Aerospace Materials

Week-6

Fiber-Polymer Composites
Fabrication and Mechanics

Hand Lay-Up
Epoxy is applied manually onto the surface of the each fabric
Fabric is laid-up by hand directly onto the tool
Fabric plies are oriented with their fibres aligned in the main loading
directions
Vacuum bagging is applied to remove air from between the ply layers
Most of the hand lay-up composites are cured inside an autoclave with high
pressure and temperature
Most common pattern is [0/+45/-45/90]
( quasi-isotropic)
Orientation of the plies is symmetric
around the mid-plane to ensure the
material is balanced

14.12.2015

UCK 353E-Aersopace Materials-Week6

Autoclave
Autoclave used for consolidation and curing of composites

14.12.2015

UCK 353E-Aersopace Materials-Week6

Automated Tape Lay-up

Automated tape lay-up (ATL) is an automated process used to lay-up
prepreg tape in the fabrication of composite aircraft structures
ATL is used instead of manual lay-up to reduce the time (by more than 70
85%) and cost spent in the lay-up of prepreg tape on the tool
The key component of
the ATL process is a
computer numerically
controlled tape-laying
head that deposits
prepreg onto the tool
at a fast rate
with great accuracy

14.12.2015

UCK 353E-Aersopace Materials-Week6

Automated Fibre Placement

Automated fibre placement (AFP) is the lay-up of individual prepreg tows
onto a mandrel using a numerically controlled fibre-placement machine
The AFP process is used to fabricate large circumference and highly
contoured structures such as fuselage barrels, ducts, cowls, nozzle cones,
spars and pressure tanks
The placement head is
computer controlled via a
gantry system suspended
above the mandrel
During fibre placement,
the mandrel is rotated so
the prepreg is wound into
the shape of the
component

14.12.2015

UCK 353E-Aersopace Materials-Week6

Resin Transfer Molding

RTM is a closed-mould process
Fabric is placed inside the cavity between two matched moulds with their
inner surfaces having the shape of the final component
Fabric plies are stacked to the required orientation and thickness inside the
mould, which is then sealed and clamped
Liquid resin is injected into the mould by means of a pump
The resin flows through the open spaces of the fabric until the mould is
completely filled. The resin viscosity must be low enough for easy flow
through the tiny gaps between the fibres and tows of the fabric
After injection, the mould is heated in order to gel and cure the polymer
matrix to form a solid composite part
After curing, the mould is opened and the part removed for edge trimming
and final finishing
The RTM process can produce composites with high fibre volume content
(up to 65%), making them suitable for primary aircraft structures that require
high stiffness, strength and fatigue performance

14.12.2015

UCK 353E-Aersopace Materials-Week6

Resin Transfer Molding

14.12.2015

UCK 353E-Aersopace Materials-Week6

Vacuum-assisted Resin Transfer Molding

(VARTM)
Since it can be difficult to completely infuse some types of fabric with resin
which leaves dry spots or voids in the cured composite, a vacuum pump is
used to extract air from the cavity placing it in a state of low pressure
With VARTM the resin is drawn into the mould under the pressure differential
created by the vacuum
Resin percolates between the fibres and tows of the fabric until the mould is
filled

14.12.2015

UCK 353E-Aersopace Materials-Week6

Vacuum Bagging Resin Infusion

Vacuum bagging is an open mould process
Using an open mould rather than the two-piece closed mould reduce the
tooling cost
Fabric plies are stacked on the tool with the top layer being a resin
distribution fabric
The fabric stack is enclosed and sealed within a flexible plastic bag that is
connected at one point to a liquid resin source and at another point to a
vacuum-pump system
Air is removed by the vacuum pump which causes the bag to squeeze the
fabric layers to the shape of the mould surface
Liquid resin flows into the bag under the pressure differential created by the
vacuum pump
Resin is drawn through the tightly consolidated fabric as well as along the
top resin distribution fabric
After the fabric is completely infused with resin, the material is cured at high
temperature within an oven

14.12.2015

UCK 353E-Aersopace Materials-Week6

Vacuum Bagging Resin Infusion

14.12.2015

UCK 353E-Aersopace Materials-Week6

10

Resin Film Infusion (RFI)

The process uses an open mould upon which layers of dry fabric and solid resin film
are stacked
The film is a B-stage cured resin similar to the cure condition of the resin matrix in
prepreg
Film is placed at the bottom, top or between the layers of fabric
The materials are sealed within a vacuum bag and then air is removed using a
vacuum pump
The entire assembly is placed into an autoclave and subjected to pressure and heat
The temperature is increased to reduce the resin viscosity to a level when it is fluid
enough to flow into the fabric layers under the applied pressure
Once the infusion is complete the pressure and temperature are raised to
consolidate and fully cure the component

14.12.2015

UCK 353E-Aersopace Materials-Week6

11

Filament Winding
Filament winding is a
manufacturing process where
cylindrical components are
made by winding continuous
fibre tows over a rotating or
stationary mandrel
Two types of filament winding:
- Wet winding
- Prepreg winding

The filament-winding process is

used to produce cylindrical
composite components

14.12.2015

UCK 353E-Aersopace Materials-Week6

12

Pultrusion
Pultrusion is an automated,
continuous process used to
manufacture composite
components with constant crosssection profiles
Continuous fibres (tows) are
pulled off storage spools and
drawn through a liquid resin bath.
The resin-impregnated fibres exit
the bath and are pulled through a
series of wipers that remove
excess polymer.
After this, the fibreresin bundles
pass through a collimator before
entering a heated die which has
the shape of the final component
As the material passes through the
die it is formed to shape while the
resin is cured
14.12.2015

UCK 353E-Aersopace Materials-Week6

13

Comparison of Fabrication Methods

Method

Reinforcement

Matrix

Advantage

Disadvatage

Application

Spray Lay
Up

Chopped Fibers

Polyester

Low cost

Heavy

Light loaded
structural
panels

Hand Lay
Up

Woven or
knitted

All

Easy Tooling Quality

limited

Prouction
boats

Vacuum
Bagging

Variety

Epoxy, phenolics

Low void ct/ Better

lay-up
quality

Cruising boats

Pultrusion

Variety

Variety

Good
structural
properties

Cost may be
high

Chemical
Storage tanks

RTM

Variety

epoxy, polyester,
vinylester and
phenolic

Fast,
economic,
controllable

Size limited

Bridges,
frameworks

VA-RTM

Variety

Variety

Good
quality

Expensive

Airfraft
components

Autoclave

Woven clothes,
prepregs

Epoxy, polyester,
vinylesteretc.

14.12.2015

UCK 353E-Aersopace Materials-Week6

14

Machining of Composites
The majority of processes used to manufacture composites
produce components to the near-net shape
Most machining operations for composites simply involve
trimming to remove excess material from the edges and hole
drilling for fasteners. Trimming can be performed using highspeed saws and routers, although care is required to avoid
edge splitting (delamination damage)
Water jet cutting is a process involving the use of a highpressure stream of water containing hard, tiny particles that cut
through the material by erosion
Hole drilling of composites requires the use of specialist drill
bits. Drilling must be performed using a sharp bit at the correct
force and feed-rate otherwise the material surrounding the hole
is damaged
14.12.2015

UCK 353E-Aersopace Materials-Week6

15

Mechanics of Continuous-Fibre
Composites

14.12.2015

UCK 353E-Aersopace Materials-Week6

16

Properties are Determined by

Three Factors:

1.The materials used as component

phases in the composite
2.The geometric shapes of the
constituents and resulting structure of
the composite system
3.The manner in which the phases
interact with one another
14.12.2015

UCK 353E-Aersopace Materials-Week6

17

Two Approaches to Mechanical Properties

of Composites
Micromechanical Approach

Macromechanical Approach

Micromechanics models
composites where matrix
and fibers modeled
seperately

Deals with laminate

Will put several plies to
evaluate stresses and
strains within plies

Average composite
properties achieved

14.12.2015

From micromechanics
UCK 353E-Aersopace Materials-Week6

18
to Macromechanics

14.12.2015

UCK 353E-Aersopace Materials-Week6

Courtesy of B.L. Wardle Class Notes, MIT 16.223

19

Hierarchy of micromechanics-based analysis for

composite structures

14.12.2015

UCK 353E-Aersopace Materials-Week6

20

14.12.2015

UCK 353E-Aersopace Materials-Week6

Courtesy of B.L. Wardle Class Notes, MIT 16.223

21

14.12.2015

UCK 353E-Aersopace Materials-Week6

Courtesy of B.L. Wardle Class Notes, MIT 16.223

22

14.12.2015

UCK 353E-Aersopace Materials-Week6

Courtesy of B.L. Wardle Class Notes, MIT 16.223

23

Mechanical Properties of Various

Materials Including Composites

14.12.2015

UCK 353E-Aersopace Materials-Week6

24

Assumptions
Composite ply is: Fibers are:
Macroscopically
homogeneous
Orthotropic
Linear elastic
Regularly spaced and
aligned

Macroscopically
homogeneous
Orthotropic
Linear elastic
Free of stresses

Matrix is:
Macroscopically
homogeneous
Generally isotropic
Linear elastic

And fibers and matrix

are perfectly bonded
14.12.2015

UCK 353E-Aersopace Materials-Week6

Courtesy of B.L. Wardle Class Notes, MIT 16.223

25

14.12.2015

UCK 353E-Aersopace Materials-Week6

Courtesy of B.L. Wardle Class Notes, MIT 16.223

26

Determination of Mechanical Properties of

Composites
Overall, the properties of the
composite are determined by:
The properties of the fibre
The properties of the resin
The ratio of fibre to resin in the
composite (Fibre Volume Fraction)
The geometry and orientation of the
fibres in the composite

Rule of Mixtures (RoM)

Vf + Vm = 1
Vf = Volume fraction fibre
Vm = Volume fraction matrix
EL = Longitidunal Modulus
ET = Transverse Modulus
14.12.2015

EL=EfVf + EmVm

UCK 353E-Aersopace Materials-Week6

27

14.12.2015

UCK 353E-Aersopace Materials-Week6

Courtesy of B.L. Wardle Class Notes, MIT 16.223

28

14.12.2015

UCK 353E-Aersopace Materials-Week6

Courtesy of B.L. Wardle Class Notes, MIT 16.223

29

Transverse Modulus, ET

14.12.2015

UCK 353E-Aersopace Materials-Week6

Courtesy of B.L. Wardle Class Notes, MIT 16.223

30

More on Series Model

14.12.2015

UCK 353E-Aersopace Materials-Week6

Courtesy of B.L. Wardle Class Notes, MIT 16.223

31

More on Series Model

14.12.2015

UCK 353E-Aersopace Materials-Week6

Courtesy of B.L. Wardle Class Notes, MIT 16.223

32

RoM equations for Unidirectional Composites

14.12.2015

UCK 353E-Aersopace Materials-Week6

33

Example-1
Use the values of a given fiber from Hexcel company to
calculate Elc, and discuss the measured and predicted values of
this fiber through RoM

Courtesy of B.L. Wardle Class Notes, MIT 16.223

14.12.2015

UCK 353E-Aersopace Materials-Week6

34

Example-2
Use the values of a given fiber from Hexcel company to
calculate ETc, and discuss the measured and predicted
values of this fiber through RoM

Courtesy of B.L. Wardle Class Notes, MIT 16.223

14.12.2015

UCK 353E-Aersopace Materials-Week6

35

How Well Does Mechanics of Materials,

Micromechanics Approach Work?

14.12.2015

UCK 353E-Aersopace Materials-Week6

Courtesy of B.L. Wardle Class Notes, MIT 16.223

36

Summary

14.12.2015

UCK 353E-Aersopace Materials-Week6

Courtesy of B.L. Wardle Class Notes, MIT 16.223

37

Critical Points in Fiber Reinforcement

Critical fiber length (lC) for effective stiffening & strengthening:

Ex: For fiberglass, a fiber length > 15 mm is needed since this length
provides a Continuous fiber based on usual glass fiber properties

Why? Longer fibers carry stress more efficiently!

Shorter, thicker fiber:
Longer, thinner fiber: s d
sf d
fiber length > 15 f
fiber length < 15
tc
tc
s(x)

s(x)

Poorer fiber efficiency

Better fiber efficiency

14.12.2015

UCK 353E-Aersopace Materials-Week6

38

Influence of Fiber Orientation

(a) continuous and aligned,

(b) discontinous and aligned,
and
(c) discontinuous and randomly
oriented fiber reinforced
composites.
Schematic stress strain curves for brittle ber and ductile matrix materials.
Fracture stresses and strains for both materials are noted.
Schematic stressstrain curve for an aligned ber-reinforced composite
that is exposed to a uniaxial stress applied in the direction of alignment.
14.12.2015

UCK 353E-Aersopace Materials-Week6

39

Composite Strength
Estimate of Ec and TS for discontinuous fibers:
sf d
tc
-- Elastic modulus in fiber direction:
-- valid when

fiber length > 15

Ec = EmVm + KEfVf
efficiency factor:
-- aligned 1D: K = 1 (aligned )
-- aligned 1D: K = 0 (aligned )
-- random 2D: K = 3/8 (2D isotropy)
-- random 3D: K = 1/5 (3D isotropy)

-- TS in fiber direction:

(TS)c = (TS)mVm + (TS)fVf

(aligned 1D)

From: H. Krenchel, Fibre Reinforcement, Copenhagen: Akademisk Forlag, 1964.

14.12.2015
UCK 353E-Aersopace Materials-Week6

40

Fibrous Composites

Fracture surface showing broken fibers for a composite of

Nicalon-type SiC fibers in a calcium aluminosilicate(CAS) glass-ceramic matrix.
14.12.2015Mechanical Behavior of Materials: Engineering Methods
UCK
for 353E-Aersopace
Deformation, Fracture,Materials-Week6
and Fatigue, Third Edition, by Norman E. Dowling. ISBN 0-13-186312-6.

41

Laminate - Lamina
Basic building block of laminate is a lamina
A laminate is a various directions bonded laminae

Unbonded various direction laminates

Major purpose of lamination: To tailor diretional dependence of strength and

stiffness of a composite material for structural element
14.12.2015

UCK 353E-Aersopace Materials-Week6

42

Laminated Composites

Cross section of a ceramic-intermetallic composite having SiC fibers in a Ti3Al matrix.

14.12.2015Mechanical Behavior of Materials: Engineering Methods
UCK
for 353E-Aersopace
Deformation, Fracture,Materials-Week6
and Fatigue, Third Edition, by Norman E. Dowling. ISBN 0-13-186312-6.

43

Fabricating Laminates: Structural Composites

Sheets having various fiber directions

Laminate w/ Al sheets bonded to

sheets of composite w/ Kevlar fibers in an
epoxy matrix

Mechanical Behavior of Materials: Engineering Methods for Deformation, Fracture, and Fatigue, Third Edition, by Norman E. Dowling. ISBN 0-13-186312-6.

14.12.2015

UCK 353E-Aersopace Materials-Week6

44

From Micromechanics to Macromechanics

for Lamina/Ply Level Study in

14.12.2015

UCK 353E-Aersopace Materials-Week6

45