiculartothefaceofbench
face,anditshouldbeadjustedaccordingtothedirectionofthefracturing.Inspecialcases,the
benchfacedirectionmaybefixedinanonfavourabledirectionduetotopography,quarry
bordersorstrictgeometricaldemands,asinroadcuttingsorbuildingsites.Inthesecases,the
firingpatterncanbeusedtocontroltheblastdirectioninamorefavourabledirectionand
improvetheblastingresult.
Beforedrilling,theblastdirectionshouldbesetaccordingtotheorientationofthemainjointing
systems.Fragmentation,backbreakandtoeproblemsarealldependentupontheblasting
direction.
Eventhoughoptimalfragmentationusuallyisthemostimportantcriterion,considerationofback
wall,toeandbenchfloormustbeconsideredtogetanoptimaltotalresult.Orientationoftheback
wallmaybealongaweaknessplaneandtheblastdirectionturnedcloseuptotheoptimalangle.
Quarrymanagementshouldprovidedocumentationofthemaindiscontinuitysystemsin
operationalmaps.Theblastingresultsshouldbefollowedupaccordingtoblastingdirectionsand
mainfracturesystems.Theresultsfromthesestudieswillbethefoundationforfurtherblast
planningandoptimalquarrymanagement.
Someofthemostcommoncombinationsofrocktype,fracturingandconventionalquarrying
blastingresultsarediscussed.Theseare:
Anisotropicrockmasswithapproximatelyverticalfracturing.
Anisotropicrockmasswithinclinedfracturing.
Rockmasswithverticalfracturingandlittleanisotropy.
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Rockmasswithinclinedfracturingandlittleanisotropy.



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Rockmasswithverticalfracturingandlittleanisotropy.
Rockmasswithinclinedfracturingandlittleanisotropy.



Anisotropyoftherockgivesdirectionaldependentrockstrengthanddirectionaldependent
blastingeffects.Theanglebetweenweaknessplanesandblastdirectionisgivenbytheangle.
Blastdirectionisdefinedtobeperpendiculartothebenchwallface.Benchwalldirectionis
describedbyA,B,CorD.
Anisotropicrockmasswithapproximatelyverticalfracturing:

(https://miningandblasting.files.wordpress.com/2012/10/1.jpg)
FACE
DIRECTION

FRAGMENTATION

BACKBREAKANDTOE
PROBLEMS

BENCH
FLOORUNDERBREAK

Medium(1)

small

medium

Poor(2)

large

large

mediumtogood(3)

small

medium

Medium(1)

small

medium

1.Confinedholesintheblastgivepoorbreakagewithbenchfloorunderbreaksasaresult.
2.Gasventingalongschistosityinthewalls.Flyrockandblocksisnormal,particularlyinthefirst
row.Spacingmustbereducedinthefirstrowtoreducetheseproblems.
3.BlastdirectionCismostfavourable.Thebestresultwillappearwithblastdirection
perpendiculartoCandbackwallalongD.Insuchrocktypes,thebenchfloorconditionsoften
willbethemainparameterwhendesigningthedrillingpattern.
Inclinedfracturing:

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FACE
DIRECTION

FRAGMENTATION

BACKBREAKANDTOE
PROBLEMS

BENCH
FLOORUNDERBREAK

Poor(1)

Large(2)

large

good

some

medium

good

some

Medium(3)

Good(1)

some

mediumtolarge

1.Themainproblemwithinclinedschistosityisthefactthatthemostfavourableblastdirection
(B)isparalleltothestrikedirection.Whenfiringrowbyrow,thefacedoesnotbecomestiff
enoughanditwillhaveexcessivebuckling.
Thisproblemcanbesolvedbyusingreducedbenchheightorsmalldiameterdrillholes.
2.Somebackbreakandbackslidesonfissuresalongtheschistosity.
3.Infissurefracturedrock,Cisthemostfavourableorientationwhenitcomestoblastdirection
andthebackwall.
Independentuponblastingdirection,holedeflectionmaybeaconsiderableproblemininclined
schistoserock,resultinginzoneswithpoorfragmentationandbenchfloorproblems.
Approximatelyverticalfracturingandlittleanisotropy(Typicalrocktypesarequartziteand
granitegneiss):

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FACE
DIRECTION

FRAGMENTATION

BACKBREAKANDTOE
PROBLEMS

BENCH
FLOORUNDERBREAK

good

little

medium

slightlypoor

Some(2)

Varying(4)

good

Much(3)

Little(5)

good

Little(1)

medium

1.Littlebackbreak,eventhoughincorrectalignmentofdrillholesaccordingtothefracturing
directionwillgivelargefalloutsalongtheweaknessplanes,evenfor<10.
2.Roughandunevenbackwall.Thefacegetsmoreunevenwithhigherfracturingdegree,
increaseddrillholediameteranddrillholepressure.Thisresultsinmoreblocksinfrontofthe
rockpile.
3.Maximumbackbreakfor=45,somelargerblockswilloccuratthebackoftherockpiledue
tofallouts.Backbreakcanbereducedbyincreasingtheunchargedlengthinthebackrow.
4.Gaspressureleakagesinthefaceresultinginflyrock,poorfragmentation(especiallyalongthe
benchfloor)andgeneralbenchfloorproblems.Especiallyinjointfracturedrock.
5.Benchfloorproblemsmayoccurifthefirstrowbreakspoorly.Apossiblewaytomakethis
betteristodrillalongDandfirealongC.
Rockwithinclinedfracturingandlittleanisotropy:

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(https://miningandblasting.files.wordpress.com/2012/10/4.jpg)
FACE
DIRECTION

FRAGMENTATION

BACKBREAKANDTOE
PROBLEMS

BENCH
FLOORUNDERBREAK

Poor(1)

verylarge(2)

large

good

Some

medium

verygood

little

Medium(3)

good

little

mediumtolarge(4)

1.Alargeamountofblockfromtheunchargedlengthinexfoliated,jointsheetedrock.Ifblasting
onterrainbench,thetopshoulddipbackwards,otherwisemanyblockswillmixintothecharged
partoftherockpile.Thisisdefinitivelytheleastfavourableblastdirectioninjointfracturedrock.
2.Extrasubdrillingisnecessarytoavoidbenchfloorproblems.
3.Cisthemostfavourableorientationifthebackwallandthefirstrowbreaksproperly.Ifnot,
lessspecificchargeinthebackrowandsmallerholespacinginthefirstrowwillimprovethe
result.
4.Benchfloorproblemsarereducedwithincreasedsubdrilling.Necessarysubdrillingdependson
dipangle.
Tosomeextent,holedeflectionmayreducethefragmentationdegreeandincreasethebenchfloor
problems.
Additionalinformation:

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