THREE DIMENSIONAL NUMERICAL MODELING

OF STONE COLUMN BEHAVIOR IN

MITIGATION OF LIQUEFACTION
M. Esmaeili1 and S. M. Hakimpour2
1 Department

of Railway Engineering, Iran University of Science and Technology,

Tehran, Iran. E-mail: m esmaeili@iust.ac.ir
2 Iran University of Science and Technology, Tehran, Iran.
E-mail: hakimpour mehrab@yahoo.com

During recent earthquakes, it was observed that liquefaction can cause severe
damages to several countries infrastructures including the buildings, bridges, road
and railways in the form of significant settlement and the relevant shear failures of
subgrade soil. Amongst the various rehabilitation methods of the soils tending to
be liquefied, utilization of the stone column have encountered with more attention
because of its beneficial characteristics from both technical and economical points
of view. One of the major issues in this matter is their efficiency in liquefaction
mitigation in the single and group forms. For this purpose the current study has
dedicated to numerical investigation of the problem of stone column efficiency in
dissipating the excess pore water pressure during the earthquake excitation, and
The reliability of the numerical modeling is verified via a centrifuge test results
of VELACS project. A three dimensional analysis is carried out using FLAC3D.
Also, effects of various parameters such as stone column diameter, stone columns
distances on the liquefaction resistance of NEVADA sand soil are investigated.

Keywords: Liquefaction, Remediation, Stone column, Ground improvement.

1. INTRODUCTION

The historical reviews on numerous earthquakes events, such as the 1964 in Alaska and
Niigata Japan, 1967 in Caracas Venezuela, 1976 in Guatemala, 1981 in Rudbar, 1991 in
Loma Prieta, and 1994 in Norwich, indicate that significant damages have inflicted by
liquefaction phenomenon to buildings, dams, bridges, etc. On the other hands the stone
column, which is replacing a part of beds loose materials with crushed stone materials, is
considered as a cost-effective and environment-friendly solution [1]. Several studies have
been carried out on using this method in decreasing the liquefaction potential by different authors. Generally, these researches could be divided into numerical and small-scaled
laboratory experiments. In field of numerical studies using the finite elements method,
the study by Elgamal & Parra (2002) [2] and Brennans (2007) [3], could be pointed out. A
major laboratory study by centrifuge, is the study carried out by Brennan (2002) [4] and
Elgamals (2003) [5]. The present study, first, using the FLAC3D finite difference software,
investigates the liquefaction potential of sandy beds without the presence of stone columns

Proceedings of the International Conference on Ground Improvement and Ground Control

Edited by Buddhima Indraratna, Cholachat Rujikiatkamjorn and Jayan S. Vinod
Copyright 2012 by Research Publishing Services. All rights reserved.
ISBN: 978-981-07-3559-3 :: doi:10.3850/978-981-07-3559-3 02-0201

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Proceedings of the International Conference on Ground Improvement and Ground Control

Table 1. The characteristics of Nevada sand soil with 40% density.

Poissons
Soil
The standard
Porosity Soil dry Coefficie Elasticity friction
penetration
Parameter
(n)
density
nt
module angle Adhesion Permeablity
number
Unit
Quantity

0.42

kg/m3
1500

0.3

Mpa
10

degree
30

kPa
0

m/s
6.5 105

and according to the results from VELACS1 international project No. 1, the numerical solution validation is determined. Then, modeling a single column with different diameters
and also stone columns groups with different diameters and distances,the effect of stone
columns single and group performances and their efficiency domain were investigated and
examined.
2. VELACS EXPERIMENT MODEL #1 CHARACTERISTICS

The VELACS project [6] is an international project with American universities leadership
and with cooperation of European universities in 1992 in order to simulate the liquefaction
using the centrifuge experiments. This project consists of 9 centrifuge experimental models.
The Nevada loose, saturated, and uniform sand with 40% relative density was used in
model #1, the dynamic loading at the boxs bottom is applied as acceleration time history
including 20 cycles with 100 Hz frequency and the maximum acceleration of 11.75 g. The
characteristics of Nevada saturated sand is presented in Table 1 [6].
3. MODELING OF THE LIQUEFACTION PHENOMENON

In the present study for 3D simulation of the liquefaction phenomenon, the FLAC3D finite
difference software was used. In regard to the dimensions of VELACS experiment model
#1 and considering the scale factor of 1 to 50 in the centrifuge experiment, the numerical model geometry was considered at the depth of 10 m and the models dimensions
at X and Y directions were considered equal to 22 m. Similarly, the dynamic loading in
this simulation is applied as acceleration time history at the bottom of the model with 2 Hz
frequency and 0.235 g acceleration. For the modeling the liquefaction phenomenon, the creating small elements should be prevented as far as possible in order to maintain computations accuracy and to decrease their duration. To do so and based on FLAC3D instructions
[7], the elements dimensions should be determined so that it would be possible to correctly
propagate the wave caused by earthquakes. According to the Nevada sand characteristics,
the lowest shear wave propagation velocity according to equation (1) is equal to 45 m/s.
Thus, according to equation (2), choosing the largest element dimension equal to 1 m, the
maximum frequency, which could be properly transmitted, would be equal to 4.5 Hz:

G
(1)
cs =

cs
f =
(2)
10 l
1 Verification

of Liquefaction Analysis by Centrifuge studies.

Three Dimensional Numerical Modeling of Stone Column Behavior in Mitigation of Liquefaction

647

Where in these equations, G and are shear modulus and soil density, f denotes the
propagated wave frequency and CS is the velocity of shear wave in environment, and also
l would be the elements dimension. Since the acceleration record related to the centrifuge
experiment includes higher frequencies but with weaker energy, and also the dominant
frequency is equal to 2 Hz and a major part of the energy is hidden in frequencies lower
than 4 Hz, therefore in this research, by filtering the acceleration record and eliminating
frequencies higher than 4 Hz, the earthquakes energy was maintained and also it was
possible to use finite difference mesh dimensions limited to the maximum magnitude of
1 m [7].
4. ALLOCATING THE PROPER SOIL MATERIAL MODEL IN MODELING THE
LIQUEFACTION PHENOMENON

In numerical modeling for defining the soil materials plastic deformations, the
Mohr-Coulomb plasticity criterion was used and the Finn elastoplastic behavioral model as
well [8], which was presented by Byrne [9] in 1991, was applied for liquefaction
simulation. This model is able to calculate the pore water pressures through computing
the volumetric strain decrease development based on equations (3) and (4) during dynamic
loading:




vd
= C1 exp C2 vd
(3)

u = Er vd

(4)

Where in this equation, vd is the volumetric strain increment; u is the excess pore
water pressure created during vibrations, Er denotes the elastic modulus, and is the cyclic
shear strain while C1 , C2 indicate the volume changes and compression in soil, respectively.
In equation (3), these two parameters could be easily obtained by cyclic loading tests or
estimating the soils relative density and/or standard penetration test (SPT) values. Byrne
[9] showed that equation (5) was accurate in several cases of conducted experiments, and
therefore equation (1) would have only one constant.
C2 = 0.4/C1

(5)

Also, the author suggested equation (6) for calculating the C1 constant based on the
standard penetration test value:
1.25
C1 = 8.7 ( N1 )60

(6)

During dynamic analysis, it is assumed that soil was fully saturated and had no air content. For simulating the full saturated conditions in dynamic analysis, the water volumetric
coefficient and its density during the whole analysis duration were considered as 2 109 Pa
and 1000 kg/m3 , respectively.
5. SOIL DAMPING SELECTION

During the dynamic analysis procedure by FLAC3D software for accurate modeling based
on soils natural behavior, the damping ratio must be used. The local damping is dependent from the whole systems natural frequency, and its value is considered according to

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Figure 1. The acceleration record log of centrifuge test for model #1.

Figure 2. The excess pore water pressure at

depth of 1.5 m.

Figure 3. The excess pore water pressure at

depth of 7.5 m.

equation (7) equal to 0.157 [7], where in this equation, L is the local damping and D is 5%
of the critical damping.
L = D

(7)

6. BOUNDARY CONDITIONS AND DYNAMIC LOADING

Through implementing the acceleration time history in Figure 1 to the base of 3D numerical model the results from numerical modeling were compared with results of centrifuge
test in the VELACS project in terms of excess pore water pressure, as shown in Figures 2
and 3. In these results, the range of zero effective stress is signified by a red horizontal line
in the diagram. The diagrams related to the excess pore water pressure indicate that the
numerical analysis results are close to centrifuge test results to an acceptable level. Also
the liquefaction took place in 1.5 m and 2.5 m depths around the fourth second while for
5.5 m depth this phenomenon approximately occurred at the seventh second and for the
7.5 m depth, the liquefaction phenomenon does not occur due to increased overburden
pressure caused by soils upper layers and increased effective stress.
7. SINGLE STONE COLUMN EFFECTS ON LIQUEFACTION MITIGATION

In this study in order to determine the efficiency of stone column in decreasing pore water
pressure of the surrounding soil, the dynamic analysis was performed by considering a
column at the center of the model with 90, 120, and 150 cm diameters, thus the excess pore
water pressure was investigated are different distances from the stone column. According to the FHWA regulations [10], the stone columns material must be chosen from coarse
grained materials with high friction angle, low adhesion, and very high drainage capability. As recommended in these regulations, the Youngs modulus for grained materials of
this column must be 10 to 40 times higher than of the surrounding soil, where in this study,
the 40 coefficient was applied.

Three Dimensional Numerical Modeling of Stone Column Behavior in Mitigation of Liquefaction

Table 2.

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Parameters related to the stone column [10].

Column Friction Volumetric Shear Elasticity Poissons

Permeability diameter angle
modulus modulus Modulus
ratio
Porosity Characteristics
m/s
101

m
degree
0.9 1.2,1.5
48

MPa
334

MPa
154

MPa
400

0.3

0.3

Unit
Values

Since the column materials and mesh types are different from soil, the interface elements
are applied where the stone column meets the surrounding soil. According to the FLAC3D
instructions, the materials for this element have shear and normal stiffness, internal friction
angle, and adhesion; also the interface materials should be closer to the weaker materials
(soil) [7]. This instruction presents equation (8) for shear and normal stiffness of interface
elements:



K + 4/3G
=
K
=
max
10

(8)
Ks
s
z min
Where, G is the shear modulus of the loose soil, K denoted the loose soils bulk modulus,
z is the minimum finite difference mesh dimension, Ks is the interface materials shear
stiffness, and Kn would be the interface materials normal stiffness. In determining the
mechanical parameters of interface materials, the soil mechanical properties were used,
and therefore adhesion, internal friction angle, and shear and normal stiffness for these
materials were selected as follows:
Ks = Kn = 13 MPa c = 0 = 30

(9)

8. BOUNDARY CONDITIONS AND DYNAMIC LOADING

To analyze the beds soil with stone column in case of infinite boundaries at this stage of
the analysis, free boundaries were used at four sides of the model, a schematic of which is
shown in Figure 4. In order to applying the dynamic loading and comparing the decrease
in pore water pressure between this case and the no-column state, again, the acceleration
record of VELACS experiment model #1 was applied to the models bottom. Figure 5 indicates the radial water flow vectors towards the column, after the dynamic analysis. The
excess pore water pressure for 1.5 m and 2.5 depth at 1.8 and 4.8 m distances from the
columns center are shown in Figures 6 to 9.

Figure 4. Finite difference model of soil and

single stone column.

Figure 5. Water flow vectors inside the column.

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Figure 6. The excess pore water pressure at

1.8 m distance from the columns center for 1.5 m
depth.

Figure 7. The excess pore water pressure at

4.8 m distance from the columns center for
1.5 m depth.

Figure 8. The excess pore water pressure at

1.8 m distance from the columns center for 2.5 m
depth.

Figure 9. The excess pore water pressure at

2.8 m distance from the columns center for
2.5 m depth.

The area of effective stress equal to 13800 Pa corresponding to static conditions is signified in these figures by a red line.
The area of effective stress equal to 23000 Pa corresponding to static conditions is signified in these figures by a red line.

9. STONE COLUMN GROUP NUMERICAL MODELING

After the proper modeling of the stone column in order to decrease the pore water pressure
in liquefiable soils and investigating their effect area, the efficiency of the group state of
columns was discussed. According to FHWA regulations [10], for columns group arrangement, two cases of square and triangle meshes were suggested, where in this study the
square arrangement was used for stone column group modeling. In this case, the effective
diameter (unit cell diameter) was obtained from equation (10) for stone columns, where in
this equation; S is the center to center distance between columns and De denotes the unit
cell diameter:
De = 1.13S

(10)

In this stage of modeling, 9 stone columns were placed together in a square arrangement. Considering the importance of columns center-to-center distance in stone columns
group behavior, a sensitivity analysis was performed on column center-to-center distance
to diameter ratio (s/d) in the current study. To do so, the above-mentioned ratio equal to
2, 3, 4, and 5 values was investigated for 90, 120, and 150 cm stone column diameters.

Three Dimensional Numerical Modeling of Stone Column Behavior in Mitigation of Liquefaction

Figure 10. Stone column

with 150 cm diameter.

Figure 11. Stone column with

120 cm diameter.

651

Figure 12. Stone column with

90 cm diameter.

10. MODIFYING THE SOIL CHARACTERISTICS

In 1995, Baez [11], using SPT and CPT tests in clean sand to silty sand soils with lower than
15% fine-grained in 18 sites before and after rehabilitation by stone columns, showed that
implementing the group stone column, changes the internal friction angle and elasticity
modulus for the area of unit cell in soil. So in numerical simulation these modifications
were imposed on the soil proprieties.
11. BOUNDARY CONDITIONS AND DYNAMIC LOADING

The boundary conditions for static and dynamic analyses and the material models and also
dynamic loading condition in model of stone column group are similar to single column
analysis. The analysis results are presented in Figures 10 to 12 in terms of excess pore water
pressure related to the middle point between the central column and the lateral column at
1.5 m depth for stone columns with 90, 120 and 150 cm diameter.
12. CONCLUSIONS

This paper studies the use of stone columns as a means of mitigating earthquake-induced
liquefaction in non cohesive soils. The study is performed numerically using the 3D finite
difference code FLAC. Also, the obtained results from this analysis were compared with
an international project (VELACS). In general, the results show that:
1. The waters radial movement towards a column, which has higher permeability than
soil, indicates that the stone column provides radial drainage in liquefiable soils.
2. Increasing the columns diameter causes more decrease in excess pore water pressure
from earthquakes and also expands it effect area. Therefore, more columns in a given
area lead to quicker and more dissipation of pore water pressure.
3. In areas close to stone column, decrease the excess water pressure up to 85% than without stone column mode, and gradually away from the center of stone column excess
water pressure back to previous mode.
4. Investigations show considerable changes in excess pore water pressure inside a
column.
5. In every depth, a circular region with an area 2 to 2.5 times larger than the columns
diameter would be rehabilitated to increase pore water pressure, and increased depth
approximately increases the area of this region.
6. The group analysis results show that for the s/d ratios of 2 and 3, the lateral columns
help the central column in decreasing the pore water pressure and drainage. But

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Proceedings of the International Conference on Ground Improvement and Ground Control

increasing this ratio more than these two values would cause each column to operate separately. Also, the group performance for column with 150 m diameter is higher
than 90 and 120 cm diameter columns.
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1. S. M. Hakimpour (2011), Numerical Modeling effectiveness of Stone Column in Mitigation of
Liquefaction in Liquefiable Soils, A ThesisSubmitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for
the Degree of Master of Science in Railway Engineering., Iran University of Science and Technology
Railway Engineering Department.
2. A. Elgamal, Z. Yang and E. Parra, Computational modeling of cyclic mobility and postliquefaction site response. Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, (2002), 22(4), 259271.
3. A. Papadimitriuo and A. Brennan (2007), Numerical Investigation of Liquefaction Mitigation
Using Gravel Drains, Proc. 14th Intl. Conf. Earthqueake Eng., p. 1548.
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liquefaction. Soil Dyn Earthq Eng, 22(912):105965.
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584.
6. K. Arulmoli, K. K. Muraleetharan and M. M. Hossain (1992), VELACS: verification of liquefaction analysis by centrifuge studies-laboratory testing program, soil data report. Earth Technology
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7. FLAC3D Version 3.0 (2005), Online Manual Table of Contents, Itasca.
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Loading. J. Geotech. Div. ASCE 101(GT5), 423438.
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and Soil Dynamics (St. Louis, Missouri, March, 1991), Paper No. 1.24, 4755.
10. FHWA (1983), Design and construction of stone column, Volume I. Report No. FHWA/
RD-83/026.
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