The First Materials (Stone Age and CopperStone Age)

Materials have accompanied mankind virtually from the very beginning of its
existence. Among the first materials utilized by man were certainly stone and wood, but
bone, fibres, feathers, shells, animal skin, and clay also served specific purposes.
Materials were predominantly used for tools, weapons, utensils, shelter, and for selfexpression, that is, for creating decorations or jewelry.
Materials have been considered of such importance that historians and other scholars
have named certain ancient periods after the material which was predominantly utilized at
that respective time. Examples are the Stone Age, the CopperStone Age, the Bronze Age,
and the Iron Age. The Stone Age, which is defined to have begun about 2.5 million years
ago, is divided into the Paleolithic (Old Stone Age), the Mesolithic (Middle Stone Age),
and the Neolithic (New Stone Age) phases.
Until very recently, the mastery of materials has been achieved mainly by empirical
means or, at its best, by a form of alchemy. Only in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries did
systematic research lead to an interdisciplinary field of study that was eventually named
materials science.
Materials often have to be cut, shaped, or smoothed before they reach their final form
and designation. For this, a tool that is harder than the work piece has to be set in action. As
an example, flint stone having a sharp edge was used by early man for cutting and shaping
other materials such as wood.
The transition, from stone age to metals age did not occur at the same time in all
places of the world. The introduction of metals stretched over nearly 5,000 years, if it
occurred at all, and seems to have begun independently at various locations. Copper, in
particular, played an outstanding role because of its appearance and its relative abundance
(especially after man learned how to smelt it). In short, the stone and copper ages coexisted
for a long time. This led to the Chalcolithic, or CopperStone Age.
The exact time when Neolithic man begun to use copper will probably never be
exactly known, but it is believed that this was about 8000 B.C. Copper weapons and utensils
were found in Egyptian graves dating about 5000 B.C. Eventually, native copper and other
metals must have been nearly exhausted. Thus, Neolithic man turned his attention to
new sources for metals, namely, those that were locked up in minerals. A widely used
copper ore is malachite. They smelted copper from malachite.

The Bronze Age

Chalcolithic man was clearly aware of the many useful features of copper that made it
preferable to stone or organic materials for some specialized applications. Among these
properties were its elasticity and particularly plasticity, which allowed sheets or chunks of
copper to be given useful shapes. Chalcolithic man also exploited the fact that copper hardens
during hammering, that is, as a result of plastic deformation. Last but not least, molten copper

can be cast into molds to obtain more intricate shapes. On the negative side, surface oxidation
and gases trapped during melting and casting which may form porosity were probably of
some concern to Chalcolithic man. More importantly, however, cast copper is quite soft and
thus could hardly be used for strong weapons or tools. Eventually, the time had come for a
change through innovation. A new material had to be found. This material was bronze. Cast
bronze has a higher hardness than pure copper without necessitating subsequent hammering.
Naturally, some impurities that were already present in the copper ore
transferred into the solidified copper. Among them were arsenic, antimony, silver, lead,
iron, bismuth and occasionally even tin. These impurities, however, were not present in
sufficient quantities that one could refer to the resulting product as an alloy. Small quantities
of these impurities rarely change the properties of copper noticeably except in the case of
bismuth, which even in small amounts makes copper brittle. The first major and deliberate
addition to copper seemed to have been arsenic (at least in the Middle East). Copper
arsenic alloys, however, were used only for a limited time. Eventually, it must have been
realized that the fumes which were emitted by the arsenic during smelting killed some metal
smiths. Eventually, tin was found to be the ideal addition to copper which was alloyed in an
optimal proportion of 10 mass%. This copper-tin alloy is generally referred to as bronze.
The melting temperature of Cu10% Sn is about 950C (compared to 1084C for pure
Cu). The melt flows freely into molds and no problems with gas bubbles, that is,
porosity, are encountered. Most importantly, however, the alloy is hard immediately after
casting and subsequent cooling but can be hardened further by hammering. Finally, copper
tin is harder and less brittle than copperarsenic.
Recent archaeological evidence indicates that besides the Mediterranean area
(considered by many westerners to be the cradle of civilization), independent bronzeproducing centers existed in northern Thailand (Ban Chiang) during the third or fourth
millennium B.C., and additionally in the isolation of China during the Shang dynasty starting
at about 1400 B.C. Excavations at Mehrgarh (todays Pakistan) have demonstrated that the
Harappans must have been skilled bronze workers as early as 2300 B.C., applying the lost
wax casting technique, annealing, and riveting. They produced human figurines, vessels,
arrowheads, spearheads, knives, and axes.

The Iron Age

Historians claim that the Iron Age began between 1500 and 1000 B.C. The role of
carbon on the hardness of iron and steel was, however, not recognized for a long time. There
were two more discoveries which were probably made during the first millennium B.C. that
improved the quality of carbonized iron even further. One of them (interestingly enough,
described in Homers Odyssey) involves quenching, that is, a rapid cooling of a red-hot piece
of carbonized iron into cold water (hardening). This procedure hardens the work piece
considerably more, sometimes even to the extent of brittleness. As a result, quenched swords,
tools, and other utensils may have cracked or even shattered. The other discovery which was
made during the end of the first millennium B.C. entailed a short-time reheating of a
previously quenched piece of steel to about 600C. This procedure, which is known today as

tempering, restores some ductility and relieves the brittleness at the expense of some loss in
hardness.
The time at which iron was first smelted in India is not exactly known. However, iron
production is mentioned in the Rigveda, which is the oldest known Hindu religious book.
Conservative estimates place its origin around 1200 B.C. Other sources claim that iron
smelting in India did not commence before 600 B.C.

The Age of Electronic Materials

Stone AgeBronze AgeIron Agewhats next? Some individuals have called the
present era the space age or the atomic age.However, space exploration and nuclear
reactors, to mention only two major examples, have only little impact on our everyday lives.
Instead, electrical and electronic devices (such as radio, television, telephone, refrigerator,
computers, electric light, CD players, electromotors, etc.) permeate our daily life to a large
extent. Life without electronics would be nearly unthinkable in many parts of the world.
The present era could, therefore, be called the age of electricity. However, electricity
needs a medium in which to manifest itself and to be placed in service. For this reason, and
because previous eras have been named after the material that had the largest impact on
the lives of mankind, the present time may best be characterized by the name Electronic
Materials Age.

Materials Science and Engineering

Sometimes it is useful to subdivide the discipline of materials science and engineering into materials science and materials engineering subdisciplines. Strictly speaking,
materials science involves investigating the relationships that exist between the
structures and properties of materials. In contrast, materials engineering is, on the basis
of these structureproperty correlations, designing or engineering the structure of a material
to produce a predetermined set of properties. From a functional perspective, the role of a
materials scientist is to develop or synthesize new materials, whereas a materials engineer is
called upon to create new products or systems using existing materials, and/or to develop
techniques for processing materials. Most graduates in materials programs are trained to
be both materials scientists and materials engineers.
The structure of a material usually relates to the arrangement of its internal components.
Subatomic structure involves electrons within the individual atoms and interactions with
their nuclei. On an atomic level, structure encompasses the organization of atoms or
molecules relative to one another. The next larger structural realm, which contains large
groups of atoms that are normally agglomerated together, is termed microscopic,
meaning that which is subject to direct observation using some type of microscope. Finally,
structural elements that may be viewed with the naked eye are termed macroscopic.
The notion of property deserves elaboration. While in service use, all materials are exposed
to external stimuli that evoke some type of response. For example, a specimen subjected to
forces will experience deformation, or a polished metal surface will reflect light. A property
is a material trait in terms of the kind and magnitude of response to a specific imposed
stimulus. Generally, definitions of properties are made independent of material shape and
size.

Virtually all important properties of solid materials may be grouped into six different
categories: mechanical, electrical, thermal, magnetic, optical, and deteriorative. For each
there is a characteristic type of stimulus capable of provoking different responses.
Mechanical properties relate deformation to an applied load or force; examples include
elastic modulus and strength. For electrical properties, such as electrical conductivity and
dielectric constant, the stimulus is an electric field. The thermal behavior of solids can be
represented in terms of heat capacity and thermal conductivity. Magnetic properties
demonstrate the response of a material to the application of a magnetic field. For optical
properties, the stimulus is electromagnetic or light radiation; index of refraction and
reflectivity are representative optical properties. Finally, deteriorative characteristics relate
to the chemical reactivity of materials.
In addition to structure and properties, two other important components are involved in the
science and engineering of materialsnamely, processing and performance. With on
how it is processed. Furthermore, a materials performance will be a function of its
properties. Thus, the interrelationship between processing, structure, properties, and
performance is as depicted in the schematic illustration shown in Figure

Microstructure
It is the structure of the metal revealed by an optical or electron microscope. Metals and
alloys consists of number of irregularly shaped crystals ( grains which are usually seen by
naked eye. The grains are elongated or rounded, they may be small or large and arranged in
irregular order or randomly.
The term crystal structure is used to describe the average position of atoms within the unit
cell and is completely specified by the lattice type and fractional coordinates of atoms. In
other words crystal structure describes the appearance of material on an atomic (A0-Angstrom
) scale. The term microstructure is used to describe the appearance of material on an nm
(nanometer) scale.
We can safely say microstructure is the arrangement of phases and defects in a material.
A phase is taken to be any part of the material with distinct crystal structure and/or chemical
composition. Different phase in a material are separated from one another by distinct
boundaries.
A defect is taken to mean any disruption to the perfect periodicity of crystal structure.

Crystal structure
Solids are characterized by in compressibility , rigidity and mechanical strength. This
indicates that the atoms , molecules or ions make up solids is closely packed. Thus in solids
we have a well defined molecular, atomic or ionic arrangement.

Crysatlline materials have regular and periodic arrangement.(Long range order)

Amorphous materials have random arrangements

If the atoms or molecules are uniquely arranged in crystalline solid or liquid we call it as a
crystalline structure. A crystal structure possess long range order or symmetry. The main
property of crystal structure is its periodicity. This periodicity is due to arrangement of atoms
/ molecules in the lattice points. The crystal structure as a whole can be considered as the
repetition of unit cell. For a given crystal structure the shape of the unit cell is same but varies
from crystal to crystal.

Material properties
Classes of property
Economic

Price and availability, Recyclability

General Physical

Density

Mechanical

Modulus, Yield and tensile strength, Hardness ,

Fracture toughness, Fatigue strength , Creep strength
Damping

Thermal

Thermal conductivity, Specific heat, Thermal expansion

coefficient

Electrical and

Resistivity, Dielectric constant, Magnetic permeability

magnetic
Environmental

Oxidation, Corrosion, Wear

interaction
Production

Ease of manufacture, Joining, Finishing

Aesthetic

Colour, Texture , Feel

Classification of engineering materials

Common engineering materials may be classied into one of the following seven groups:
l. Metals (ferrous and non-ferrous) and alloys
2.Ceramics
3.Organic polymers
4.Composites
5.Semiconductors

6.Biomaterials
7.Advanced materials
Metallic materials are broadly of two kindsferrous and non-ferrous materials. Ferrous
materials are those in which iron (Fe) is the principal constituent. All other materials are
categorized as non- ferrous materials.

Ferrous Metals
In ferrous materials the main alloying element is carbon (C). Depending on the amount of
carbon present, alloys will have different properties, especially when the carbon content is
either less/higher than l.5%. This amount of carbon is specic as below this amount of
carbon, material undergoes eutectoid transformation, while above that limit ferrous materials
undergo eutectic transformation. Thus, the ferrous alloys with less than l.5% C are termed as
steels and the ferrous alloys with higher than l.5% (24%) C are termed as cast irons.
On the basis of the percentage of carbon and their alloying elements present, these can be
classied into the following groups.
Mild Steels: The percentage of carbon in iron ranges from 0.l5% to 0.25%. These are
moderately strong and have good weldability. The production cost of these materials is also
low.
Medium Carbon Steels: These contain carbon between 0.3% and 0.6%. The strength of
these mate- rials is high but their weldability is comparatively less.
High Carbon Steels: These contain carbon varying from 0.65% to 1.5%. These materials get
hard and tough by heat treatment and their weldability is poor. The steel formed in which
carbon content is up to l.5% silica up to 0.5% and manganese up to l.5% along with traces
of other elements is called plain carbon steel.
Cast Irons: The carbon content in these substances varies between 2% and 4%. The cost of
produc-tion of these substances is quite low and these are used as ferrous casting alloys.
Grey Cast Iron: These alloys consist of carbon in the form of graphite akes, which are
surrounded by either ferrite or pearlite. Because of the presence of graphite, fractured surface
of these alloys looks greyish, and so is the name for them. Alloying addition of Si (13% ) is
responsible for decomposition of cementite and also high fluidity. Thus, castings of intricate
shapes can be easily made. Due to graphite akes, grey east irons are weak and brittle.
However, they possess good damping properties, and thus typical applications include base
structures, bed for heavy machines etc.; they also show high resistance to wear.
White Cast Iron: When Si content is low (< 1%) in combination with faster cooling rates,
there is no time left for cementite to get decomposed, thus most of the brittle cementite
retains. Because of presence of cementite, fractured surface appears white, hence the name.
They are very brittle mid extremely difficult to machine. Hence their use is limited to wear

resistant applications such as rollers in rolling mills. Usually white cast iron is heat treated
to produce malleable iron.
Nodular (or Ductile) Cast Iron: Alloying additions are of prime importance in producing
these materials. Small additions of Mg/Cr to the grey cast iron melt before casting can result
in graphite to form nodules or sphere-like particles. Matrix surrounding these particles can be
either ferrite or pearlite depending on the heat treatment .These are stronger and ductile than
grey cast irons. Typical applications include pump bodies, crank shafts, automotive
components, etc.
Malleable Cast Iron: These are formed after heat treating white cast iron. Heat treatments
involve heating the material up to 800900C and keep it for long hours, before cooling it to
room temperature. High temperature incubation causes cementite to decompose and form
ferrite and graphite.Thus, these materials are stronger with appreciable amount of ductility.
Typical applications include railroad, connecting rods, marine and other heavy-duty services.

Non-ferrous Metals
These substances are composed of metals other than iron. However, these may contain iron in
small proportion. Six non-ferrous materials are available in sufcient quantity reasonably at
low cost and used as common engineering metals. These are aluminium, tin, copper, nickel,
zinc, and magnesium. Some other non-ferrous metals, about 14 in number, are produced in
relatively small quantities but these are of vital importance in modern industry. These include
chromium, mercury, cobalt, tungsten. vanadium, molybdenum antimony,cadmium,
zirconium, beryllium, niobium, titanium, tantalum and manganese.
Aluminium alloys: Aluminium alloys have high thermal and electrical conductivities, and
good corrosion resistant characteristics. As Al has FCC crystal structure, these alloys are
ductile even at low temperatures and can be formed easily. However, the great limitation of
these alloys is their low melting point (660C), which restricts their use at elevated
temperatures. Strength of these alloys can be increased by both cold and heat treatment
based on these alloys are designated into two groups: cast and wrought. Chief alloying
elements include Cu, Si, Mn, Mg, Zn. Recently alloys of Al and other low-density metals
like Li, Mg, Ti gained much attention as there is much concern about vehicle weight
reduction. Al-Li alloys draw much more attention of metallurgy especially as they are very
useful in aircraft and aerospace industries. Common applications off Al alloys include
beverage cans, automotive pans, bus bodies, aircraft structures etc. Some of the alloys are
capable of strengthening by precipitation, while others have to be strengthened by cold work
or solid solution methods.
Copper alloys: As history goes by bronze has been used for thousands of years. lt is actually
an alloy of Cu and Sn . Usually Cu is Soft ductile , thus hard to machine and has virtually
unlimited capacity for cold work. One special feature of most of these alloys is their
corrosion resistant in diverse atmospheres. Most of these alloys are strengthened by either
cold work or solid solution methods . Common Cu alloys are brass alloys of Cu and Zn
where Zn is substitutional addition (Eg : yellow brass ,cartridge brass, muntz metal, gliding

metal) ; bronze , alloys of Cu and other alloying additions like Sn, Al,Si and Ni. Bronzes are
stronger and more corrosion resistant than brasses .Mention has to be made about Beryllium
Copper alloys which possesses combination of relatively high strength,excellent electrica l
and corrosion properties ,wear resistance ,can be cast ,hot worked and cold worked
.Application
of
Cu
alloys
include
costume
jewlery,coins
,musical
instruments,electronics,springs,bushes,surgical and dental instruments ,radiators etc.
Magnesium Alloys: The most sticking property of Mg is its low density among all structural
metals. Mg has HCP structure thus Mg alloys are diieult to form at room temperatures.
Hence Mg alloys are usually fabricated by casting or hot working. As in case of Al, alloys are
cast or wrought type, and some of them are heat treatable. Major alloying additions are Al,
Zn, Mn, and rare earths.Common applications of Mg alloys include hand-held devices like
saws, tools, automotive pans like steering wheels, seat frames, electronics like casing for
laptops, earneoders, cell phones, etc.
Titanium Alloys: Ti and its alloys are of relatively low density, high strength, and have very
high melting point. At the same time they are easy to machine and forge. However, the major
limitation is Tis chemical reactivity at high temperatures, which necessitated special
techniques to extract. Thus, these alloys are expensive. They also possess excellent corrosion
resistance in diverse atmospheres,and wear properties. Common applications include space
vehicles, airplane structures, surgical implants, and petroleum and chemical industries.
Refractory Metals: These are metals of very high melting points. For example, Nb, Mo, W,
and Ta. They also possess high strength and high elastic modulus. Common applications
include space vehicles, X-ray tubes, welding electrodes, and where there is a need for
corrosion resistance.

Plastics
Common organic materials are plastics and synthetic rubbers which are termed as organic
polymers. Other examples of organic materials are wood, many types of waxes and
petroleum derivatives. Organic polymers are prepared by polymerization reactions, in which
simple molecules are chemically combined into long chain molecules or three-dimensional
structures. Organic polymers are solids composed of long molecular chains. These materials
have low specic gravity and good strength.
The two important classes of organic polymers are as follows:
l. Thermoplastics.'On heating, these materials become soft and hardened again upon
cooling,e.g., nylon, polythene, etc.
2. Thermosetting plastics: These materials cannot be resoftened after polymerization, e.g.,
urea-formaldehyde, phenol-formaldehyde, etc. Due to cross-linking, these materials are
hard,tough, non-swelling, and brittle. These materials are ideal for moulding and casting into
components. They have good corrosion resistance. The excellent resistance to corrosion. Ease
of fabrication into desired shape and size, ne lustre, light weight, strength, and rigidity have

established the polymeric materials and these materials are fast replacing many metallic
components. PVC (polyvinyl chloride) and polycarbonate polymers are widely used for
glazing. roong. and cladding of buildings. Plastics are also used for reducing weight of
mobile objects. e.g.. cars. aircraft. and rockets. Polypropylene and polyethylene are used in
pipes and manufacturing of tanks.
Thermo-plastic lms are widely used as lining to avoid seepage of water in canals and
lagoons. To protect metal structure from corrosion, plastics are used as surface coatings.
Plastics are also used as main ingredients of adhesives. The lower hardness ofplastic
materials compared with other materials makes them subjective to attack by insects and
rodents. Because of the presence ofcarbon, plastics are combustible. The maximum service
temperature is of the order of 100C. These materials are used as thermal insulators because
of lower thermal conductivity. Plastic materials have low modulus of rigidity. which can be
improved by addition of lters, e.g., glass bres. Natural rubber, which is an organic material
of biological origin, is a thermoplastic material. It is prepared from a fluid provided by the
rubber trees. Rubber materials are widely used for tyres of automobiles, Insulation of metal
componenets, toys, and other rubber products.

Timber: Timber is general name of wood. It is composite of cellulose and lignin. Cellulose
bres are strong in tension and are exible. Lignin works as a binding material to bind the
bres and give them stiffness. It has applications in many engineering works and has been
used as common construction. It has advantages over other engineering materials as easily
available, strongest among cellular materials,easy processing, light weight, good surface
nish, and inexpensive.

Abrasive Materials
Abrasives are hard, non-metallic, sharp edged, and irregular shaped materials used to remove
small amount-of. materials by cutting action. It may be used in bonded fomi or as free
particles. lt is employed in grinding, polishing, super nishing, bufng, and honing
operations. Commonly used abrasives are alumina (Al,O3), silicon carbide (SiC), cubic boron
nitride (CBN), and diamond.

Ceramics
Ceramics are compound of metallic and non-metallic materials. lt has properties of high
compressive strength, low thermal expansion, high elasticity, high hardness, high wear
resistance, and lowelectrical and thermal conductivity. Ceramics are used for tiles, pottery,
and sanitary wares (porcelain). The raw materials used for ceramics are clay having ne sheet
like structure. kaolin (silicate of aluminium) used as clay. int, and feldspar.
Silica
lt is available in abundance in nature in the form of quartz. Most of the glasses contain more
than 50% of silica. It is also used in electric materials to increase the magnetic permeability

of the materials. lt may be used in the form of silicates of various materials such as clay,
asbestos, mica, glasses, etc.
Glasses
lt is a super cooled amorphous material. lt consists of more than 50% silica and other
additives such- as oxides of aluminium,sodium, calcium, magnesium, titanium, lithium, lead,
and potassium. It has applications in windows ,containers, lighting instruments, cookware,
etc. The availability of various types of is soda-lime glass,lead-alkali glass, borosilicate
glass, etc.

Pure metals and alloys

Pure metals have the following physical properties:

High density
High melting and boiling points
Good conductivity of heat and electricity
Malleability
Ductility
Lustrous

Pure metals are made up of one type of atoms in an orderly arranged and closely packed
manner. The forces of attraction between the very closely packed atoms are very strong. But
they are not rigid when a force is applied the layers of atoms can slide over one another
.Usually they are ductile and malleable.
Alloy is a mixture of two or more elements with a certain composition in which the major
component is a metal. They are stronger, harder, resistant to corrosion, have better finish and
lustrous. Alloys are made to increase the strength hardness of pure metal , increase corrosion
resistance and improve appearance. They are used in the manufacture of statues, war head
parts , rails ,cutting tools , automobile, ship and aeroplanes , ornamental work and handicraft ,
and daily use articles.

Difference between an alloy and composite

Alloys mixes at atomic level or molecular level. Not even an electron microscope would
show you the structure. Composite mixes at physical level. We can see the different materials
with naked eye or a simple magnifying glass.
For making alloy , the procedure is melt , mix and allow to cool. Composites are more
difficult to make prepare a mould , apply a resin with a brush soak the materials and allow
to cure. Composites are usually made up of thermosetting or thermoplastic resins ,
reinforcement fillers and additives. A bulk of resin material , known as matrix acts as the glue
, which holds the composite together and will play an important role in defining the property
and characteristics of final composite. A reinforcing material which is usually a fibre form
adds strength and thickness to the bulk material known as reinforcement. The reinforcing

fibre give composites stiffness and excellent strength to weight ratio. Some composites use
particles or sheet materials for their matrix, these composites usually contain ceramics and /
or metals.[GRP , Carbon fibre ,Tungsten carbide ]

Mechanical properties
A steel ruler is easy to bend elasticallyelastic means that it springs back when released.
Its elastic stiffness (here, resistance to bending) is set partly by its shapethin strips are easy
to bendand partly by a property of the steel itself: its elastic modulus, E. Materials with
high E, like steel, are intrinsically stiff; those with low E, like polyethylene, are not. Figure
(b) illustrates the consequences of inadequate stiffness.
The steel ruler bends elastically, but if it is a good one, it is hard to give it a
permanent bend. Permanent deformation has to do with strength, not stiffness. The ease with
which a ruler can be permanently bent depends, again, on its shape and on a different
property of the steelits yield strength, y. Materials with large y, like titanium alloys, are
hard to deform permanently even though their stiffness, coming from E, may not be high;
those with low y, like lead, can be deformed with ease. When metals deform, they generally
get stronger (this is called work hardening), but there is an ultimate limit, called the tensile
strength, ts, beyond which the material fails (the amount it stretches before it breaks is called
the ductility). Figure (c) gives an idea of the consequences of inadequate strength.
If the ruler were made not of steel but of glass or of PMMA (Plexiglas, Perspex), as
transparent rulers are, it is not possible to bend it permanently at all. The ruler will fracture
suddenly, without warning, before it acquires a permanent bend. We think of materials that
break in this way as brittle, and materials that do not as tough. There is no permanent
deformation here, so y is not the right property. The resistance of materials to cracking and
fracture is measured instead by the fracture toughness, KIC. Steels are toughwell, most are
(steels can be made brittle)they have a high K1c. Glass epitomizes brittleness; it has a very
low KIC. Figure (d) suggests consequences of inadequate fracture toughness.

The property density is , mass per unit volume, symbol . Density, in a ruler, is
irrelevant. But for almost anything that moves, weight carries a fuel penalty, modest for
automobiles, greater for trucks and trains, greater still for aircraft, and enormous in space

vehicles. Minimizing weight has much to do with clever design, but equally to choice of
material. Aluminum has a low density, lead a high one. If our little aircraft were made of
lead, it would never get off the ground at all (Figure (e)). These are not the only mechanical
properties, but they are the most important ones.

Thermal properties
The properties of a material change with temperature. Its strength falls, it starts to
creep (to sag slowly over time), it may oxidize, degrade or decompose (Figure 1.3(a)). This
means that there is a limiting temperature called the maximum service temperature, Tmax,
above which its use is impractical. Stainless steel has a high Tmaxit can be used up to
800C; most polymers have a low Tmax and are seldom used above 150C.
Most materials expand when they are heated, but by differing amounts depending on
their thermal expansion coefficient, . The expansion is small, but its consequences can be
large. If, for instance, a rod is constrained, as in Figure 1.3(b), and then heated, expansion
forces the rod against the constraints, causing it to buckle. Railroad track buckles in this way
if provision is not made to cope with it.
Some materialsmetals, for instancefeel cold; otherslike woodsfeel warm. This feel
has to do with two thermal properties of the material: thermal conductivity and heat
capacity. The first, thermal conductivity, , measures the rate at which heat flows through the
material when one side is hot and the other cold. Materials with high are what you want if
you wish to conduct heat from one place to another, as in cooking pans, radiators and heat
exchangers; Figure (c) suggests consequences of high and low for the cooking vessel. But
low is useful toolow materials insulate homes, reduce the energy consumption of
refrigerators and freezers, and enable space vehicles to re-enter the earths atmosphere.

These applications have to do with long-time, steady, heat flow. When time is limited,
that other propertyheat capacity, Cpmatters. It measures the amount of heat that it takes
to make the temperature of material rise by a given amount. High heat capacity materials
copper, for instancerequire a lot of heat to change their temperature; low heat capacity
materials, like polymer foams, take much less. Steady heat flow has, as we have said, to do
with thermal conductivity. There is a subtler property that describes what happens when heat
is first applied. Think of lighting the gas under a cold slab of material with a bole of icecream on top (here, lime ice-cream) as in Figure 1.3(d). An instant after ignition, the bottom
surface is hot but the rest is cold. After a while, the middle gets hot, then later still, the top
begins to warm up and the ice-cream first starts to melt. How long does this take? For a given
thickness of slab, the time is inversely proportional to the thermal diffusivity, a, of the
material of the slab. It differs from the conductivity because materials differ in their heat
capacityin fact, it is proportional to /Cp.

Electrical, magnetic and optical properties

We start with electrical conduction and insulation (Figure (a)). Without electrical conduction
we would lack the easy access to light, heat, power, control and communication that
todaywe take for granted. Metals conduct wellcopper and aluminum are the best of those
that are affordable. But conduction is not always a good thing. Fuse boxes, switch casings,
the suspensions for transmission lines all require insulators, and in addition those that can

carry some load, tolerate some heat and survive a spark if there were one. Here the property
we want is resistivity, c, the inverse of electrical conductivity kc. Most plastics and glass
have high resistivity (Figure(a))they are used as insulatorsthough, by special treatment,
they can be made to conduct a little.

Figure (b) suggests further electrical properties: the ability to allow the passage of microwave
radiation, as in the radome, or to reflect them, as in the passive reflector of the boat. Both
have to do with dielectric properties, particularly the dielectric constant D. Materials with
high D respond to an electric field by shifting their electrons about, even reorienting their
molecules; those with low D are immune to the field and do not respond.
Electricity and magnetism are closely linked. Electric currents induce magnetic fields; a
moving magnet induces, in any nearby conductor, an electric current. The response of most
materials to magnetic fields is too small to be of practical value. But a fewcalled
ferromagnets and ferrimagnetshave the capacity to trap a magnetic field permanently.
These are called hard magnetic materials because, once magnetized, they are hard to
demagnetize. They are used as permanent magnets in headphones, motors and dynamos. Here
the key property is the remanence, a measure of the intensity of the retained magnetism. A
few otherssoft magnet materialsare easy to magnetize and demagnetize. They are the
materials of transformer cores and the deflection coils of a TV tube. They have the capacity
to conduct a magnetic field, but not retain it permanently (Figure (c)). For these a key
property is the saturation magnetization, which measures how large a field the material can
conduct.

Materials respond to light as well as to electricity and magnetismhardly surprising, since

light itself is an electromagnetic wave. Materials that are opaque reflect light; those that are
transparent refract it, and some have the ability to absorb some wavelengths (colors) while
allowing others to pass freely (Figure 1.4(d)).

Density and elastic modulus

Stress causes strain. If you are human, the ability to cope with stress without undue strain is
called resilience. If you are a material, it is called elastic modulus. Stress is something that is
applied to a material by loading it. Straina change of shapeis its response; it depends on
the magnitude of the stress and the way it is appliedthe mode of loading.
Stiffness is the resistance to change of shape that is elastic, meaning that the material returns
to its original shape when the stress is removed. Strength is its resistance to permanent
distortion or total failure. Stress and strain are not material properties; they describe a
stimulus and a response. Stiffness (measured by the elastic modulus E, defined in a moment)
and strength (measured by the elastic limit y or tensile strength ts) are material properties.
Stiffness and strength are central to mechanical design, often in combination with the density,
.
Density and elastic moduli reflect the mass of the atoms, the way they are packed in a
material and the stiffness of the bonds that hold them together. There is not much you can do
to change any of these, so the density and moduli of pure materials cannot be manipulated at
all. If you want to control these properties you can either mix materials together, making
composites, or disperse space within them, making foams.
Density
Many applications (e.g. sports equipment, transport systems) require low weight and this
depends in part on the density of the materials of which they are made. Density is mass per
unit volume. It is measured in kg/m3.
Density is measured by double weighing method: the sample is first weighed in air and then
when fully immersed in a liquid of known density. When immersed, the sample feels an
upwards force equal to the weight of liquid it displaces (Archimedes principle1). The density
is then calculated as shown in Figure.

Measurement of Youngs modulus

A way of measuring E is to measure the natural frequency of vibration of a round rod of the
material, simply supported at its ends and heavily loaded by a mass M at the middle (so that
we may neglect the mass of the rod itself). The frequency of oscillation of the rod, f cycles
per second (or hertz), is given by
(

where l is the distance between the supports and d is the diameter of the rod. From this,

The Tensile Test: Use of the Stress-Strain Diagram

The tensile test is popular since the properties obtained could be applied to design different
components. The tensile test measures the resistance of a material to a static or slowly applied
force. The strain rates in a tensile test are very small ( = 10-4 to 10-2 s-1).A test setup is
shown in Fig. ; a typical specimen has a diameter of 1.263 cm and a gage length of 5 cm. The
specimen is placed in the testing machine and a force F, called the load, is applied. A strain
gage or extensometer is used to measure the amount that the specimen stretches between the
gage marks when the force is applied. Thus, what is measured is the change in length of the
specimen (l ) over a particular original length (l0). Information concerning the strength,
Youngs modulus, and ductility of a material can be obtained from such a tensile test.

The stress and strain relation is commonly shown by means of a stress-strain diagram. These
diagrams are obtained by drawing a graph or curve from the data obtained in a tensile test, in
which an increasing tensile stress is applied to the specimen. There are resulting changes in
length which can be observed and recorded by strain measuring devices.

Properties Obtained from the Tensile Test

Yield Strength : As we apply a low level of stress to a material, the material initially
exhibits elastic deformation. In this region the strain that develops is completely and quickly
recovered when the applied stress is removed. However, as we continue to increase the
applied stress the material begins to exhibit both elastic and plastic deformation. The material
eventually yields to the applied stress. The critical stress value needed to initiate plastic

deformation is defined as the elastic limit of the material. The proportional limit is defined as
the level of stress above which the relationship between stress and strain is not linear
In most materials the elastic limit and proportional limit are quite close. However, neither the
elastic limit nor the proportional limit values can be determined precisely. Measured values
depend on the sensitivity of the equipment used. We, therefore, define them at an offset strain
value (typically, but not always, 0.002 or 0.2%). We then draw a line starting with this offset
value of strain and draw a line parallel to the linear portion of the engineering stress-strain
curve. The stress value corresponding to the intersection of this line and the engineering
stress-strain curve is defined as the offset yield strength, also often stated as the yield
strength. The 0.2% offset yield strength for gray cast iron is 276 MPa as shown in Figure (a).
Engineers normally prefer to use the offset yield strength for design purposes.

For some materials the transition from elastic deformation to plastic flow is rather abrupt.
This transition is known as the yield point phenomenon. In these materials, as the plastic
deformation begins the stress value drops first from the upper yield point (2) [Figure(b)].
The stress value then decreases and oscillates around an average value defined as the lower
yield point (1). For these materials, the yield strength is usually defined from the 0.2% strain
offset as shown in Figure (a). The stress-strain curve for certain low-carbon steels displays a
double yield point [Figure(b)].
When we design parts for load-bearing applications we prefer little or no plastic deformation.
As a result we must select a material such that the design stress is considerably lower than the
yield strength at the temperature at which the material will be used. We can also make the
component cross-section larger so that the applied force produces a stress that is well below
the yield strength. On the other hand, when we want to shape materials into components (e.g.,
take a sheet of steel and form a car chassis), we need to apply stresses that are well above the
yield strength.

Tensile Strength : The stress obtained at the highest applied force is the tensile strength
(TS), which is the maximum stress on the engineering stress-strain curve. In many ductile
materials, deformation does not remain uniform. At some point, one region deforms more
than others and a large, local decrease in the cross-sectional area occurs (Figure 6-8). This
locally deformed region is called a neck. This phenomenon is known as necking.

Because the cross-sectional area becomes smaller at this point, a lower force is required to
continue its deformation, and the engineering stress, calculated from the original area A0,
decreases. The tensile strength is the stress at which necking begins in ductile materials. With
the reduced area, now less force is necessary for additional deformation. However, since
engineering stress is based on A0, the overall stress decreases after necking. Many ductile
metals and polymers show the phenomenon of necking. In compression testing, the materials
will bulge, thus necking is seen only in a tensile test.
The yield strength of pure metals is smaller. For example, ultra-pure metals have a yield
strength of (110 MPa). On the other hand, the yield strength of alloys is higher. The yield
strength of plastics and elastomers is generally lower than metals and alloys, ranging up to
about (10100 MPa). Tensile strength of most ceramics is much lower (@100200 MPa).
The tensile strength of glasses is about 70 MPa and depends strongly on surface flaws.
Elastic Properties : The modulus of elasticity, or Youngs modulus (E ), is the slope of the
stress-strain curve in the elastic region. This relationship is Hookes Law:

Youngs modulus is a measure of the stiffness of a component. A stiff component, with a

high modulus of elasticity, will show much smaller changes in dimensions if the applied
stress is relatively small and, therefore, causes only elastic deformation. In general, most

engineers view stiffness as a function of both the Youngs modulus and the geometry of a
component.
Poissons ratio, , relates the longitudinal elastic deformation produced by a simple tensile
or compressive stress to the lateral deformation that occurs simultaneously:

For many metals in the elastic region the Poissons ratio is typically about 0.3.
The modulus of resilience (Er), the area contained under the elastic portion of a stress-strain
curve, is the elastic energy that a material absorbs during loading and subsequently releases
when the load is removed. For linear elastic behaviour :
=
The ability of a spring or a golf ball to perform satisfactorily depends on a high modulus of
resilience.
Tensile Toughness: The energy absorbed by a material prior to fracturing is known as tensile
toughness and is sometimes measured as the area under the true stress-strain curve (also
known as work of fracture).
Ductility: Ductility measures the amount of deformation that a material can withstand
without breaking. We can measure the distance between the gage marks on our specimen
before and after the test. The percent elongation describes the permanent plastic deformation
before failure (i.e., the elastic deformation recovered after fracture is not included). Note that
the strain after failure is smaller than the strain at the breaking point.
x 100
where

is the distance between gage marks after the specimen breaks.

Ductility is important to both designers of load-bearing components and manufacturers of

components (bars, rods, wires, plates, I-beams, fibers, etc.) utilizing materials processing.
Effect of Temperature : Mechanical properties of materials depend on temperature . Yield
strength, tensile strength, and modulus of elasticity decrease at higher temperatures, whereas
ductility commonly increases. A materials fabricator may wish to deform a material at a high
temperature (known as hot working) to take advantage of the higher ductility and lower
required stress. When temperatures are reduced, many, but not all, metals and alloys and
polymers become brittle. Increased temperatures also play an important role in forming
polymeric materials and inorganic glasses. In many polymer-processing operations, such as
extrusion, the increased ductility of polymers at higher temperatures is advantageous. Also,
many polymeric materials will become harder and more brittle as they are exposed to

temperatures that are below their glass temperatures. The loss of ductility played a role in
failures of the Titanic in 1912 and the Challenger in 1986.

Hardness
Another mechanical property that may be important to consider is hardness, which is a
measure of a materials resistance to localized plastic deformation (e.g., a small dent or a
scratch)
Brinell Hardness Tests : In Brinell tests, a hard, spherical indenter is forced into the surface
of the metal to be tested. The diameter of the hardened steel (or carbide) indenter is 10.00
mm (0.394 in.). Standard loads range between 500 and 3000 kg in 500-kg increments; during
a test, the load is maintained constant for a specified time (between 10 and 30 s). Harder
materials require greater applied loads. The Brinell hardness number, HB, is a function of
both the magnitude of the load and the diameter of the resulting indentation. This diameter is
measured with a special low-power microscope, utilizing a scale that is etched on the
eyepiece. The measured diameter is then converted to the appropriate HB number using a
chart; only one scale is employed with this technique.
Brinell Hardness Number HB =

where P is the applied load in kilograms, D is the diameter of the indentor in millimeters, and
d is the diameter of the impression in millimeters. The Brinell hardness has the units of stress
(e.g., kg/mm2)

Impact test
When a material is subjected to a sudden, intense blow, in which the strain rate is extremely
rapid, it may behave in much more brittle a manner than is observed in the tensile test. This,
for example, can be seen with many plastics and materials such a Silly Putty .If you stretch a
plastic such as polyethylene or Silly Putty very slowly, the polymer molecules have time to
disentangle or the chains to slide past each other and cause large plastic deformations. If,
however, we apply an impact loading, there is insufficient time for these mechanisms to play
a role and the materials break in a brittle manner. An impact test is often used to evaluate the
brittleness of a material under these conditions. In contrast to the tensile test, in this test the
strain rates are much higher.
Many test procedures have been devised, including the Charpy test and the Izod test .The
Izod test is often used for plastic materials. The test specimen may be either notched or
unnotched; V-notched specimens better measure the resistance of the material to crack

propagation. In this test, a heavy pendulum, starting at an elevation h0 , swings through its
arc, strikes and breaks the specimen, and reaches a lower nal elevation hf . If we know the
initial and nal elevations of the pendulum, we can calculate the difference in potential
energy. This difference is the impact energy absorbed by the specimen during failure. For the
Charpy test, the energy is usually expressed in joules (J). The results of the Izod test are
expressed in units of J/m. The ability of a material to withstand an impact blow is often
referred to as the impact toughness of the material. In both tensile tests and impact test, we
are measuring the energy needed to fracture a material. The difference is that, in tensile tests,
the strain rates are much smaller compared to those used in an impact test. Another difference
is that in an impact test we usually deal with materials that have a notch. Fracture toughness
of a material is dened as the ability of a material containing aws to withstand an applied
load.

STRUCTURE
A close examination of atomic arrangement allows us to distinguish between materials that
are amorphous or crystalline (those that exhibit periodic arrangements of atoms or ions).
Amorphous materials have only short-range atomic arrangements while crystalline
materials have short- and long-range arrangements. In short-range atomic arrangements, the
atoms or ions show a particular order only over relatively short distances. For crystalline
materials, the long-range atomic order is in the form of atoms or ions arranged in a threedimensional pattern that repeats over much larger distances (from > 100 nm to up to few
cm).
Solid materials may be classified according to the regularity with which atoms or ions are
arranged with respect to one another. A crystalline material is one in which the atoms are
situated in a repeating or periodic array over large atomic distances; that is, long-range order
exists, such that upon solidification, the atoms will position themselves in a repetitive threedimensional pattern, in which each atom is bonded to its nearest-neighbor atoms. All metals,
many ceramic materials, and certain polymers form crystalline structures under normal

solidification conditions. For those that do not crystallize, this long-range atomic order is
absent; these are noncrystalline or amorphous materials.
Lattice, Unit Cells, Basis, and Crystal Structures
A lattice or space lattice is a collection of points called lattice points that are arranged in a
periodic pattern so that the surroundings of each point in the lattice are identical. A lattice
may be one, two, or three dimensional. In materials science and engineering, we use the
concept of lattice to describe arrangements of atoms or ions. A group of one or more
atoms, located in a particular way with respect to each other and associated with each lattice
point, is known as the motif or basis. We obtain a crystal structure by adding the lattice and
basis (i.e., crystal structure = lattice + basis).

The unit cell is the subdivision of a lattice that still retains the overall characteristics of the
entire lattice. Unit cells are shown in Figure. By stacking identical unit cells, the entire lattice
can be constructed. There are seven unique arrangements, known as crystal systems, which
can be used to ll up a three-dimensional space. These are cubic, tetragonal, orthorhombic,
rhombohedral (also known as trigonal), hexagonal, monoclinic, and triclinic. Although there
are seven crystal systems, we have a total of 14 distinct arrangements of lattice points. These
unique arrangements of lattice points are known as the Bravais lattices. Lattice points are
located at the corners of the unit cells and, in some cases, at either faces or the center of the
unit cell. Note that for the cubic crystal system we have simple cubic (SC), face-centered
cubic (FCC), and body-centered cubic (BCC) Bravais lattices. Similarly, for the tetragonal
crystal system, we have simple tetragonal and body centered tetragonal Bravais lattices. Any
other arrangement of atoms can be expressed using these 14 Bravais lattices.

Lattice Parameter The lattice parameters, which describe the size and shape of the unit cell,
include the dimensions of the sides of the unit cell and the angles between the sides. In a
cubic crystal system, only the length of one of the sides of the cube is necessary to
completely describe the cell (angles of 900 are assumed unless otherwise specied). This
length is the lattice parameter a (sometimes designated as a0 ). The length is often given in
nanometers (nm) or Angstrom (A0) units, where:
1 nanometer ( nm ) = 10-9 m = 10-7 cm = 10 A0
1 angstrom (A0) = 0.1 nm = 10-10 m = 10-8 cm

Cubic Structures
There are three important characteristics of every unit cell. They are the atomic radius, the
co-ordination number and density of packing or atomic packing factor
Average number of atoms per unit cell : In a cubic structure the comer atoms are shared by
8 cells (4 atoms from below and 4 atoms from above). Face atoms are shared by adjacent two
cells and the atoms in the inside are shared by only one cell. In general the average number of
atoms per unit cell can be written as;
=
Where

- Total corner atoms in unit cell

Total face atoms in unit cell

Inside or centre atom
Coordination number : It is the number of the nearest equidistant neighbours that an atom
has in an unit cell. The value of which depends on the type of crystal structure.
Density of packing or Atomic packing factor : It is the ratio of the volume occupied by
atoms in a unit cell to the total volume of the unit cell.
Atomic packing factor , APF =

where v is the volume occupied by the atoms in the unit cell and V is the total volume of the
unit cell..

Heat Treatment
Heat treatment is an operation or a combination of operations involving heating and cooling
of metal/alloy in solid state in order to obtain certain desired properties.
Objectives of heat treatment
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Relieve internal stresses.

Improve harness and tensile strength.
Rene grains.
Improve ductility.
Change the electrical and magnetic properties.
Improve toughness. .
To produce special microstructures to increase rnachinability or corrosion resistance.

Heat treatment process variables

A number of factors inuence the heat treatment process.
They are;
1. The temperature to which the metal or alloy is heated.
2. The time period for which the metal or alloy is held at that elevated temperature. It is
called holding time or soaking time.
3. The rate of cooling.
4. The atmosphere surrounding the metal/alloy during the heating process.
5. The quenching (cooling) medium used.
6. The heat treatment process variables are selected depending upon the size, shape of
the component the chemical composition of the component and the nal properties
desired.

What is manufacturing?
The word manufacture is derived from two Latin words, manus (hand) and factus
(make);the combination means made by hand.
Manufacturing can be defined as the transformation of raw materials into useful
products through the use of the easiest and least expensive methods. It is not enough,
therefore, to process some raw materials and obtain the desired product. It is, in fact, of major
importance to achieve this goal by employing the easiest, fastest, and most efficient methods.
Manufacturing processes can be classified into five categories:
1. Forming or primary forming processes - processes in which an original shape is
created from a molten or gaseous state, or from solid particles of an undefined shape.
During primary forming processes, cohesion is normally created among particles. Eg :casting.

2. Deforming processes - processes that convert the original shape of a solid to

another shape without changing its mass or material composition. During this process,
cohesion is maintained among particles. Eg :-forging , rolling , extrusion etc.
3. Removing processes - processes during which material removal occurs; cohesion among
particles is destroyed. Eg :-Turning , drilling , milling etc
4. Joining processes- processes that unite individual workpieces to make subassemblies or
final products. These include additive processes, such as filling and impregnating of
workpieces; cohesion among particles is increased. Eg :-welding, brazing, soldering,
adhesive bonding, mechanical joining etc.
5. Material properties modification processes - processes that purposely change the
material properties of a workpiece in order to achieve desirable characteristics without
changing its shape. Eg :-shot peening, mechanical coating, carburizing, thermal spraying ,
Vapor Deposition Etc.

History of Manufacturing
The history of manufacturing can be separated into two subjects: (l) man's discovery and
invention of materials and processes to make things, and (2) development of the systems of
production.
Some of the processes casting, hammering (forging), and grinding date back 6000
years or more. The early fabrication of implements and weapons was accomplished more as
crafts and trades than manufacturing as we know it today. The ancient Romans had what
might be called factories to produce weapons, scrolls, pottery and glassware and other
products of the time, but the procedures were largely based on handicraft.
It was during Neolithic period (8000 3000 B C) that processes such as the
following were developed;'carving and other woodworking, hand forming and ring of clay
pottery, grinding and polishing of stone spinning and weaving of textiles, and dyeing of cloth.
Origin of casting
Casting describes a family of processes during which the molten metal is
introduced into a mold and then becomes solidified.Casting of metals can be traced back
to around 4000 B C. Gold was the first metal to be discovered and used by the early
civilizations; it was malleable and could be readily hammered into shape at room
temperature. There seemed to be no need for other ways to shape gold. It was the subsequent
discovery of copper that gave rise to the need for casting. Although copper could be forged to
shape, the process was more difficult [due to strain hardening] and limited to relatively
simple forms. Historians believe that hundreds of years elapsed before the process of casting
copper was first performed, probably by accident during the reduction of copper ore in
preparation for hammering the metal into some useful form. Thus, through serendipity, the art
of casting was born. It is likely that the discovery occurred in Mesopotamia, and the
"technology" quickly spread throughout the rest of the ancient world.

Origin of deformation process

Metalworking is a deformation process used to fabricate metal products.The
earliest records of metalworking describe the simple hammering of gold and copper in
various regions of the Middle East around 8000 B.C. The forming of these metals was crude
because the art of refining by smelting was unknown and because the ability to work the
material was limited by impurities that remained after the metal had been separated
from the ore. With the advent of copper smelting around 4000 B.C., a useful method
became available for purifying metals through chemical reactions in the liquid state. Later, in
the Copper Age, it was found that the hammering of metal brought about desirable increases
in strength (a phenomenon now known as strain hardening). The quest for strength spurred
a search for alloys that were inherently strong and led to the utilization of alloys of copper
and tin (the Bronze Age) and iron and carbon (the Iron Age). The Iron Age, which can be
dated as beginning around 1200 B.C., followed the beginning of the Bronze Age by some
1300 years. The reason for the delay was the absence of methods for achieving the high
temperatures needed to melt and to refine iron ore.
Most metalworking was done by hand until the 13th century. At this time, the
tilt hammer was developed and used primarily for forging bars and plates. The machine
used water power to raise a lever arm that had a hammering tool at one end; it was called a
tilt hammer because the arm tilted as the hammering tool was rised. After raising the
hammer, the blacksmith let it fall under the force of gravity, thus generating the forging blow.
This relatively simple device remained in service for some centuries.The development of
rolling mills followed that of forging equipment. Leonardo da Vinci's notebook includes a
sketch of a machine designed in 1480 for the rolling of lead for stained glass windows.
Origin of removing processes
Before the middle of the 18th century, wood was the main material used in
engineering structures. To shape wooden parts, craftsmen used machine tools - the lathe
among them which were typically constructed of wood as well. The boring of cannons and
the production of metal screws and small instrument parts were the exceptions: these
processes required metal tools. It was the steam engine, with its large metal cylinders and
other parts of unprecedented dimensional accuracy, which led to the first major developments
in metal cutting in the 1760s.At the inception of the steam engine, no machine tool industry
existed. The century from 1760 to 1860 saw the establishment of enterprises devoted to the
production of machine tools.
Origin of Joining processes
Next to mechanical attachment and fastening, which began when humans or,
perhaps, humanoids wedged and later lashed stones into sticks to produce clubs and
spears for hunting, welding is unquestionably the oldest method for joining materials.
Examples of bracelets from prehistoric times have been discovered that were made by
hammering nuggets of gold or silver into rods, forming the rods into circles or segments of a

circle, and then forging the ends together to form a continuous ring. This earliest
welding process is called forge welding.
Miossanof France, in 1881, originated the use of the carbon arc for melting metals.
In Russia, Bernandos applied this arc to the welding of metals in 1887, and shortly
thereafter, Slavianoff experimented with consumable metal electrodes for arc welding. The
first patents for metal-arc welding in the United States were granted in 1889 to
Coffin.Paralleling the emergence and evolution of welding with an electric arc was the
evolution of welding with mixtures of air and organic fuels. Although known and practiced
even in prehistoric times primarily using fanned charcoal fires, it wasnt until the
invention of the oxyacetylene blowpipe by Le Chatelier in 1895 that modern torch
welding systems emerged.

Casting
Manufacture of a machine part by heating a metal or alloy above its melting point and
pouring the liquid metal/alloy in a cavity approximately of same shape and size as the
machine part is called casting. After the liquid metal cools and solidifies, it acquires the shape
and size of the cavity and resembles the finished product required. The term casting also
applied to the part that is made by this process. It is one of the oldest shaping processes,
dating back 6,000 years .The department of the workshop, where castings are made is called
foundry.
So the following steps are involved in producing a cast part:
1. Preparing the mould.
2. Preparing the molten metal.
3. Introducing the molten metal into the mould.
4. Solidifying the metal.
5. Removing the piece.

Casting processes are most often selected over other manufacturing methods for the
following reasons (Advantages of casting):
Casting can produce complex shapes and can incorporate internal cavities or hollow
sections.
Very large parts can be produced in one piece.
Casting can utilize materials that are difficult or uneconomical to process by other
means.
The casting process can be economically competitive with other manufacturing
processes.

Forming
Forming is a basic process in which the workpiece is shaped by compressive forces applied
through various dies and tooling. Forging may be carried out at room temperature (cold
forging) or at elevated temperatures (warm or hot forging) depending on the homologous
temperature;
Homologous temperature =
Where T Temperature of metal during working
-melting temperature of metal

Metal forming processes, also known as mechanical working processes, are primary
shaping processes in which a mass of metal or alloy is subjected to mechanical forces. Under
the action of such forces, the shape and size of metal piece undergo a change. By mechanical
working processes, the given shape and size of a machine part can be achieved with great
economy in material and time.

Metal forming is possible in case of such metals or alloys which are sufficiently malleable
and ductile. Mechanical working requires that the material may undergo plastic
deformation during its processing. Frequently, work piece material is not sufficiently
malleable or ductile at ordinary room temperature, but may become so when heated. Thus we
have both hot and cold metal forming operations.
Many metal forming processes are suitable for processing large quantities (i.e., bulk) of
material, and their suitability depends not only upon the shape and size control of the product
but also upon the surface finish produced. There are many different metal forming processes
and some processes yield a better geometry (i.e., shape and size) and surface-finish than some
others. Cold working metal forming processes result in better shape, size and surface finish as
compared to hot working processes. Hot working results in oxidation and decarburisation of
the surface, formation of scales and lack of size control due to contraction of the work piece
while it cools to room temperature.
Advantages of Mechanical Working Processes
Apart from higher productivity, mechanical working processes have certain other advantages
over other manufacturing processes. These are enumerated below:

1. Mechanical working improves the mechanical properties of material like ultimate tensile
strength, wear resistance, hardness and yield point while it lowers ductility. This phenomenon
is called strain hardening.
2. It results in grain flow lines being developed in the part being mechanically worked. The
grain flow improves the strength against fracture when the part is in actual use. This is best
explained by taking illustration of a crankshaft. If the crankshaft is manufactured by
machining from a bar of large cross-section, the grain flow lines get cut at bends whereas in a
crankshaft which is shaped by forging (which is a mechanical working process), the grain
flow lines follow the full contour of the crankshaft making it stronger. This is illustrated in
Fig.

Material removal process

The material removal processes are a family of shaping operations in which excess material
is removed from a starting work part so that what remains is the desired nal geometry.
There are four types of material removal mechanisms:
Mechanical - the mechanical stresses induced by a tool surpass the strength of the
material (conventional machining )
Thermal - thermal energy provided by a heat source melts and/or vaporizes the volume of
the material to be removed
Electrochemical - electrochemical reactions induced by an electrical field destroy the
atomic bonds of the material to be removed
Chemical - chemical reactions destroy the atomic bonds of the material to be removed
The most important branch of the family is conventional machining, in which a sharp cutting
tool is used to mechanically cut the material to achieve the desired geometry. The three
principal machining processes are turning, drilling, and milling. The other machining
operations include shaping, planing, broaching, and sawing.

Machining is a manufacturing process in which a sharp cutting tool is used to cut away
material to leave the desired part shape. The predominant cutting action in machining
involves shear deformation of the work material to form a chip; as the chip is removed, a new
surface is exposed. Machining is most frequently applied to shape metals.
Machining is important commercially and technologically for several reasons :
Variety of work materials:- Machining can be applied to a wide variety of work materials.
Virtually all solid metals can be machined. Plastics and plastic composites can also be cut by
machining. Ceramics pose difculties because of their high hardness and - brittleness;
however, most ceramics can be successfully cut by the abrasive machining
Variety of part shapes and geometric features : - Machining can be used to create any
regular geometries, such as at planes, round holes, and cylinders. By introducing variations
in tool shapes and tool paths, irregular geometries can be created, such as screw threads and
T-slots. By combining several machining operations in sequence, shapes of almost unlimited
complexity and variety can be produced.
Dimensional accuracy: - Machining can produce dimensions to very close tolerances.Some
machining processes can achieve tolerances (
of much more accurate than most
other processes.
Good surface nishes: - Machining is capable of creating very smooth surface finishes.
Roughness values less than 0.4 microns can be achieved in conventional machining
operations. Some abrasive processes can achieve even better nishes.
On the other hand, certain disadvantages are associated with machining and other material
removal processes:
Wasteful of material :- Machining is inherently wasteful of material. The chips generated in
a machining operation are wasted material. Although these chips can usually be recycled, in
terms of the unit operation, the material that is removed is waste.
Time consuming :- A machining operation generally takes more time to shape a given part
than alternative shaping processes such as casting or forging.

Machining is generally performed after other manufacturing processes such as casting or bulk
deformation (e.g., forging).

Joining process
Welding is a materials joining process in which two or more parts are coalesced at their
contacting surfaces by a suitable application of heat and/or pressure. Many welding processes
are accomplished by heat alone, with no pressure applied; others by a combination of heat
and pressure; and still others by pressure alone, with no external heat supplied. In some
welding processes a ller material is added to facilitate coalescence. The assemblage of parts
that are joined by welding is called a weldment. Welding is most commonly associated with
metal parts, but the process is also used for joining plastics. Our discussion of welding will
focus on metals.

Welding is a relatively new process. Its commercial and technological importance

derives from the following:
Welding provides a permanent joint. T'he welded parts become a single entity.
The welded joint can be stronger than the parent materials if a filler metal is used that
has strength properties superior to those of the parents, and if proper welding
techniques are used.
Welding is usually the most economical way to join components in terms of material
usage and fabrication costs. Alternative mechanical methods of assembly require
more complex shape alterations (e.g., drilling of holes) and addition of fasteners (e.g.,
rivets or bolts). The resulting mechanical assembly is usually heavier than a
corresponding weldment.
Welding is not restricted to the factory environment. It can be accomplished in the
eld.

Although welding has the advantages indicated above, it also has certain limitations and
drawbacks (or potential drawbacks):

Most welding operations are performed manually and are expensive in terms of labor
cost. Many welding operations are considered skilled trades, and the labor to
perform these operations may be scarce.
Most welding processes are inherently dangerous because they involve the use of high
energy.
Since welding accomplishes a permanent bond between the components, it does not
allow for convenient disassembly. If the product must occasionally be disassembled
(e.g., for repair or maintenance), then welding should not be used as the assembly
method.
The welded joint can suffer from certain quality defects that are difficult to detect.
The defects can reduce the strength of the joint.

Welding processes, in turn, are generally classified into three basic categories:

Fusion welding
Solid-state welding
Brazing and soldering.

Shielded Metal Arc Welding : It is the most commonly used fusion welding process.
Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) is a process that melts and joins metals by heating
them with an arc established between a sticklike covered electrode and the metals, as shown
in Figure. It is often called stick welding. The electrode holder is connected through a
welding cable to one terminal of the power source and the workpiece is connected through a
second cable to the other terminal of the power source (Figure.a).

The core of the covered electrode, the core wire, conducts the electric current to the arc
and provides ller metal for the joint. For electrical contact, the top 1.5cm of the core wire is

bare and held by the electrode holder. The electrode holder is essentially a metal clamp
with an electrically insulated outside shell for the welder to hold safely.
The heat of the arc causes both the core wire and the ux covering at the electrode tip to melt
off as droplets (Figure.b). The molten metal collects in the weld pool and solidies into the
weld metal. The lighter molten ux, on the other hand, oats on the pool surface and
solidies into a slag layer at the top of the weld metal.

Computer Integrated Manufacturing

Since the Industrial Revolution, U.S. industry has been undergoing a process of continuous
development. During the nineteenth century, new machines expanded the productivity of
workers; with the beginning of the twentieth century, new automation technology in the form
of mass production through transfer and assembly lines emerged. Factory manufacturing
grew to include more and more new sectors of work and finally became a composite of
different departments, each separate from the others and dedicated to a certain task. Although automation and computerization of these isolated islands of work have been
increasing steadily since the early 1950s, barriers of understanding and methods of working
have also been growing. Although the number of blue-collar workers on the shop floor has
continually decreased, large numbers of white-collar personnel, ranging from managers to
clerks, have been needed to handle paperwork and to transfer information among the different
departments in order to tie them together. It is, therefore, obvious that automating isolated
tasks in the process of product development, although relatively cost-effective, cannot alone
achieve either significant savings in lead time taken to develop a product or gains in
productivity. It is also clear that these goals can be accomplished only by automating the flow
of information in the business organization and by optimizing the process of product
development as a whole through the adoption of a system's approach.
The solution is complete implementation of computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM).
Figure (a) shows how different departments in a corporation can be electronically channeled
so that each department has immediate access to all other departments as well as to the
mainframe database. This arrangement ensures efficient control of the corporation and,
consequently, optimization of the whole system. On the other hand, Figure (b) illustrates how
companies function , with isolated automated work islands and white-collar workers doing

paperwork to pass information from one department to another. A comparison of these

figures will reveal to us the anticipated benefits of CIM.

An interesting definition of computer-integrated manufacturing (CIM) was given by Eugene

Merchant (the father of the theory of metal cutting):
CIM is a closed-loop feedback system whose prime inputs are product requirements and
product concepts and whose prime outputs are finished products. It comprises a combination
of software and hardware: product design, production planning, production control,
production equipment, and production processes.

A truly integrated CAD/CAM or CIM system provides computer assistance to all business
functions from marketing to product shipment. It embraces what historically have been
classified as "business systems" applications, including order entry, bill of material
processing, inventory control, and material-requirements planning; design automation,
including drafting, design, and simulation; manufacturing planning, including process
planning, routing and rating, tool design, and parts programming; and shop floor applications
such as numerical control, assembly automation, testing, and process automation.

Benefits of CIM
Improved product quality :- Improved product quality is a result of the CIM concept of
developing the product within the computer, thus basing the product development process on
rational and profound analysis instead of today's common philosophy of "build and test."
Prototypes will still be built, but not to find out how a product performs. Instead, they will be
used to verify the results of the analysis carried out by the computer. Other factors that
contribute to improving the product quality and consistency include lower probability of
human error and ensured uniformity of product attributes because of the use of on-line
computer-aided inspection and quality control.
Improved labor productivity :- Automating the information flow will result in a decrease
in indirect labor, while at the same time increasing the efficiency of information transfer and
eliminating redundant data collection. Any decrease in indirect labor will lead to a reasonable
decrease in unit cost because the total costs for a typical highly automated production plant
(in the United States today) are composed of to 6 percent for direct labor, 18 to 22 percent for
overhead and indirect labor, and about 75 percent for materials and machines. Also,
increasing the efficiency of information transfer will result in more effective management.

Improved equipment productivity :- Equipment productivity is improved because of the

better utilization of machines when CIM is implemented. Factors like programmability of
equipment and computerized monitoring and control of the entire manufacturing facility will
largely improve the efficiency of machine utilization.
Lower costs of products :- Higher labor and equipment productivity will certainly result in
lower product cost. This is added to the advantages of designing the product with the required
manufacturing processes in mind (i.e., design for manufacturing), which can easily be
achieved through the integration of CAD and CAM. The use of design for manufacturing
(DFM) will ensure the production of a part through the easiest and cheapest methods, thus
reducing its cost. In fact, it has been found that designs that take into account only the
product and its functions generally create the need for special manufacturing equipment,
leading to a noticeable increase in the production cost.
Increased market share and more profit :- By its very nature, CIM increases the flexibility
of the manufacturing facility, thus enabling it to react quickly to fast-changing market
demands. The reason is that much less lead time is taken to develop a product in a
corporation where CIM is implemented (lead time is the time from the moment at which
design work begins until the moment the product is shipped out of the factory).Also, less lead
time means lower manufacturing cost of the products, which translates into greater
manufacturing flexibility.

A Brief History of Lean Manufacturing

The history of manufacturing is centuries old. Evolutions in manufacturing systems gradually
took place during the last three centuries, which can be broadly classified into three distinct
phases :

Craft production
Mass production
TPS Lean production

Craft production : During the 19th and early 20th centuries , manufacturing was mainly
based on craft production in which the products were made by individual artisans or
mechanics. Quality and productivity was totally dependent on the skill and attitude of
individual craftsmen. There was no consistency in quality, costs were high, and delivery
schedules were practically not predictable. Due to these limitations, demand was always
higher than supply. Manufacturers were not able to meet the customer requirements in time.
That compelled industry to evolve into a high volume production system.
Mass production : The first person to revolutionize the production system was Henry Ford
who introduced the assembly line concept in 1913 in the Ford car plant at Highland Park ,
Miami USA. In this plant instead of people, the object under production was moving on a
conveyor and mechanics were stationed at their fixed work station to fix the specific
component in predetermined sequence. This concept was called flow production, which
resulted in dramatic improvement in productivity , consistency in quality and reduction of

cost. It worked well until the 1950s, but after world war II , as the buying power of people
increased especially in the developed countries, they wanted varieties according to their
personalized taste. The problem of the Ford system was not the productivity or flow, but lack
of variety and huge inventories.
Toyota Production System : Two great visionaries from Japan ,Kiichiro Toyoda , and
Taiichi Ohno , along with other members of the Toyota Motors Corporation team observed
the limitations of the Ford system. They made innovati,ve improvements in the mass
production system by introducing a large variety of products along with continuity of process
flow in the assembly line. The new TPS in essence shifted the focus of manufacturing from
individual machines and their utilization, to the flow of the product through the total process.
Toyota modified the size of machines and assembly line to produce smaller volumes of
automobiles , but in larger variety. This could be made possible by making machines selfmonitoring to ensure quality and introducing quick changeover system so that each machine
could make small volumes of many components without changeover delays.
Lean production: TPS explained through a unique set of five principles and was named as
Lean by a research team of MIT (Massachusetts Institute of Technology) under the
leadership of Prof. James P. Womack and Prof. Daniel T Jones. It was labeled as lean,
because it uses less of everything compared with mass production half of the human effort
in the factory, half the manufacturing space , half the investment in tools , half the
engineering hours to develop a new product.
Lean manufacturing is a performance-based strategy for maximizing customer value by
elimination of waste , while improving profit for the company.

Mass production versus Lean production

In mass production production planning is based on push production developed from
hypothetical sales forecast and companies tend to build inventories in the case they were
needed.
Whereas lean manufacturing works on pull production based on the concept that
production can and should be driven by real customer order. Instead of producing what you
hope to sell : lean manufacturing can produce what your customer wants. with shorter lead
times. Instead of pushing product to market , it is pulled by the customer through a lean
management system.
Benefits of lean Manufacturing

Reduces cost by eliminating wasteful use of resources.

Improves delivery speed by eliminating unnecessary time consuming activities.
Improves quality by eliminating root-causes of defects.
Reduces space requirement by reducing inventory and reengineering layout.
Enhances production capacity of the plant without investment

Concept of value and waste

In any activity of a business process, at any moment of time people are doing only two
things:
Either adding value to product or service through useful activities
Or
Generating waste by doing non-value added activities
Waste is defined as any business activity that adds no value but absorb resources
As per TPS wastes are classified in seven main categories:
Over production
Excess inventory
Defects
Waiting
Inappropriate processing
Unnecessary motion
Transportation
Untapped human potential ( later o an eighth category was added)
The goal of lean manufacturing is to eliminate waste and non-value added steps at all
points in the manufacturing process

Agile Manufacturing. The principle behind agile manufacturing is ensuring agility and
hence flexibility-in the manufacturing enterprise, so that it can respond rapidly and
effectively to changes in product demand and the needs of the customer. Flexibility can be
achieved through people, equipment, computer hardware and software, and advanced
communications systems. As an example of this approach, it has been predicted that the
automotive industry could configure and build a car in three days and that, eventually, the
traditional assembly line will be replaced by a system in which a nearly custom made car will
be produced by combining several individual modules.
Agile manufacturing emerged after lean production yet shares many aspects. Agile
manufacturing can he defined as (1) an enterprise level manufacturing strategy of introducing
new products into rapidly changing markets and (2) an organizational ability to thrive in a
competitive environment characterized by continuous and sometimes unforeseen change.
A study was conducted on 1991 at Lehigh University and identified four principles of agility.
Manufacturing companies that are agile competitors tend to exhibit these principles or
characteristics. The four principles are:
1. Organize to Master Change - An agile company is organized in a way that allows it to
thrive on change and uncertainty. In a company that is agile, the human and physical
resources can be rapidly reconfigured to adapt to changing environment and market
opportunities.
2. Leverage the Impact of People and Information - In an agile company, knowledge is
valued, innovation is rewarded, authority is distributed to the appropriate level of the

organization. Management provides the resources that personnel need. The organization is
entrepreneurial in spirit. There is a "climate of mutual responsibility for joint success'"
3. Cooperate to Enhance Competitiveness-"Cooperation-internally and with other
companies-is an agile competitor's operational strategy of first choice." The objective is to
bring products to market as rapidly as possible. The required resources and competencies (Ire
found and use wherever they exist. This may involve partnering with other companies,
possibly even competing companies.
4. Enrich the Customer--"An agile company is perceived by its customers as enriching them
in a significant way not only itself.'" The products of an agile company are perceived as
solutions to customers' problems. Pricing of the product can be based on the value of the
solution to the customer rather than on manufacturing cost.
As our definition and the list of four agility principles indicate, agile manufacturing involves
more than just manufacturing. It involves the firm's organizational structure, it involves the
way the firm treats its people. It involves partnerships with other organizations, and it
involves relationships with customers. Instead of "agile manufacturing," it might be more
appropriate to just call this new system of doing business "agility:

Environmental Conscious Design and Manufacturing

All over the world, so many millions of passenger cars and tyres are discarded each
year; And so much of are reused in various Ways. Billions of kilograms of plastic
products are discarded each year. Every month industries and consumers discard
enough aluminium to rebuild the countrys commercial air fleet.

Lubricants and coolants are often used in most manufacturing operations.

Various fluids and solvents are used in cleaning manufactured products; Some of
these fluids pollute the air and Water during their use.

Many by-products from manufacturing plants have been discarded for years (i.e., sand
containing additives used in metal-casting processes; water, oil and other fluids from
heat-treating facilities and from planting operations; slag from foundries and from
Welding operations.)

A variety of metallic and non-metallic scrap, produced in operations such as sheet

forming, casting and molding are discarded.

The effects of these activities, their damage to out environment and to the earths
ecosystem, and, ultimately, their effect on the quality of human life are well
recognized.

The above are the major causes for water and air pollution, acid rain ozone depletion,
the greenhouse effect, hazardous wastes, landfill seepage and global warming.

Many laws have been set in place to help reduce the pollution.

The following environmentally conscious design and manufacturing methods will help to
reduce the ill effects of above

By reducing waste of materials, by refinements in product design and reducing the

amount of materials used

By reducing the use of hazardous materials in products and processes.

By conducting research and development into environmentally safe products and into
manufacturing technologies. ,

By ensuring proper handling and disposal of all waste.

By making improvements in recycling waste treatment and reuse of materials.

Organization for Manufacture

Manufacturing organisation must organize themselves to accomplish the four functions
described in Fig. This figure illustrates the cycle of information-processing activities that
typically occur in a manufacturing firm which produces discrete parts and assembles them
into final products for sale to its customers. The factory operations are pictured in the center
of the figure. The information-processing cycle, represented by the outer ring can be
described as consisting of four functions:
1. Business functions
2. Product design
3. Manufacturing planning
4. Manufacturing control

Business functions
The business functions are the principal means of communicating with the customer. They
are the beginning and the end of the information-processing cycle. Sales and marketing, sales
forecasting, order entry, cost accounting, customer billing and others are included in this
category.
An order to produce a product will typically originate from the sales and marketing
department of the firm. The production order will be one of the following forms:
1, an order to manufacture an item to the customers specifications,
2. a customer order to buy one or more of the manufacturers proprietary products, or
3. an order based on a forecast of future demand for a proprietary product.
Product design
If the product is to be manufactured to customer specifications, the design will be provided
by the customer not by the manufacturers product design department.
If the product is proprietary, the manufacturing firm is responsible for its development and
design. The product design is documented by means of component drawings, specifications,
and a bill of materials that defines how many of each component is required.
Manufacturing planning

The information and documentation that constitute the design of the product flow into the
manufacturing planning function. The departments in the organization that perform
manufacturing Planning include manufacturing engineering, industrial engineering and
production planning and control.
As shown in figure , the information-processing activities in manufacturing planning include
process planning, master scheduling, requirements planning and capacity planning.
Process planning consists of determining the sequence of the individual processing and
assembly operations needed to produce the part. The document used to specify the process
sequence is called a route sheet. The route sheet lists the production operations and
associated machine tools for each component (and subassembly) of the product.
The manufacturing engineering and industrial engineering departments are responsible for
planning the processes and related manufacturing details. The authorization to produce the
product must be translated into the master schedule or master production schedule.
The master schedule is a listing of the products to be made, when they are to be delivered,
and in what quantities. Units of months are generally used to specify the deliveries on the
master schedule.
Based on this schedule, the individual components and subassemblies that make up each
product must be planned. Raw materials must be requisitioned, purchased parts must be
ordered from suppliers, and all of these items must be planned so that they are available when
needed. This whole task is called requirements planning or material requirements planning.
In addition, the master schedule must not list more quantities of products than the factory is
capable of producing with its given number of machines and workers each month. The
production quantity that the factory is capable of producing is referred to as the plant
capacity. Capacity planning is concerned with planning the manpower and machine
resources of the firm.

Manufacturing Control
Manufacturing control is concerned with managing and controlling the physical operations
in the factory to implement the manufacturing plans.
Shop floor control is concerned with the problem of monitoring the progress of the product
as it is being processed, assembled, moved, and inspected in the factory.
The sections of a traditional production planning and control department that are involved in
shop floor control include scheduling, dispatching, and expediting.
Production scheduling is concerned with assigning start dates and due dates to the various
parts (and products) that are to be made in the factory. This requires that he parts be
scheduled one by one through the various production machines listed on the route sheet for
each part.

Based on the production schedule, dispatching involves issuing the individual work orders to
the machine operators to accomplish the processing of the parts.
Even with the best plans and schedules, things sometimes go wrong (e.g., machine
breakdowns, improper tooling, parts delayed at the vendor). The expediter compares the
actual progress of a production order against the schedule. For orders that fall behind, the
expediter attempts to take the necessary corrective action to complete the order on time.
Inventory control attempts to strike a proper balance between the danger of too little
inventory (with possible stock-outs of materials) and the expense of having too much
Inventory.
Shop floor control is also concerned with the materials being processed in the factory (called
work-in-process).
The mission of quality control is to assure that the quality of the product and its components
meet the standards specified by the product designer. To accomplish its mission quality
control depends on the inspection activities performed in the factory at various times
throughout the manufacture of the product. Also raw materials and components from outside
sources must be inspected when they are received. Final inspection and testing of the finished
product is performed to ensure functional quality and appearance.