Pre-AP Chemistry: Chapters 4 & 5

Atomic Structure & Electrons

4.1 Defining the Atom
Democritus 4th century B.C. Greek philosopher who first proposed that matter is composed of indivisible,
indestructible particles called ___________________.
The first atomic model was not proposed until 2000 years later! In the 1700s, John Dalton performed
experiments that related chemical changes to the individual atom. He developed the following:
Daltons Atomic Theory:
1. All elements are composed of ____________________________________________________.
2. Atoms of the same element are __________________. The atoms of any one element are different from
those of any other element.
3. Atoms of different elements can physically mix together or can chemically combine with one another in
simple _____________________________________ to form compounds.
4. Chemical reactions occur when atoms are separated, joined, or rearranged. Atoms of one element never
change into atoms of other elements during chemical reactions.
An atom is defined as the smallest particle of an element that __________________________________.
4.2 Structure of the Nuclear Atom
We now know that atoms are not indivisible. They can be broken down into even smaller, more fundamental
particles.
The 3 major subatomic particles:
____________________ are negatively charged subatomic particles.
________________________, an English physicist discovered them in 1897 by doing experiments involving
passing an electric current through a tube containing gases at low pressure. The tube had metal electrodes
(cathode and anode) at each end. (see Fig. 4.4 & 4.5).
Thomson found that a beam, called a _________________________, traveled from the cathode (-) to the anode
(+), and that this beam was attracted by a positive charge and repelled by a negative charge. Since he knew
opposite charges attract and like charges repel, he proposed that this cathode ray was a stream of tiny negatively
charged particles moving at high speed. He named them electrons.
He experimented with different gases and different metals for the electrodes. He always achieved the same
results. This told him that atoms of all substances contained ______________. He measured the degree of
deflection of the cathode ray by charged plates. This allowed him to determine the ____________________ of
the electron (1.76 x 108 C/g).
Further studies by Robert Millikan, an American scientist, led to the determination of the properties of the
electron in 1916. His experiment (Millikans Oil Drop Experiment) involved measuring the charge on tiny oil
drops. The charge of each drop was always a multiple of 1.60 x 10-19 C. This was the charge of an individual
electron. He used this charge, along with Thomsons charge/mass ratio, to determine the mass of an electron.
1.6 x 10 -19 C

1g

= 9.11 x 10-28 g
8
1.76 x 10 C

An electron has a charge of ______________ and a mass of ________________ the mass of a hydrogen atom.
Protons: Scientists knew that atoms are neutral (have no charge). So, if there are electrons with negative
charge, there must also be particles with a positive charge. This led to the discovery of the proton.
Protons have a _________ charge and are __________ times more massive than the electron.
Neutrons: Chadwick discovered them in 1932.
Neutrons have no charge, but have essentially the same mass as a proton.
(Refer to Table 4.1, p. 113, for a summary of the properties of electrons, protons and neutrons.)
Once subatomic particles were discovered, Daltons model of the atom had to be modified.
Atoms were ______________________________.
The second model of the atom (Thomsons Plum Pudding Model) proposed that _______________ were
evenly distributed throughout an atom filled uniformly with positively charged material.
In 1911, an English scientist, Ernest Rutherford tested this model with his gold foil experiment, Fig. 4.4, p. 111.
He shot a beam of massive alpha particles (He2+) at a very thin sheet of gold foil. He expected the alpha
particles to pass easily through the foil, with little deflection. He was shocked to see that even though most
passed through without deflection, a small fraction was deflected at large angles and some even bounced
straight backwards! To explain this, he modified Thomsons atomic model.
Rutherfords model of the atom stated that the atom is mostly __________________________ with all the
____________________ charge and almost all of the _____________ concentrated in a small region, which he
called the ________________.
The tiny nucleus is composed of ________________ and __________________.
Atoms of one element differ from atoms of another element because
they have different numbers of ________________________________.
4.3 Distinguishing Among Atoms
Atomic number the number of _________________ in the nucleus
of an atom.

How small is the nucleus? If the

atom were the size of a football
stadium, the nucleus would be about
the size of a marble 10,000 times
smaller!

The atomic number ___________________ an element.

Ex.

What is the atomic number of aluminum?

Which element has 26 protons?

______
______

In a neutral atom, the number of protons (p+) equals the number of electrons (e-).
Ex.
Ions

How many p+ does a neon atom have?

How many e- does a neon atom have?
An element with atomic number = 6 has how many e-?

_______
_______
_______

When an electron is lost from an atom, the positive charge of the nucleus is no longer balanced and the
atom takes on a positive overall charge. It is now considered a cation.

When an atom gains a negatively charged electron, the overall charge becomes positive and an anion is
formed.

Mass Number The total number of ______________ and ___________________ in an atom.

Ex. oxygen-18 has a mass number of 18.
How many protons, neutrons and electrons does it have?
Isotopes Atoms that have the same number of _____________ but different numbers of _________________.
When writing chemical symbols for isotopes, the mass number is written as a superscript and the atomic
number is written as a subscript before the element symbol. Ex.
Ex. Hydrogen has three
isotopes:
Atomic Mass is given in units
called

14 C
6

Name

hydrogen-1

Percent
Symbol

99.985%

hydrogen-2
(deuterium)
0.015%

hydrogen-3
(tritium)
negligible

Atomic #
Mass #
p+
eno
_____________________________________________.
Atomic Mass Unit (amu) One atomic mass unit is defined as 1/12 the mass of a ____________________
atom.
A carbon-12 atom has ______ p+ and _______ n0, and its mass is set at 12 amu. An atomic mass unit can also
be called a _____________________.
But, the atomic masses on the periodic table are not whole numbers mainly because most elements occur in
nature as a mixture of isotopes. The masses are ________________________________________ reflecting the
__________________________ of each isotope.
*When doing weighted
Atomic mass =
averages, change percents to
decimal form.
Ex. Use 0.55 instead of 55%
Ex. Calculate the atomic mass of bromine. The two isotopes of bromine have atomic masses and relative
abundances of 78.92 amu (59.69%) and 80.92 (40.31%).

Practice:

Calculate the average atomic mass of magnesium. The three isotopes of magnesium have atomic masses of and
relative abundances of 23.985 amu (78.70%), 24.986 amu (10.13%) and 25.983 amu (11.17%).
Another reason that masses of atoms are not whole numbers is called mass defect. When protons and neutrons
come together to form the nucleus, some of their mass is changed into energy (_______________) to hold the
nucleus together. This lost mass is called _______________. The energy can be calculated by adding
together the masses of the protons, neutrons, and electrons and subtracting the actual mass of the atom. The
missing mass goes into Einsteins special relativity formula, _____________.
More Subatomic Particles
I.

Leptons (elementary particles)

A.
Electron
B.
Mu-meson (muon) more massive
than electrons
C.
Tau-meson (tau) more massive than
electrons
D.
3 types of neutrinos almost massless

II.

Hadrons (made of quarks)

A.
Mesons of many types
-composed of a quark and an antiquark
B.
Baryons
-composed of 3 quarks of different colors
1. protons (2 up quarks + 1 down
quark)
2. neutrons (1 up quark and 2 down
quarks)
Every particle has an antiparticle. The antiparticle of the electron is the positron (e+)

Gluons hold quarks together

There are 6 types or flavors of quarks

1. up
3. top or truth
2. charm
4. down
There are also Colors of quarks that describe their charge
o +2/3 up, top, charm
o -1/3 down, bottom, strange

5. bottom or beauty
6. strange

5.1 Revising the Atomic Model

After the work of Dalton, Thomson and Rutherford, the model of the atom was further refined to fit data that
was being collected.
Bohr model- stated that electrons are arranged in symmetrical orbits around the nucleus
o planetary model
o electrons in a given path have a fixed energy level
Quantum mechanical model the modern mathematical
description of the atom

Energy level - region around the nucleus where the electron is

likely to be moving.
o An electron can jump from one level to another by absorbing
energy. quantum leap:
Quantum- the amount of energy required to move an electron
from its present energy level to the next higher one

Quantum mechanical model- uses mathematical equations to describe

the location and energy of electrons in an atom
developed by Erwin Schrodinger

electrons are not in definite paths

their location is described in terms of probability of being in a certain region
electron cloud (ceiling fan)
conventionally, the border is drawn at 90% probability

Atomic orbital -region in space that an electron is likely to be in

Electrons can be described by a series of 4 quantum numbers.
Principle Quantum Number
(n)
*Energy level or shell

Azimuthal Quantum
Number (l)
*shape of the orbital
*sublevels

Magnetic Quantum
Number (ml)
orientation of orbitals in *
space (x, y, or z)

*as n increases, energy

increases
1
2
3
4

s = sphere (2 e-),
p = peanut (6 e-),
d = donut or daisy (10 e-),
f = fancy (14 e-)
0=s
0 = s, 1 = p
0 = s, 1 = p, 2 = d
0 = s, 1 = p, 2 = d, 3 = f

Spin Quantum Number

(ms)
* each orbital can hold 2
electrons with opposite
spin
*direction of electron spin
(clockwise or
counterclockwise)

0
-1, 0, 1
-2, -1, 0, 1, 2
-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3

+ or -
+ or -
+ or -
+ or -

0 = s, 1 = p, 2 = d, 3 = f

-3, -2, -1, 0, 1, 2, 3

+ or -

Ex.
3p

2s

4f

4p

3d

3rd energy level

# of Orbitals
# of Electrons
Summary of Quantum Numbers:
Name, Symbol
Allowed
(property)
Values
Principal, n,
(size, energy)

Quantum Numbers
1

Azimuthal, l
(shape)

Magnetic, ml

Practice: Which of the following are possible sets of quantum numbers? If it is not possible explain why.
4, 2, -1,
3, 2, 2,
2, 2, -2, -

6, 2, 2,

6, 1, 0, 0

1, 1, 1,

5.2 Electron Configuration

This model describes ways in which electrons are arranged around the nuclei of atoms.
Rules that govern the filling of atomic orbitals:
1. Aufbau principle - electrons enter orbitals of lowest energy first.
2. Pauli Exclusion Principle - An atomic orbital can describe at most two electrons. They must have
opposite spins.
3. Hunds rule - When electrons occupy orbital of equal energy, one electron enters each orbital until all
orbitals contain one electron with parallel spins.
Writing Electron Configurations: Now that you see how to use the periodic table, try writing these!
C:

#e-: _____:

Zn: #e-: _____:

Eu: #e-: _____:
Shorthand Electron Configuration: If you need to quickly notate an elements electron configuration, you can
shorten it by using the identity of the nearest noble gas as a starting point. Be sure to use a noble gas that has
fewer protons, though.
Si:
#e-: _____: _______________________________________
Cu:
#e-: _____: _______________________________________

Ground state- lowest energy level for an electron. (Normal, non-excited state)
Exceptional Electron Configurations:
expected:
[Ar]4s23d4
Cu: expected:
[Ar]4s23d9
actual:
[Ar]4s13d5
actual:
[Ar]4s13d10
2
4
Mo: expected:
[Kr]5s 4d
Ag: expected:
[Kr]5s24d9
actual:
[Kr]5s14d5
actual:
[Kr]5s14d10
2
4
W: expected:
[Xe]6s 5d
Au: expected:
[Xe]6s25d9
actual:
[Xe]6s15d5
actual:
[Xe]6s15d10
Because: Half-filled energy levels are more stable than other partially filled energy levels.
Cr:

5.3 Atomic Emission Spectra and the Quantum Mechanical Model

Electromagnetic radiation - a series of energy waves that includes radio waves, microwaves, visible light,
infrared and ultraviolet light, X-rays, and gamma rays.
Parts of a wave (please label):
amplitude- height of the wave form the origin to the crest
wavelength - - distance between the crests
frequency - - the number of wave cycles to pass a given
point per unit of time.
o The units of frequency are 1/s, s-1, or Hertz (Hz)
= c/
c = speed of light = 3.00 x 108 m/s
As increases, decreases
Ex. A certain wavelength of yellow light has a frequency of 2.73 x 1016s-1. Calculate its wavelength.

Spectrum- series of colors produced when sunlight is

separated by being passed through a prism.
ROY G. BIV
Red: longest wavelength, lowest frequency
Violet: shortest wavelength, highest frequency
Atomic emission spectrum- series of lines of colored light
produced by passing the light emitted by an excited atom
through a prism. An excited electron is one which has moved from its ground state position. This emission
spectrum can be used to identify the element.
The atomic emission spectrum of hydrogen shows three series of lines. The lines in the UV region (Lyman
series) represent electrons falling to n=1, lines in the visible region (Balmer series) represent electrons falling to
n = 2 and lines in the IR region (Paschen series) represent electrons falling to n =3.
Max Planck found that the energy emitted or absorbed by a body changes only in small discrete units he called
quanta. He determined that the amount of radiant energy, E, absorbed or emitted by a body is proportional to
the frequency of the radiation.

E = h
Einstein studied the photoelectric effect whereby light of sufficient frequency
shining on a metal causes current to flow. The amplitude of the radiation was not
E = energy
important, the frequency was. This told him that the light must be in particles, each
= frequency
having a given energy. Einstein proposed that electromagnetic radiation can be
h = Plancks constant,
viewed as a stream of particles called photons. In the photoelectric effect, electrons
6.626 x 10-34Js
(called photoelectrons) are ejected by metals (esp. alkali) when light of sufficient
frequency shines on them. Red light wont work. Photoelectric cells convert light energy into electrical energy.
They are used in automatically opening doors and security systems.
Energy of a photon: E = h
Example: Calculate the energy of an individual photon of yellow light having a frequency of 2.73 x 1016 s-1.

Louis deBroglie suggested that very small particles like electrons might also display
wave properties. DeBroglie's equation is used to find the wavelength of a particle.
It was derived from Einsteins special theory of relativity (E=mc2). It was
determined that matter behaves as though it were moving in a wave. This is
important in small objects such as electrons but is negligible in larger objects such
as baseballs. Heavy objects have very short wavelengths.
Ex. Calculate the wavelength of an electron traveling at 1.24 x 107m/s. The mass
of an electron is 9.11 x 10-28g.

deBroglie's equation
= h
mv
m = mass in kg
v = velocity in m/s
h = Plancks constant =
6.626 x 10-34J.s

Heisenbergs Uncertainty Principle -it is impossible to determine accurately both the momentum and the
position of an electron simultaneously.
We detect motion by electromagnetic radiation. This interaction disturbs electrons.

Chapter 5 Terminology Review

Use this completions exercise to check your understanding of the concepts and terms that are introduced in this
chapter. Each blank can be completed with a term, short phrase, or number.
Atoms of each element are (1) from the atoms of all the other elements.
Dalton theorized that atoms are indivisible, but the discovery of (2)
particles changed his theory. We now know that atoms are made up of
electrons, which have a (3) charge; (4), which have a positive charge;
and (5), which are neutral. The latter two particles are found in the (6)
of the atom.
It was (7) who discovered the nucleus of the atom. The nucleus has a
(8) charge and it occupies a very small volume of the atom. In contrast,
the negatively charged (9) occupy most of the volume of the atom.
The number of (10) in the nucleus of the atom is the atomic (11) of that
number. Because atoms are electrically neutral, the number of protons
and (12) in an atom are equal. The sum of the (13) and neutrons is the
mass number. Atoms of the same element are identical in most respects,
but they can different in the number of (14) in the nucleus. Atoms that
have the same number of protons but different mass numbers are called
(15).
The (16) of an element is the weighted average of the masses of the
32

34

isotopes of that element. Two isotopes of silver are 16 S and 16 S . An

atom of the sulfur-32 isotope contains (17) protons and (18) neutrons.
The sulfur-34 isotope has (19) protons and (20) neutrons.
Each of the three known isotopes of hydrogen has (21) proton(s) in the
nucleus. The most common hydrogen isotope has (22) neutrons. It has
an atomic mass of (23) amu and is called hydrogen-1 (protium).

1. ___________________
2. ___________________
3. ___________________
4. ___________________
5. ___________________
6. ___________________
7. ___________________
8. ___________________
9. ___________________
10. ___________________
11. ___________________
12. ___________________
13. ___________________
14. ___________________
15. ___________________
16. ___________________
17. ___________________
18. ___________________
19. ___________________
20. ___________________
21. ___________________
22. ___________________
23. ___________________

Quantum Number Worksheet

Which of the following is a possible set of quantum numbers? If it is not possible explain why.
#

ml

ms

1.

2.

3.

-1

4.

Possible? Yes or No (If no, why?)

5.

-2

6.

-3

7.

8.

9.

-1

10.

Light, Matter and Wave Mechanics Worksheet

1. The laser in an audio compact disc player uses light with a wavelength of 7.80 x 102 nm. What is the
frequency of this light? What is the energy of a single photon of this light?

2. It takes 492 kJ to remove one mole of electrons from the surface of solid gold. How much energy does it
take to remove a single electron from the surface of gold? What is the maximum wavelength of light capable of
doing this?

3. Calculate the wavelength of the fastest measured fast ball (a 5.2 oz baseball with a velocity of 100.8 mph).
16 oz = 1 pound, 1 pound = 0.45359 kg, 1 mile = 1.6093 km

Chapters 5 and 13 Practice Test

Multiple Choice: Choose the best answer: (2 pts each)
1. Which of the following is NOT part of Daltons atomic theory?
A. All elements are composed of atoms.
D. Atoms that combine do so in simple wholeB. Atoms are always in motion.
number rations.
C. Atoms of the same element are identical
2. Who was the first person to suggest the idea of atoms, in the 4th century B.C.?
A. Atomos
B. Dalton
C. Democritus
D. Galileo
E. Aristotle
3. The nucleus of the atom:
A. is positively charged and has a high density.
B. is positively charged and has a low density.

C. is negatively charged and has a high density.

D. is negatively charged and has a low density.

4. The number of neutrons in the nucleus can be calculated by:

A. adding together the number of electrons and protons.
B. subtracting the number of electrons from the number of protons.

C. subtracting the number of protons from the mass number.

D. adding the mass number to the number of electrons
5. Isotopes of the same element have different:
A. numbers of neutrons
B. numbers of protons

C. numbers of electrons

D. atomic numbers

6. The number 84 in the name krypton-84 represents:

A. the atomic number
C. The sum of the protons and electrons
B. the mass number
D. none of these
7. A neutron is a:
A. hadron

B. lepton

8. Who discovered the nucleus?

A. Rutherford
B. Chadwick

C. meson
C. Thomson

D. flavor of quark
D. Dalton

9. Using the periodic table, determine the number of neutrons in uranium-238.

A. 92
B. 238
C. 146
D. 235
E. 155
10. Which set of quantum numbers is correct for an electron in a 3d sublevel?
A. 3,3,0,1/2
B. 3,2,0,1/2
C. 3,1,0,-1/2
D. 3,2,3,1/2
11. Which set of quantum numbers could represent the outermost electron in a Na atom (ground state)?
A. 2,0,0,-1/2
B. 3,1,0,1/2
C. 3,0,0,1/2
D. 2,1,0,1/2
12. The atomic mass of an element:
A. depends upon the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.
B. depends upon the mass of each isotope of that element
C. depends upon the relative abundance of each isotope of the element.
D. all of the above
13. The particles that hold quarks together are called:
A. stickons
B. leptons
C. flavors
D. gluons
14. The electrons mass is _________ the mass of a proton.
A. less than
B. more than C. approximately equal to
15. In Thomsons Plum Pudding Model of the atom:
A. the positive charge is concentrated in the nucleus.
B. the positive charge is diffuse with negatively charged particles distributed throughout.
C. the negative charge is concentrated in the center of the atom
D. electrons and protons comprise the nucleus
16. Which radiation has the shortest wavelength?
A. x-ray
B. visible
C. infrared

D. ultraviolet

17. Which light has the shortest wavelength?

A. green
B. violet
C. yellow

D. red

18. Which is a set of possible quantum numbers?

A. 4,4,2,1/2
B. 4,3,-4,1/2

C. 4,3,2,-1/2

D. 4,3,2,1

19. Which element has a partially-filled f subshell?

A. Ba

B. Eu

C. Re

D. Bi

20. How many orbitals have the quantum numbers n = 4 and l = 2?

A. 1

B. 3

C. 5

D. 7

21. For which element is the "last electron" added to a d orbital?

A. Ba

B. Nd

C. Hf

D. Pb

22. The most abundant isotope of hydrogen is:

A. protium
B. deuterium
C. tritium

d. quatrium

23. If Q is the symbol for an element, which two of the following symbols represent isotopes of
the same element?
A. 1&2

1.

20
10

B. 3&4

2.

20
11

C. 1&4

21

3.

4.

21
10

D. 2&3

24. Complete the following table (20 pts)

Symbol

14
6

Atomic
number
8

Mass number

# of protons

# of electrons

# of neutrons
8

C
14

7
20

11

21

23

Problems: Show all of your work.

25. Calculate the average atomic mass of element X, given that it consists of the following percentages of
isotopes with masses shown: (8 pts)
67
X , 50.00%, 66.941 amu; 69 X , 30.00%, 68.939 amu 71 X , 20.00%, 70.937 amu

26. Identify each of the following elements: (6 pts)

A.

35
17

X ___

B.

192
77

X ___

C.

131
54

X ___

27. List the six flavors of quarks (6 pts):

28. How many unpaired electrons are in a nitrogen atom?

29. The maximum number of electrons in an atom that can have a quantum number n=3 and l=2 is ____.
30. How many electrons in a titanium atom have n=3 and l=2? _________
31. Light and matter have wave and particle characteristics. What do you call a particle of light?
32. How do you calculate the energy of this particle? (include units & constant)
33. What is the maximum number of electrons a 2d sublevel can hold?
34. Calculate the wavelength of a particle weighing 1.00g and traveling 200. km/min.
35. Write the complete electron configurations (long or short-hand version) for: radon and chromium.

Extra Credit: (5 pts)

What would be the quantum numbers for element 118, when it is found?