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Piano
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Thepiano(Italianpronunciation:[pjano]anabbreviationofpianoforte[pjanofrte])isa
musicalinstrumentplayedusingakeyboard.[1]Itiswidelyemployedinclassical,jazz,
traditionalandpopularmusicforsoloandensembleperformances,accompaniment,andfor
composingandrehearsal.Althoughthepianoisnotportableandoftenexpensive,its
versatilityandubiquityhavemadeitoneoftheworld'smostfamiliarmusicalinstruments.

Piano

Anacousticpianousuallyhasaprotectivewoodencasesurroundingthesoundboardand
metalstrings,andarowof88blackandwhitekeys(52white,36black).Thestringsare
soundedwhenthekeysarepressed,andsilencedwhenthekeysarereleased.Thenotecan
besustained,evenwhenthekeysarereleased,bytheuseofpedals.
Pressingakeyonthepiano'skeyboardcausesapadded(oftenwithfelt)hammertostrike
strings.Thehammerrebounds,andthestringscontinuetovibrateattheirresonant
frequency.[2]Thesevibrationsaretransmittedthroughabridgetoasoundboardthat
amplifiesbymoreefficientlycouplingtheacousticenergytotheair.Whenthekeyis
released,adamperstopsthestrings'vibration,endingthesound.Althoughanacousticpiano
hasstrings,itisusuallyclassifiedasapercussioninstrumentbecausethestringsarestruck
ratherthanplucked(aswithaharpsichordorspinet)intheHornbostelSachssystemof
instrumentclassification,pianosareconsideredchordophones.Withtechnologicaladvances,
electric,electronic,anddigitalpianoshavealsobeendeveloped.
Thewordpianoisashortenedformofpianoforte,theItaliantermfortheinstrument,which
inturnderivesfromgravicembalocolpianoeforte[3]andfortepiano.TheItalianmusical
termspianoandforteindicate"soft"and"loud"respectively,[4]inthiscontextreferringto
thevariationsinvolumeproducedinresponsetoapianist'stouchonthekeys:thegreaterthe
velocityofakeypress,thegreatertheforceofthehammerhittingthestrings,andthelouder
thesoundofthenoteproduced.

Agrandpiano(left)andanuprightpiano(right)
Keyboardinstrument
Hornbostel
Sachs
classification

314.12248
(Simplechordophonewith
keyboardsoundedbyhammers)

Inventor(s)

BartolomeoCristofori

Developed

Early18thcentury
Playingrange

Contents
1 History

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1 History
1.1 Invention
1.2 Theearlyfortepiano
1.3 Themodernpiano
1.4 Variationsinshapeanddesign
2 Types
2.1 Grand
2.2 Upright(vertical)
2.3 Specialized
2.4 Electric,electronic,anddigital
3 Constructionandcomponents
3.1 Keyboard
3.2 Pedals
4 Mechanics
5 Maintenance
5.1 Tuning
6 Playingandtechnique
6.1 Performancestyles
7 Role
8 Seealso
9 References
9.1 General
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10 Furtherreading
11 Externallinks

History
Thepianowasfoundedonearliertechnologicalinnovations.Thefirststringinstrumentswithstruck
stringswerethehammereddulcimers.[5]DuringtheMiddleAges,therewereseveralattemptsat
creatingstringedkeyboardinstrumentswithstruckstrings.[6]Bythe17thcentury,themechanismsof
keyboardinstrumentssuchastheclavichordandtheharpsichordwerewellknown.Inaclavichord,the
stringsarestruckbytangents,whileinaharpsichordtheyarepluckedbyquills.Centuriesofworkon
themechanismoftheharpsichordinparticularhadshownthemosteffectivewaystoconstructthecase,
soundboard,bridge,andkeyboardforamechanismintendedtohammerstrings.

Invention
TheinventionofthemodernpianoiscreditedtoBartolomeoCristofori(16551731)ofPadua,Italy,
whowasemployedbyFerdinandode'Medici,GrandPrinceofTuscany,astheKeeperofthe
Instrumentshewasanexpertharpsichordmaker,andwaswellacquaintedwiththebodyofknowledge
onstringedkeyboardinstruments.ItisnotknownexactlywhenCristoforifirstbuiltapiano.An
inventorymadebyhisemployers,theMedicifamily,indicatestheexistenceofapianobytheyear
1700anotherdocumentofdoubtfulauthenticityindicatesadateof1698.ThethreeCristoforipianos
thatsurvivetodaydatefromthe1720s.[7][8]
Cristoforinamedtheinstrumentuncimbalodicipressodipianoeforte("akeyboardofcypresswith
softandloud"),abbreviatedovertimeaspianoforte,fortepiano,andsimply,piano.[9]Whilethe
clavichordallowedexpressivecontrolofvolumeandsustain,itwastooquietforlargeperformances.
Theharpsichordproducedasufficientlyloudsound,butofferedlittleexpressivecontrolovereachnote.
Thepianoofferedthebestofboth,combiningloudnesswithdynamiccontrol.[8]

GrandpianobyLouisBasof
VilleneuvelsAvignon,France,
1781.EarliestFrenchgrandpiano
knowntosurviveincludesan
invertedwrestplankandaction
derivedfromtheworkofBartolomeo
Cristofori(ca.1700)withornately
decoratedsoundboard.

Cristofori'sgreatsuccesswassolving,withnopriorexample,thefundamentalmechanicalproblemofpianodesign:thehammermuststrike
thestring,butnotremainincontactwithit(asatangentremainsincontactwithaclavichordstring)becausethiswoulddampthesound.
Moreover,thehammermustreturntoitsrestpositionwithoutbouncingviolently,anditmustbepossibletorepeatanoterapidly.Cristofori's
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pianoactionwasamodelforthemanyapproachestopianoactionsthatfollowed.Cristofori'searlyinstrumentsweremadewiththinstrings,
andweremuchquieterthanthemodernpiano,butmuchlouderandwithmoresustainincomparisontotheclavichordtheonlyprevious
keyboardinstrumentcapableofdynamicnuanceviathekeyboard.

Theearlyfortepiano
Cristofori'snewinstrumentremainedrelativelyunknownuntilanItalianwriter,ScipioneMaffei,wrotean
enthusiasticarticleaboutitin1711,includingadiagramofthemechanism,thatwastranslatedintoGerman
andwidelydistributed.[8]Mostofthenextgenerationofpianobuildersstartedtheirworkduetoreadingit.One
ofthesebuilderswasGottfriedSilbermann,betterknownasanorganbuilder.Silbermann'spianoswere
virtuallydirectcopiesofCristofori's,withoneimportantaddition:Silbermanninventedtheforerunnerofthe
modernsustainpedal,whichliftsallthedampersfromthestringssimultaneously.
SilbermannshowedJohannSebastianBachoneofhisearlyinstrumentsinthe1730s,butBachdidnotlikeitat
thattime,claimingthatthehighernotesweretoosofttoallowafulldynamicrange.Althoughthisearnedhim
someanimosityfromSilbermann,thecriticismwasapparentlyheeded.Bachdidapproveofalaterinstrument
hesawin1747,andevenservedasanagentinsellingSilbermann'spianos.[10]
Pianomakingflourishedduringthelate18thcenturyintheVienneseschool,whichincludedJohannAndreas
Stein(whoworkedinAugsburg,Germany)andtheViennesemakersNannetteStreicher(daughterofStein)
Earlypianoreplicabythe
andAntonWalter.Viennesestylepianoswerebuiltwithwoodframes,twostringspernote,andhadleather
modernbuilderPaul
coveredhammers.SomeoftheseViennesepianoshadtheoppositecoloringofmoderndaypianosthenatural
McNulty,afterWalter&
Sohn,1805
keyswereblackandtheaccidentalkeyswhite.[11]ItwasforsuchinstrumentsthatWolfgangAmadeusMozart
composedhisconcertosandsonatas,andreplicasofthemarebuilttodayforuseinauthenticinstrument
performanceofhismusic.ThepianosofMozart'sdayhadasofter,moreetherealtonethantoday'spianosorEnglishpianos,withless
sustainingpower.Thetermfortepianoisnowusedtodistinguishtheseearlyinstrumentsfromlaterpianos.

Themodernpiano
Intheperiodlastingfromabout1790to1860,theMozarterapianounderwenttremendous
changesthatledtothemodernformoftheinstrument.Thisrevolutionwasinresponsetoa
preferencebycomposersandpianistsforamorepowerful,sustainedpianosound,and
madepossiblebytheongoingIndustrialRevolutionwithresourcessuchashighquality

Comparisonofpianosound
19thcenturypianosound
0:00

MENU

FrdricChopin'studeOp.25,No.
12,onanErardpianomadein1851
Modernpianosound
0:00

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pianowireforstrings,andprecisioncastingfortheproductionofironframes.Overtime,
thetonalrangeofthepianowasalsoincreasedfromthefiveoctavesofMozart'sdaytothe
7plusrangefoundonmodernpianos.

Broadwoodsquareaction(clickfor
pagewithlegend)

Thesamepiece,onamodernpiano
Problemsplayingthesefiles?Seemediahelp.

EarlytechnologicalprogressowedmuchtothefirmofBroadwood.JohnBroadwoodjoinedwith
anotherScot,RobertStodart,andaDutchman,AmericusBackers,todesignapianointheharpsichord
casetheoriginofthe"grand".Theyachievedthisinabout1777.Theyquicklygainedareputationfor
thesplendourandpowerfultoneoftheirinstruments,withBroadwoodconstructingonesthatwere
progressivelylarger,louder,andmorerobustlyconstructed.TheysentpianostobothJosephHaydnand
LudwigvanBeethoven,andwerethefirstfirmtobuildpianoswitharangeofmorethanfiveoctaves:
fiveoctavesandafifth(interval)duringthe1790s,sixoctavesby1810(Beethovenusedtheextranotes
inhislaterworks),andsevenoctavesby1820.TheViennesemakerssimilarlyfollowedthesetrends
howeverthetwoschoolsuseddifferentpianoactions:Broadwoodsweremorerobust,Viennese
instrumentsweremoresensitive.

Bythe1820s,thecenterofinnovationhadshiftedtoParis,wherethePleyelfirmmanufacturedpianos
usedbyFrdricChopinandtherardfirmmanufacturedthoseusedbyFranzLiszt.In1821,Sbastien
rardinventedthedoubleescapementaction,whichincorporatedarepetitionlever(alsocalledthe
balancier)thatpermittedrepeatinganoteevenifthekeyhadnotyetrisentoitsmaximumvertical
position.Thisfacilitatedrapidplayingofrepeatednotes,amusicaldeviceexploitedbyLiszt.Whenthe
inventionbecamepublic,asrevisedbyHenriHerz,thedoubleescapementactiongraduallybecame
standardingrandpianos,andisstillincorporatedintoallgrandpianoscurrentlyproduced.
Otherimprovementsofthemechanismincludedtheuseoffelthammercoveringsinsteadoflayered
leatherorcotton.Felt,whichwasfirstintroducedbyJeanHenriPapein1826,wasamoreconsistent
material,permittingwiderdynamicrangesashammerweightsandstringtensionincreased.The
sostenutopedal(seebelow),inventedin1844byJeanLouisBoisselotandcopiedbytheSteinwayfirm
in1874,allowedawiderrangeofeffects.

Erardsquareaction(clickforpage
withlegend)

Oneinnovationthathelpedcreatethesoundofthemodernpianowastheuseofastrongironframe.Alsocalledthe"plate",theironframesits
atopthesoundboard,andservesastheprimarybulwarkagainsttheforceofstringtensionthatcanexceed20tonsinamoderngrand.The
singlepiececastironframewaspatentedin1825inBostonbyAlpheusBabcock,[9]combiningthemetalhitchpinplate(1821,claimedby
BroadwoodonbehalfofSamuelHerv)andresistingbars(ThomandAllen,1820,butalsoclaimedbyBroadwoodandrard).Babcocklater
workedfortheChickering&Mackaysfirmwhopatentedthefirstfullironframeforgrandpianosin1843.Compositeforgedmetalframes
werepreferredbymanyEuropeanmakersuntiltheAmericansystemwasfullyadoptedbytheearly20thcentury.

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Theincreasedstructuralintegrityoftheironframeallowedtheuseofthicker,tenser,andmorenumerousstrings.In1834,theWebster&
HorsfalfirmofBirminghambroughtoutaformofpianowiremadefromcaststeelaccordingtoDolgeitwas"sosuperiortotheironwirethat
theEnglishfirmsoonhadamonopoly."[12]Butabettersteelwirewassooncreatedin1840bytheViennesefirmofMartinMiller,[12]anda
periodofinnovationandintensecompetitionensued,withrivalbrandsofpianowirebeingtestedagainstoneanotheratinternational
competitions,leadingultimatelytothemodernformofpianowire.[13]
Otherimportantadvancesincludedchangestothewaythepianoisstrung,suchastheuseofa"choir"ofthreestringsratherthantwoforall
butthelowestnotes,andtheimplementationofanoverstrungscale,inwhichthestringsareplacedintwoseparateplanes,eachwithitsown
bridgeheight.(Thisisalsocalledcrossstringing.Whereasearlierinstruments'bassstringswereamerecontinuationofasinglestringplane,
overstringingplacedthebassbridgebehindandtothetreblesideofthetenorbridgearea.Thiscrossedthestrings,withthebassstringsinthe
higherplane.)Thispermittedamuchnarrowercabinetatthe"nose"endofthepiano,andoptimizedthetransitionfromunwoundtenorstrings
totheironorcopperwrappedbassstrings.OverstringingwasinventedbyPapeduringthe1820s,andfirstpatentedforuseingrandpianosin
theUnitedStatesbyHenrySteinway,Jr.in1859.
Somepianomakersdevelopedschemestoenhancethetoneofeachnote.JuliusBlthnerdeveloped
Aliquotstringingin1893aswellasPascalTaskin(1788),[14]andCollard&Collard(1821).Eachused
moredistinctlyringing,undampedvibrationstomodifytone,excepttheBlthnerAliquotstringing,
whichusesanadditionalfourthstringintheuppertwotreblesections.Whilethehitchpinsofthese
separatelysuspendedAliquotstringsareraisedslightlyabovetheleveloftheusualtrichoirstrings,
theyarenotstruckbythehammersbutratheraredampedbyattachmentsoftheusualdampers.Eager
tocopytheseeffects,TheodoreSteinwayinventedduplexscaling,whichusedshortlengthsofnon
speakingwirebridgedbythealiquotthroughoutmuchofuppertherangeofthepiano,alwaysin
locationsthatcausedthemtovibrateinconformitywiththeirrespectiveovertonestypicallyin
doubledoctavesandtwelfths.
ThemechanicalactionstructureoftheuprightpianowasinventedinLondon,Englandin1826by
RobertWornum,anduprightmodelsbecamethemostpopularmodel,alsoamplifyingthesound.[15]

Variationsinshapeanddesign

Duplexscalingofan1883Steinway
Model'A'.Fromlowerlefttoupper
right:mainsoundinglengthof
strings,treblebridge,duplexstring
length,duplexbar(nickelplatedbar
paralleltobridge),hitchpins,plate
strutwithbearingbolt,platehole.

Someearlypianoshadshapesanddesignsthatarenolongerinuse.Thesquarepiano(nottrulysquare,
butrectangular)wascrossstrungatanextremelyacuteangleabovethehammers,withthekeyboardset
alongthelongside.ThisdesignisattributedtoGottfriedSilbermannorChristianErnstFridericionthe
continent,andJohannesZumpeorHarmanVietorinEngland,anditwasimprovedbychangesfirst
introducedbyGuillaumeLebrechtPetzoldinFranceandAlpheusBabcockintheUnitedStates.Squarepianoswerebuiltingreatnumbers
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throughthe1840sinEuropeandthe1890sintheUnitedStates,andsawthemostvisiblechangeofanytypeofpiano:theironframed,over
strungsquaresmanufacturedbySteinway&SonsweremorethantwoandahalftimesthesizeofZumpe'swoodframedinstrumentsfroma
centurybefore.Theiroverwhelmingpopularitywasduetoinexpensiveconstructionandprice,althoughtheirtoneandperformancewere
limitedbynarrowsoundboards,simpleactionsandstringspacingthatmadeproperhammeralignmentdifficult.
Thetall,verticallystrunguprightgrandwasarrangedlikeagrandsetonend,withthesoundboardand
bridgesabovethekeys,andtuningpinsbelowthem.Thetermwaslaterrevivedbymany
manufacturersforadvertisingpurposes.Giraffe,pyramidandlyrepianoswerearrangedinasomewhat
similarfashioninevocativelyshapedcases.

Themechanismandstringsinupright
pianosareperpendiculartothekeys.

Theverytallcabinetpianowasintroducedabout1805andwasbuiltthroughthe1840s.Ithadstrings
arrangedverticallyonacontinuousframewithbridgesextendednearlytothefloor,behindthe
keyboardandverylargestickeraction.Theshortcottageuprightorpianinowithverticalstringing,
madepopularbyRobertWornumaround1815,wasbuiltintothe20thcentury.Theyareinformally
calledbirdcagepianosbecauseoftheirprominentdampermechanism.Theobliqueupright,
popularizedinFrancebyRoller&Blanchetduringthelate1820s,wasdiagonallystrungthroughoutits
compass.Thetinyspinetuprightwasmanufacturedfromthemid1930suntilrecenttimes.Thelow
positionofthehammersrequiredtheuseofa"dropaction"topreserveareasonablekeyboardheight.

Modernuprightandgrandpianosattainedtheirpresentformsbytheendofthe19thcentury.Improvementshavebeenmadeinmanufacturing
processes,andmanyindividualdetailsoftheinstrumentcontinuetoreceiveattention.

Types
Modernacousticpianoshavetwobasicconfigurations,thegrandpianoandtheuprightpiano,withvariousstylesofeach.Therearealso
specializedandnoveltypianos,electricpianosbasedonelectromechanicaldesigns,electronicpianosthatsynthesizepianoliketonesusing
oscillators,anddigitalpianosusingdigitalsamplesofacousticpianosounds.

Grand
Ingrandpianos,theframeandstringsarehorizontal,withthestringsextendingawayfromthe
keyboard.Theactionliesbeneaththestrings,andusesgravityasitsmeansofreturntoastateofrest.
Therearemanysizesofgrandpiano.Aroughgeneralizationdistinguishestheconcertgrand(between
2.2and3meterslong,about710feet)fromtheparlorgrandorboudoirgrand(1.7to2.2meters
long,about67feet)andthesmallerbabygrand(around1.5metres(5feet)).
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Allelsebeingequal,longerpianoswithlongerstringshavelarger,richersoundandlower
inharmonicityofthestrings.Inharmonicityisthedegreetowhichthefrequenciesofovertones(known
aspartialsorharmonics)soundsharprelativetowholemultiplesofthefundamentalfrequency.This
resultsfromthepiano'sconsiderablestringstiffnessasastruckstringdecaysitsharmonicsvibrate,not
fromtheirtermination,butfromapointveryslightlytowardthecenter(ormoreflexiblepart)ofthe
string.Thehigherthepartial,thefurthersharpitruns.Pianoswithshorterandthickerstring(i.e.,small
pianoswithshortstringscales)havemoreinharmonicity.Thegreatertheinharmonicity,themorethe
earperceivesitasharshnessoftone.
Inharmonicityrequiresthatoctavesbestretched,ortunedtoaloweroctave'scorrespondingsharp
overtoneratherthantoatheoreticallycorrectoctave.Ifoctavesarenotstretched,singleoctavessound
intune,butdoubleandnotablytripleoctavesareunacceptablynarrow.Stretchingasmallpiano's
octavestomatchitsinherentinharmonicitylevelcreatesanimbalanceamongalltheinstrument's
intervallicrelationships,notjustitsoctaves.Inaconcertgrand,however,theoctave"stretch"retains
harmonicbalance,evenwhenaligningtreblenotestoaharmonicproducedfromthreeoctavesbelow.
Thisletscloseandwidespreadoctavessoundpure,andproducesvirtuallybeatlessperfectfifths.This
givestheconcertgrandabrilliant,singingandsustainingtonequalityoneoftheprincipalreasons
thatfullsizegrandsareusedintheconcerthall.Smallergrandssatisfythespaceandcostneedsof
domesticuse.

Upright(vertical)

SteinwaygrandpianointheWhite
House

Uprightpianos,alsocalledverticalpianos,aremorecompactbecausetheframeandstringsare
vertical.Uprightpianosarewidelyusedinmusicconservatoriesanduniversitymusicprogramsas
rehearsalandpracticeinstrumentsandtheyarepopularmodelsforinhomepurchase.Thehammers
movehorizontally,andreturntotheirrestingpositionviasprings,whicharesusceptibletodegradation.
Uprightpianoswithunusuallytallframesandlongstringsaresometimescalleduprightgrandpianos.
Someauthorsclassifymodernpianosaccordingtotheirheightandtomodificationsoftheactionthat
arenecessarytoaccommodatetheheight.
Studiopianosarearound42to45inches(106to114cm)tall.Thisistheshortestcabinetthat
canaccommodateafullsizedactionlocatedabovethekeyboard.
AugustFrsteruprightpiano
Consolepianoshaveacompactaction(shorterhammers),andareafewinchesshorterthan
studiomodels.
Thetopofaspinetmodelbarelyrisesabovethekeyboard.Theactionislocatedbelow,operatedbyverticalwiresthatareattachedtothe
backsofthekeys.
Anythingtallerthanastudiopianoiscalledanupright.
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Specialized
Thetoypiano,introducedinthe19thcentury,isasmallpianolikeinstrument,thatgenerallyuses
roundmetalrodstoproducesound,ratherthanstrings.TheUSLibraryofCongressrecognizesthetoy
pianoasauniqueinstrumentwiththesubjectdesignation,ToyPianoScores:M175T69.[16]
In1863,HenriFourneauxinventedtheplayerpiano,whichplaysitselffromapianoroll.Amachine
perforatesaperformancerecordingintorollsofpaper,andtheplayerpianoreplaystheperformance
usingpneumaticdevices.ModernequivalentsoftheplayerpianoincludetheBsendorferCEUS,
YamahaDisklavierandQRSPianomation,[17]usingsolenoidsandMIDIratherthanpneumaticsand
rolls.
Playerpianofrom1920(Steinway)

Asilentpianoisanacousticpianohavinganoptiontosilencethestringsbymeansofaninterposing
hammerbar.Theyaredesignedforprivatesilentpractice.

EdwardRyleyinventedthetransposingpianoin1801.Ithasaleverunderthekeyboardastomovethekeyboardrelativetothestringssoa
pianistcanplayinafamiliarkeywhilethemusicsoundsinadifferentkey.
Theminipiano,aninstrumentpatentedbytheBrastedbrothersoftheEavestaffLtd.pianocompany,
waspatentedin1934.[18]Thisinstrumenthasabracelessback,andasoundboardpositionedbelowthe
keysmeaningthatlongmetalrodspulledontheleverstomakethehammersstrikethestrings.The
firstmodel,knownasthePianette,'wasuniqueinthatthetuningpinsextendedthroughtheinstrument,
soitcouldbetunedatthefront.
Thepreparedpiano,presentinsomecontemporaryartmusic,isapianowithobjectsplacedinsideitto
alteritssound,orhashaditsmechanismchangedinsomeotherway.Thescoresformusicforprepared
pianospecifythemodifications,forexampleinstructingthepianisttoinsertpiecesofrubber,paper,
metalscrews,orwashersinbetweenthestrings.Theseeithermutethestringsoraltertheirtimbre.A
harpsichordlikesoundcanbeproducedbyplacingordanglingsmallmetalbuttonsinfrontofthe
hammer.
In1954aGermancompanyexhibitedawirelesspianoattheSpringFairinFrankfurt,Germanythat
soldfor$238.Thewireswerereplacedbymetalbarsofdifferentalloysthatreplicatedthestandard
wireswhenplayed.[19]AsimilarconceptisusedintheelectricacousticRhodespiano.

Theminipiano'Pianette'model
viewedwithitsoriginalmatching
stoolthewoodenflapatthefrontof
theinstrumenthasbeendropped
revealingthetuningpinsatthefront.

Electric,electronic,anddigital
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Electricpianoshavemetaltinesinplaceofstringaanduseelectromagneticpickupssimilartothose
onanelectricguitar.Theresultingelectrical,analoguesignalcanthenbeamplifiedwitha
keyboardamplifierorelectronicallymanipulatedwitheffectsunitsifrequired.Electricpianosare
rarelyusedinclassicalmusic,wherethemainusageofthemisasinexpensiverehearsal
instrumentsinmusicschools.However,electricpianos,particularlytheFenderRhodes,became
importantinstrumentsinfunk,jazzfusionandsomerockmusicgenres.
Electronicpianosarenonacoustic,theydonothavestringsbutareasimpletypeofsynthesizer
thatsimulatespianosoundsusingoscillatorsthatsynthesizethesoundofanacousticpiano.[20]
Digitalpianosarealsononacousticanddonothavestringsbutusedigitalsamplingtechnologyto
reproducethesoundofeachpianonote.Digitalpianoscanincludepedals,weightedkeys,multiple
voices,andMIDIinterfaces.Earlydigitalpianostendedtolackafullsetofpedalsbutthesynthesis
Wurlitzer210ElectricPiano
softwareoflatermodelssuchastheYamahaClavinovaseriessynthesisedthesympathetic
vibrationoftheotherstringsandfullpedalsetscannowbereplicated.Theprocessingpowerof
digitalpianoshasenabledhighlyrealisticpianosusingmultigigabytepianosamplesetswithasmanyasninetyrecordings,eachlastingmany
seconds,foreachkeyunderdifferentconditions.Additionalsamplesemulatesympatheticresonance,keyrelease,thedropofthedampers,and
simulationsoftechniquessuchasrepedalling.
Digital,MIDIcompliant,pianoscanoutputastreamofMIDIdata,orrecordandplayviaaCDROMorUSBflashdriveusingMIDIformat
files,similarinconcepttoapianola.TheMIDIfilerecordsthephysicsofanoteratherthanitsresultingsoundandrecreatesthesoundsfrom
itsphysicalproperties.Computerbasedsoftware,suchasModartt's2006Pianoteq,canbeusedtomanipulatetheMIDIstreaminrealtimeor
subsequentlytoeditit.Thistypeofsoftwaremayusenosamplesbutsynthesiseasoundbasedonaspectsofthephysicsthatwentintothe
creationofaplayednote.

Constructionandcomponents
Pianoscanhaveupwardsof12,000individualparts,[21]supportingsixfunctionalfeatures:keyboard,hammers,dampers,bridge,soundboard,
andstrings.[22]
Manypartsofapianoaremadeofmaterialsselectedforstrengthandlongevity.Thisisespeciallytrueoftheouterrim.Itismostcommonly
madeofhardwood,typicallyhardmapleorbeech,anditsmassivenessservesasanessentiallyimmobileobjectfromwhichtheflexible
soundboardcanbestvibrate.AccordingtoHaroldA.Conklin,[23]thepurposeofasturdyrimissothat,"...thevibrationalenergywillstayas
muchaspossibleinthesoundboardinsteadofdissipatinguselesslyinthecaseparts,whichareinefficientradiatorsofsound."
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Hardwoodrimsarecommonlymadebylaminatingthin,henceflexible,stripsofhardwood,bendingthemtothedesiredshapeimmediately
aftertheapplicationofglue.[24]ThebentplywoodsystemwasdevelopedbyC.F.TheodoreSteinwayin1880toreducemanufacturingtime
andcosts.Previously,therimwasconstructedfromseveralpiecesofsolidwood,joinedandveneered,andthismethodcontinuedtobeusedin
Europewellintothe20thcentury.[10]Amodernexception,Bsendorfer,theAustrianmanufacturerofhighqualitypianos,constructstheir
innerrimsfromsolidspruce,[25]thesamewoodthatthesoundboardismadefrom,whichisnotchedtoallowittobendratherthanisolating
therimfromvibration,their"resonancecaseprinciple"allowstheframeworktomorefreelyresonatewiththesoundboard,creatingadditional
colorationandcomplexityoftheoverallsound.[26]
Thethickwoodenpostsontheunderside
(grands)orback(uprights)ofthepiano
stabilizetherimstructure,andaremadeof
softwoodforstability.Therequirementof
structuralstrength,fulfilledbystout
hardwoodandthickmetal,makesapiano
heavy.Evenasmalluprightcanweigh
136kg(300lb),andtheSteinwayconcert
grand(ModelD)weighs480kg(990lb).
Thelargestpianoavailableonthegeneral
market,theFazioliF308,weighs570kg
(1257lb).[27][28]
Thepinblock,whichholdsthetuningpins
inplace,isanotherareawheretoughnessis
(1)frame(2)lid,frontpart(3)capobar(4)damper(5)lid,backpart(6)dampermechanism(7)
important.Itismadeofhardwood(typically
sostenutorail(8)pedalmechanism,rods(9,10,11)pedals:right(sustain/damper),middle(sostenuto),
hardmapleorbeech),andislaminatedfor
left(soft/unacorda)(12)bridge(13)hitchpin(14)frame(15)soundboard(16)string(17)
strength,stabilityandlongevity.Piano
strings(alsocalledpianowire),whichmust
endureyearsofextremetensionandhardblows,aremadeofhighcarbonsteel.Theyaremanufacturedtovaryaslittleaspossibleindiameter,
sincealldeviationsfromuniformityintroducetonaldistortion.Thebassstringsofapianoaremadeofasteelcorewrappedwithcopperwire,
toincreasetheirmasswhilstretainingflexibility.Ifallstringsthroughoutthepiano'scompasswereindividual(monochord),themassivebass
stringswouldoverpowertheupperranges.Makerscompensateforthiswiththeuseofdouble(bichord)stringsinthetenorandtriple(trichord)
stringsthroughoutthetreble.

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Thisviewoftheundersideofa182
cm(6foot)grandpianoshows,in
orderofdistancefromviewer:
softwoodbraces,taperedsoundboard
ribs,soundboard.Themetalrodat
lowerrightisahumiditycontrol
device.

PianoWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Theplate(harp),ormetalframe,ofapianoisusuallymadeof
castiron.Amassiveplateisadvantageous.Sincethestrings
vibratefromtheplateatbothends,aninsufficientlymassive
platewouldabsorbtoomuchofthevibrationalenergythat
shouldgothroughthebridgetothesoundboard.Whilesome
manufacturersusecaststeelintheirplates,mostprefercast
iron.Castironiseasytocastandmachine,hasflexibility
sufficientforpianouse,ismuchmoreresistanttodeformation
thansteel,andisespeciallytolerantofcompression.Plate
castingisanart,sincedimensionsarecrucialandtheiron
shrinksaboutonepercentduringcooling.

OuterrimofEstoniagrandpiano
duringthemanufacturingprocess

Includinganextremelylargepieceofmetalinapianoispotentiallyan
aesthetichandicap.Pianomakersovercomethisbypolishing,painting,
anddecoratingtheplate.Platesoftenincludethemanufacturer's
ornamentalmedallion.Inanefforttomakepianoslighter,Alcoa
workedwithWinterandCompanypianomanufacturerstomakepianos
usinganaluminumplateduringthe1940s.Aluminumpianoplateswere
notwidelyaccepted,andwerediscontinued.
Thenumerouspartsofapianoactionaregenerallymadefromhardwood,suchasmaple,beech,andhornbeam,
however,sinceWorldWarII,makershavealsoincorporatedplastics.Earlyplasticsusedinsomepianosinthe
late1940sand1950s,proveddisastrouswhentheyloststrengthafterafewdecadesofuse.Beginningin1961,
theNewYorkbranchoftheSteinwayfirmincorporatedTeflon,asyntheticmaterialdevelopedbyDuPont,for
somepartsofitsPermafreegrandactioninplaceofclothbushings,butabandonedtheexperimentin1982due
toexcessivefrictionanda"clicking"thatdevelopedovertimeTeflonis"humiditystable"whereasthewood
adjacenttotheTeflonswellsandshrinkswithhumiditychanges,causingproblems.Morerecently,theKawai
firmbuiltpianoswithactionpartsmadeofmoremodernmaterialssuchascarbonfiberreinforcedplastic,and
thepianopartsmanufacturerWessell,NickelandGrosshaslaunchedanewlineofcarefullyengineered
compositeparts.Thusfarthesepartshaveperformedreasonably,butitwilltakedecadestoknowiftheyequal
thelongevityofwood.

Castironplateofagrand
piano

Inallbutthepoorestpianosthesoundboardismadeofsolidspruce(thatis,spruceboardsgluedtogetheralongthesidegrain).Spruce'shigh
ratioofstrengthtoweightminimizesacousticimpedancewhileofferingstrengthsufficienttowithstandthedownwardforceofthestrings.The
bestpianomakersusequartersawn,defectfreespruceofcloseannulargrain,carefullyseasoningitoveralongperiodbeforefabricatingthe

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soundboards.Thisistheidenticalmaterialthatisusedinqualityacousticguitarsoundboards.Cheappianosoftenhaveplywood
soundboards.[29]

Keyboard

Stringsofagrandpiano

Intheearlyyearsofpianoconstruction,keyswerecommonly
madefromsugarpine.Todaytheyareusuallymadeofspruceor
basswood.Spruceistypicallyusedinhighqualitypianos.
Blackkeysweretraditionallymadeofebony,andthewhite
keyswerecoveredwithstripsofivory.However,sinceivory
yieldingspeciesarenowendangeredandprotectedbytreaty,
makersuseplasticsalmostexclusively.Also,ivorytendstochip
moreeasilythanplastic.Legalivorycanstillbeobtainedin
limitedquantities.TheYamahafirminventedaplasticcalled
Ivoritethattheyclaimmimicsthelookandfeelofivory.Ithas

sincebeenimitatedbyothermakers.

Keyboardofagrandpiano

Almosteverymodernpianohas52whitekeysand36
blackkeysforatotalof88keys(sevenoctavesplusa
minorthird,fromA0toC8).Manyolderpianosonly
have85keys(sevenoctavesfromA0toA7).Somepiano
manufacturersextendtherangefurtherinoneorboth
directions.
SomeBsendorferpianos,forexample,extendthe
normalrangedowntoF0,andoneoftheirmodelswhich

An88keypiano,withtheoctavesnumberedandMiddleC(cyan)andA440(yellow)
highlighted.

has97keysevengoesasfarasabottomC0,makingafulleightoctaverange.Theseextrakeysaresometimeshiddenunderasmallhingedlid
thatcancoverthekeystopreventvisualdisorientationforpianistsunfamiliarwiththeextrakeys,orthecolorsoftheextrawhitekeysare
reversed(blackinsteadofwhite).
Theextrakeysareaddedprimarilyforincreasedresonancefromtheassociatedstringsthatis,theyvibratesympatheticallywithotherstrings
wheneverthedamperpedalisdepressedandthusgiveafullertone.Onlyaverysmallnumberofworkscomposedforpianoactuallyusethese
notes.Morerecently,theStuartandSonscompanyhasalsomanufacturedextendedrangepianos,withthefirst102keypiano.Ontheir
instruments,thefrequencyrangeextendsfromC0toF8,whichisthewidestpracticalrangefortheacousticpiano.Theextrakeysarethesame
astheotherkeysinappearance.
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Smallstudiouprightacousticalpianoswithonly65keyshavebeenmanufacturedforusebyrovingpianists.Knownasgigpianosandstill
containingacastironharp(frame),thesearecomparativelylightweightandcanbeeasilytransportedtoandfromengagementsbyonlytwo
people.Astheirharpislongerthanthatofaspinetorconsolepiano,theyhaveastrongerbasssoundthattosomepianistsiswellworththe
tradeoffinrangethatareducedkeysetoffers.
ThetoypianomanufacturerSchoenhutstartedmanufacturingbothgrandsanduprightswithonly44or49keys,andshorterdistancebetween
thekeyboardandthepedals.Thesepianosaretruepianoswithactionandstrings.Thepianoswereintroducedtotheirproductlineinresponse
tonumerousrequestsinfavorofit.
ThereisararevariantsofpianothathasdoublekeyboardscalledtheEmnuelMorPianoforte.ItwasinventedbyHungariancomposerand
pianist,EmnuelMor(19February186320October1931).Itconsistedoftwokeyboardslyingoneaboveeachother.Thelowerkeyboard
hastheusual88keysandtheupperkeyboardhas76keys.Whenpressingtheupperkeyboardtheinternalmechanismpullsdownthe
correspondingkeyonthelowerkeyboard,butanoctavehigher.Thisallowpianisttoeasilyreachtwooctavewithonehandwhichwas
impossibletodosoonaconventionalpiano.Duetoitsdoublekeyboardmusicalworkthatwereoriginallycreatedfordoublemanual
HarpsichordsuchasGoldbergVariationsbyBachbecomemucheasiertoplay,sinceplayingonaconventionalsinglekeyboardpianoinvolve
complexandhandtanglingcrosshandmovements.Thedesignalsofeaturedaspecialforthpedalwhichpairthelowerkeyboardwithupper
keyboard,sowhenplayingonthelowerkeyboardthenoteoneoctavehigherwouldalsobeplayedasifthepianisthadalsopressedtheupper
keyboard.Onlyabout60EmnuelMorPianoforteweremade,mostlymanufacturedbyBsendorfer.Otherpianomanufacturessuchas
Bechstein,Chickering,andSteinway&Sonshadalsomanufacturedafew.[30]
Pianoshavebeenbuiltwithalternativekeyboardsystems,e.g.,theJankkeyboard.

Pedals
Pianoshavehadpedals,orsomecloseequivalent,sincetheearliestdays.(Inthe18thcentury,somepianosusedleverspressedupwardbythe
player'skneeinsteadofpedals.)MostgrandpianosintheUShavethreepedals:thesoftpedal(unacorda),sostenuto,andsustainpedal(from
lefttoright,respectively),whileinEurope,thestandardistwopedals:thesoftpedalandthesustainpedal.Mostmodernuprightpianosalso
havethreepedals:softpedal,practicepedalandsustainpedal,thougholderorcheapermodelsmaylackthepracticepedal.InEuropethe
standardforuprightpianosistwopedals:thesoftandthesustainpedals.
Thesustainpedal(or,damperpedal)isoftensimplycalled"thepedal",sinceitisthemostfrequentlyused.Itisplacedastherightmostpedal
inthegroup.Itliftsthedampersfromallkeys,sustainingallplayednotes.Inaddition,italterstheoveralltonebyallowingallstrings,
includingthosenotdirectlyplayed,toreverberate.

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Thesoftpedalorunacordapedalisplacedleftmostintherowofpedals.In
grandpianositshiftstheentireaction/keyboardassemblytotheright(avery
fewinstrumentshaveshiftedleft)sothatthehammershittwoofthethree
stringsforeachnote.Intheearliestpianoswhoseunisonswerebichords
Notationsusedforthe
ratherthantrichords,theactionshiftedsothathammershitasinglestring,
sustainpedalinsheet
hencethenameunacorda,or'onestring'.Theeffectistosoftenthenoteas
music
wellaschangethetone.Inuprightsthisactionisnotpossibleinsteadthe
pedalmovesthehammersclosertothestrings,allowingthehammersto
strikewithlesskineticenergy.Thisproducesaslightlysoftersound,butnochangeintimbre.
Ongrandpianos,themiddlepedalisasostenutopedal.Thispedalkeepsraisedanydamperalready
raisedatthemomentthepedalisdepressed.Thismakesitpossibletosustainselectednotes(by
depressingthesostenutopedalbeforethosenotesarereleased)whiletheplayer'shandsarefreetoplay
additionalnotes(whicharen'tsustained).Thiscanbeusefulformusicalpassageswithpedalpointsand
otherotherwisetrickyorimpossiblesituations.
Pianopedalsfromlefttoright:una
corda,sostenutoandsustainpedal

Onmanyuprightpianos,themiddlepedaliscalledthe"practice"orcelestepedal.Thisdropsapieceoffeltbetweenthehammersandstrings,
greatlymutingthesounds.Thispedalcanbeshiftedwhiledepressed,intoa"locking"position.
Therearealsononstandardvariants.Onsomepianos(grandsandverticals),themiddlepedalcanbeabasssustainpedal:thatis,whenitis
depressed,thedampersliftoffthestringsonlyinthebasssection.Playersusethispedaltosustainasinglebassnoteorchordovermany
measures,whileplayingthemelodyinthetreblesection.OntheStuartandSonspianoaswellasthelargestFaziolipiano,thereisafourth
pedaltotheleftoftheprincipalthree.Thisfourthpedalworksinthesamewayasthesoftpedalofanuprightpiano,movingthehammers
closertothestrings.[31]
Theraretransposingpiano(anexampleofwhichwasownedbyIrvingBerlin)hasamiddlepedalthatfunctionsasaclutchthatdisengagesthe
keyboardfromthemechanism,sotheplayercanmovethekeyboardtotheleftorrightwithalever.Thisshiftstheentirepianoactionsothe
pianistcanplaymusicwritteninonekeysothatitsoundsinadifferentkey.
Somepianocompanieshaveincludedextrapedalsotherthanthestandardtwoorthree.CrownandSchubertPianoCo.producedafourpedal
piano.Faziolicurrentlyoffersafourthpedalthatprovidesasecondsoftpedal,thatworksbybringingthekeysclosertothestrings.
WingandSonofNewYorkofferedafivepedalpianofromapproximately1893throughthe1920s.Thereisnomentionofthecompanypast
the1930s.Labeledlefttoright,thepedalsareMandolin,Orchestra,Expression,Soft,andForte(Sustain).TheOrchestralpedalproduceda
soundsimilartoatremolofeelbybouncingasetofsmallbeadsdanglingagainstthestrings,enablingthepianotomimicamandolin,guitar,

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banjo,zitherandharp,thusthenameOrchestral.TheMandolinpedalusedasimilarapproach,loweringasetoffeltstripswithmetalringsin
betweenthehammersandthestrings(akarinkytinkeffect).ThisextendedthelifeofthehammerswhentheOrchpedalwasused,agoodidea
forpracticing,andcreatedanecholikesoundthatmimickedplayinginanorchestralhall.[32][33]
Thepedalierpiano,orpedalpiano,isararetypeofpianothatincludesapedalboardsoplayerscanusertheirfeettoplaybassregisternotes,as
onanorgan.Therearetwotypesofpedalpiano.Onone,thepedalboardisanintegralpartoftheinstrument,usingthesamestringsand
mechanismasthemanualkeyboard.Theother,rarertype,consistsoftwoindependentpianos(eachwithseparatemechanicsandstrings)
placedoneabovetheotheroneforthehandsandoneforthefeet.Thiswasdevelopedprimarilyasapracticeinstrumentfororganists,though
thereisasmallrepertoirewrittenspecificallyfortheinstrument.

Mechanics
Whenthekeyisstruck,achainreactionoccurstoproducethesound.First,thekeyraisesthewippen,
whichforcesthejackagainstthehammerroller(orknuckle).Thehammerrollerthenliftsthelever
carryingthehammer.Thekeyalsoraisesthedamperandimmediatelyafterthehammerstrikesthe
wireitfallsback,allowingthewiretoresonate.Whenthekeyisreleasedthedamperfallsbackonto
thestrings,stoppingthewirefromvibrating.[34]Thevibratingpianostringsthemselvesarenotvery
loud,buttheirvibrationsaretransmittedtoalargesoundboardthatmovesairandthusconvertsthe
energytosound.Theirregularshapeandoffcenterplacementofthebridgeensurethatthesoundboard
vibratesstronglyatallfrequencies.[35](SeePianoactionforadiagramanddetaileddescriptionofpiano
parts.)
Therearethreefactorsthatinfluencethepitchofavibratingwire.
Length:Allotherfactorsthesame,theshorterthewire,thehigherthepitch.
Massperunitlength:Allotherfactorsthesame,thethinnerthewire,thehigherthepitch.
Tension:Allotherfactorsthesame,thetighterthewire,thehigherthepitch.

AnuprightpedalpianobyChallen

Avibratingwiresubdividesitselfintomanypartsvibratingatthesametime.Eachpartproducesapitchofitsown,calledapartial.Avibrating
stringhasonefundamentalandaseriesofpartials.Themostpurecombinationoftwopitchesiswhenoneisdoublethefrequencyofthe
other.[36]
Forarepeatingwave,thevelocityvequalsthewavelengthtimesthefrequencyf,

v=f
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Onthepianostring,wavesreflectfrombothends.Thesuperpositionofreflectingwavesresultsina
standingwavepattern,butonlyforwavelengths=2L,L,L/2,...=2L/n,whereListhelengthof
thestring.Therefore,theonlyfrequenciesproducedonasinglestringaref=nv/(2L).Timbreis
largelydeterminedbythecontentoftheseharmonics.Differentinstrumentshavedifferentharmonic
contentforthesamepitch.Arealstringvibratesatharmonicsthatarenotperfectmultiplesofthe
fundamental.Thisresultsinalittleinharmonicity,whichgivesrichnesstothetonebutcauses
significanttuningchallengesthroughoutthecompassoftheinstrument.[35]
ApianistplayingPreludeandFugue
No.23inBmajor(BWV868)from
Bach'sTheWellTemperedClavieron
agrandpiano

Strikingthepianokeywithgreatervelocityincreasestheamplitudeofthewavesandthereforethe
volume.Frompianissimo(pp)tofortissimo(ff)thehammervelocitychangesbyalmostafactorofa
hundred.Thehammercontacttimewiththestringshortensfrom4msatpptolessthan2msatff.[35]If
twowiresadjustedtothesamepitcharestruckatthesametime,thesoundproducedbyonereinforces
theother,andaloudercombinedsoundofshorterdurationisproduced.Ifonewirevibratesoutof
synchronizationwiththeother,theysubtractfromeachotherandproduceasoftertoneoflongerduration.[37]

Maintenance
Pianosareheavyyetdelicateinstruments.Overtheyears,professionalpianomovershavedeveloped
specialtechniquesfortransportingbothgrandsanduprights,whichpreventdamagetothecaseandto
thepiano'smechanics.Pianosneedregulartuningtokeepthemonpitch.Thehammersofpianosare
voicedtocompensateforgradualhardening,andotherpartsalsoneedperiodicregulation.Agedand
wornpianoscanberebuiltorreconditioned.Often,byreplacingagreatnumberoftheirparts,theycan
performaswellasnewpianos.

Tuning

Thepianoatthesocialcenterinthe
19thcentury(MoritzvonSchwind,
1868).ThemanatthepianoisFranz
Schubert.

Pianotuninginvolvesadjustingthetensionsofthepiano'sstrings,therebyaligningtheintervalsamong
theirtonessothattheinstrumentisintune.Themeaningofthetermintuneinthecontextofpiano
tuningisnotsimplyaparticularfixedsetofpitches.Finepianotuningcarefullyassessestheinteraction
amongallnotesofthechromaticscale,differentforeverypiano,andthusrequiresslightlydifferent
pitchesfromanytheoreticalstandard.Pianosareusuallytunedtoamodifiedversionofthesystemcalledequaltemperament(seePianokey
frequenciesforthetheoreticalpianotuning).Inallsystemsoftuning,eachpitchisderivedfromitsrelationshiptoachosenfixedpitch,
usuallytheinternationallyrecognizedstandardconcertpitchofA440.

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Therelationshipbetweentwopitches,calledaninterval,istheratiooftheirabsolutefrequencies.Twodifferentintervalsareperceivedasthe
samewhenthepairsofpitchesinvolvedsharethesamefrequencyratio.Theeasiestintervalsto
identify,andtheeasiestintervalstotune,arethosethatarejust,meaningtheyhaveasimplewhole
numberratio.Thetermtemperamentreferstoatuningsystemthattempersthejustintervals(usually
theperfectfifth,whichhastheratio3:2)tosatisfyanothermathematicalpropertyinequal
temperament,afifthistemperedbynarrowingitslightly,achievedbyflatteningitsupperpitchslightly,
orraisingitslowerpitchslightly.Atemperamentsystemisalsoknownasasetofbearings.

Apianotuner

Temperinganintervalcausesittobeat,whichisafluctuationinperceivedsoundintensitydueto
interferencebetweenclose(butunequal)pitches.Therateofbeatingisequaltothefrequency
differencesofanyharmonicsthatarepresentforbothpitchesandthatcoincideornearlycoincide.

Playingandtechnique
Aswithanyothermusicalinstrument,thepianomaybeplayedfromwrittenmusic,byear,orthroughimprovisation.Pianotechniqueevolved
duringthetransitionfromharpsichordandclavichordtofortepianoplaying,andcontinuedthroughthedevelopmentofthemodernpiano.
Changesinmusicalstylesandaudiencepreferences,aswellastheemergenceofvirtuosoperformerscontributedtothisevolution,andtothe
growthofdistinctapproachesorschoolsofpianoplaying.Althoughtechniqueisoftenviewedasonlythephysicalexecutionofamusicalidea,
manypedagoguesandperformersstresstheinterrelatednessofthephysicalandmentaloremotionalaspectsofpianoplaying.[38][39][40][41][42]
WellknownapproachestopianotechniqueincludethosebyDorothyTaubman,EdnaGolandsky,FredKarpoff,andOttoOrtmann.

Performancestyles
Manyclassicalmusiccomposers,includingHaydn,Mozart,andBeethoven,composedforthefortepiano,aratherdifferentinstrumentthanthe
modernpiano.EvencomposersoftheRomanticmovement,likeLiszt,Chopin,RobertSchumann,FelixMendelssohn,andJohannesBrahms,
wroteforpianossubstantiallydifferentfrommodernpianos.Contemporarymusiciansmayadjusttheirinterpretationofhistorical
compositionstoaccountforsoundqualitydifferencesbetweenoldandnewinstruments.
StartinginBeethoven'slatercareer,thefortepianoevolvedintothemodernpianoasweknowittoday.Modernpianoswereinwideusebythe
late19thcentury.Theyfeaturedanoctaverangelargerthantheearlierfortepianoinstrument,addingaround30morekeystotheinstrument.
Factorymassproductionofuprightpianosmadethemmoreaffordableforalargernumberofpeople.Theyappearedinmusichallsandpubs
duringthe19thcentury,providingentertainmentthroughapianosoloist,orincombinationwithasmallband.Pianistsbeganaccompanying
singersordancersperformingonstage,orpatronsdancingonadancefloor.

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Duringthe19thcentury,Americanmusiciansplayingforworkingclassaudiencesinsmallpubsand
bars,particularlyAfricanAmericancomposers,developednewmusicalgenresbasedonthemodern
piano.Ragtimemusic,popularizedbycomposerssuchasScottJoplin,reachedabroaderaudienceby
1900.ThepopularityofragtimemusicwasquicklysucceededbyJazzpiano.Newtechniquesand
rhythmswereinventedforthepiano,includingostinatoforboogiewoogie,andShearingvoicing.
GeorgeGershwin'sRhapsodyinBluebrokenewmusicalgroundbycombiningAmericanjazzpiano
withsymphonicsounds.Comping,atechniqueforaccompanyingjazzvocalistsonpiano,was
exemplifiedbyDukeEllington'stechnique.Honkytonkmusic,featuringyetanotherstyleofpiano
rhythm,becamepopularduringthesameera.Beboptechniquesgrewoutofjazz,withleading
composerssuchasTheloniousMonkandBudPowell.Inthelate20thcentury,BillEvanscomposed
piecescombiningclassicaltechniqueswithhisjazzexperimentation.HerbieHancockwasoneofthe
firstjazzpianiststofindmainstreampopularityworkingwithnewerurbanmusictechniques.
PianoshavealsobeenusedprominentlyinrockandrollbyentertainerssuchasJerryLeeLewis,Little
Richard,KeithEmerson(Emerson,Lake&Palmer),EltonJohn,BenFolds,BillyJoel,NickyHopkins,
andToriAmos,tonameafew.
Moderniststylesofmusichavealsoappealedtocomposerswritingforthemoderngrandpiano,
includingJohnCageandPhilipGlass.

BirthdaypartyhonoringFrench
pianistMauriceRavelin1928.From
lefttoright:conductor,OscarFried
singer,EvaGauthierMauriceRavel
(atpiano)composerconductor,
ManoahLeideTedescoand
composerGeorgeGershwin.

Role
ThepianoisacrucialinstrumentinWesternclassicalmusic,jazz,film,television,andmostothercomplexwesternmusicalgenres.Alarge
numberofcomposersareproficientpianistsandbecausethepianokeyboardoffersaneasymeansofcomplexmelodicandharmonic
interplaythepianoisoftenusedasatoolforcomposition.

Seealso
General
Jazzpiano
Pianoextendedtechnique
Pianotranscription
Pianotrio
PianoForteFoundation
Streetpiano
Stringpiano
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Stringpiano
Technical
Agraffe
Aliquotstringing
Pianoacoustics
Relatedinstruments
Digitalpiano
Electricpiano
Electronickeyboard
Electronicpiano
Harmonichord
Keyboardinstruments
Keytar
Melodica
Organ
Orphica
Pianoaccordion
Pipeorgan
Playerpiano
Other
Chiroplast
Pianist
Pianos
Listofclassicalpianists
Listoffilmsaboutpianists
Listofpianobrandnames
Listofpianomakers

References
1. "Definitionof"pianoforte"intheOxfordDictionary.".OxfordUniversityPress.
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Erlich,Cyril(1990).ThePiano:AHistory.OxfordUniversityPress,USARevisededition.ISBN0198161719.
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"HistoryoftheEavestaffPianetteMinipiano".Pianotuners.org.Retrieved20140127.
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gK#v=onepage&q&f=true)PopularMechanics,April1954,p.115,bottomofpage.
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"161FactsAboutSteinway&SonsandthePianosTheyBuild".Steinway&Sons.Retrieved19November2014.
Nave,CarlR."ThePiano".HyperPhysics.Retrieved19November2014.
"ThePianoCase".FiveLecturesontheAcousticsofthePiano.RoyalSwedishAcademyofMusic.1990.Retrieved30August2010.
Navi,ParvisDickSandberg(2012).ThermoHydroMechanicalWoodProcessing.CRCPress.p.46.ISBN1439860424.
Fine,Larry(2007).20072008AnnualSupplementtoThePianoBook.BrooksidePress.p.31.ISBN1929145217.
The"resonancecaseprinciple"isdescribedbyBsendorferintermsofmanufacturingtechnique(http://www.boesendorfer.com/en/shaping
boesendorfer.html)anddescriptionofeffect(http://www.boesendorfer.com/en/standardmodels.html).
"Fazioli,Paolo"(http://www.oxfordmusiconline.com/subscriber/article/grove/music/42578?q=fazioli&search=quick&pos=1&_start=1#firsthit),Grove
MusicOnline,2009.Accessed12April2009.
"ModelF308"(http://www.fazioli.com/en/pianoforti/model/f308),OfficialFazioliWebsite.Accessed6March2015.
Fletcher,NevilleHornerThomasD.Rossing(1998).ThePhysicsofMusicalInstruments.Springer.p.374.
Baron,James(July15,2007)."Let'sPlayTwo:SingularPiano".NewYorkTimes.Retrieved20150303.
"Fourthpedal".Fazioli.Archivedfromtheoriginalon20080416.Retrieved20080421.
"Pianowithinstrumentalattachments".MusicaViva.Retrieved27August2010.
"Wing&Son".AntiquePianoShop.Retrieved27August2010.

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34. Macaulay,David.TheNewHowThingsWork.FromLeverstoLasers,WindmillstoWebSites,AVisualguidetotheWorldofMachines.Houghton
MifflinCompany,UnitedStates.1998.ISBN0395938473.pp.2627.
35. PhysicsofthePianobythePianoTunersGuild(http://www.physics.odu.edu/~hyde/Teaching/Phys332_Wk13.ppt)
36. Reblitz,ArthurA.PianoServicing,Tuning,andRebuilding.FortheProfessional,theStudent,andtheHobbyist.VestalPress,LanhamMaryland.
1993.ISBN1879511037Pp.203215.
37. Reblitz,ArthurA.PianoServicing,Tuning,andRebuilding.FortheProfessional,thestudent,andtheHobbyist.VestalPress,LanhamMaryland.1993.
ISBN1879511037Pp.203215.
38. EdwinM.Ripinetal."Pianoforte".GroveMusicOnline(OxfordUniversityPress).Retrieved17November2014.
39. Matthay,Tobias(1947).TheVisibleandInvisibleinPianoforteTechnique:BeingaDigestoftheAuthor'sTechnicalTeachingsUptoDate.London:
OxfordUniversityPress.p.3.
40. Harrison,Sidney(1953).PianoTechnique.London:I.Pitman.p.57.
41. Fielden,Thomas(1934).TheScienceofPianoforteTechnique.London:Macmillan.p.162.
42. Boulanger,Nadia."SayingsofGreatTeachers".ThePianoQuarterly.Winter19581959:26.

Dolge,Alfred(1911).PianosandTheirMakers:AComprehensiveHistoryoftheDevelopmentofthePianofromtheMonochordtothe
ConcertGrandPlayerPiano.CovinaPublishingCompany.
Isacoff,Stuart(2012).ANaturalHistoryofthePiano:TheInstrument,theMusic,theMusiciansFromMozarttoModernJazzand
EverythinginBetween.KnopfDoubledayPublishing.

General
Mostoftheinformationinthisarticlecanbefoundinthefollowingpublishedworks:
Fine,LarryGilbert,DouglasR(2001).ThePianoBook:BuyingandOwningaNeworUsedPiano(4thed.).JamaicaPlain,MA:
BrooksidePress.ISBN1929145012.Givesthebasicsofhowpianoswork,andathoroughevaluativesurveyofcurrentpianosand
theirmanufacturers.Italsoincludesadviceonbuyingandowningpianos.
Good,EdwinM.(2001).Giraffes,blackdragons,andotherpianos:atechnologicalhistoryfromCristoforitothemodernconcertgrand
(2nded.).Stanford,CA:StanfordUniversityPress.ISBN0804745498.isastandardreferenceonthehistoryofthepiano.
Pollens,Stewart(1995).TheEarlyPianoforte.Cambridge,MA:CambridgeUniversityPress.ISBN9780521111553.isan
authoritativeworkcoveringtheancestryofthepiano,itsinventionbyCristofori,andtheearlystagesofitssubsequentevolution.
Sadie,StanleyJohnTyrrell,ed.(2001).TheNewGroveDictionaryofMusicandMusicians(2nded.).London:MacmillanPublishers.
ISBN0195170679.containsawealthofinformation.Mainarticle:EdwinM.Ripin,StewartPollens,PhilipR.Belt,MaribelMeisel,
AlfonsHuber,MichaelCole,GertHecher,BerylKenyondePascual,CynthiaAdamsHoover,CyrilEhrlich,EdwinM.Good,Robert
Winter,andJ.BradfordRobinson."Pianoforte".

Furtherreading
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Banowetz,JosephElder,Dean(1985).Thepianist'sguidetopedaling.Bloomington:IndianaUniversityPress.ISBN0253344948.
Carhart,Thad(2002)[2001].ThePianoShopontheLeftBank.NewYork:RandomHouse.ISBN0375758623.
Ehrlich,Cyril(1990).ThePiano:AHistory.Oxford,UnitedKingdom:OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN9780198161714.
Giordano,Sr.,NicholasJ.(2010).PhysicsofthePiano.Oxford,UnitedKingdom:OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN9780199546022.
Lelie,Christo(1995).VanPianototForte(TheHistoryoftheEarlyPiano)(inDutch).Kampen:KokLyra.
Loesser,Arthur(1991)[1954].Men,Women,andPianos:ASocialHistory.NewYork:DoverPublications.
Parakilas,James(1999).PianoRoles:ThreeHundredYearsofLifewiththePiano.NewHaven,Connecticut:YaleUniversityPress.
ISBN0300080557.
Reblitz,ArthurA.(1993).PianoServicing,TuningandRebuilding:FortheProfessional,theStudent,andtheHobbyist.Vestal,NY:
VestalPress.ISBN1879511037.
Schejtman,Rod(2008).MusicFundamentals.ThePianoEncyclopedia.ISBN9789872521622.
White,WilliamH.(1909).TheoryandPracticeofPianoforteBuilding.NewYork:E.LymanBill.

Externallinks
HistoryofthePianoForte(http://www.ukpiano.org/history/history.html),AssociationofBlindPianoTuners,UK
SectionTableofMusicPitchesoftheVirginiaTechMultimediaMusicDictionary
(http://www.music.vt.edu/musicdictionary/appendix/pitch/pitch.html)
TheFrederickHistoricalPianoCollection(http://www.frederickcollection.org/collection.html)
ThePianofortesofBartolomeoCristofori,HeilbrunnTimelineofArtHistory,TheMetropolitanMuseumofArt
(http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/cris/hd_cris.htm)
FivelecturesontheAcousticsofthepiano(https://www.speech.kth.se/music/5_lectures/contents.html)
Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Piano&oldid=695082860"
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