Chapter No2: Role and Importance of protection

schemes in power system.

Contents:
1.1

2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 General considerations
2.1.2 Role of protection in a power station

2.2 System and substation layout

2.2.1 System layout
2.2.2 Substation layout (electrical)
2.2.3 Current transformer location
2.3 System earthing
2.3.1 Neutral-earthing methods
2.3.2 Special cases of resistance earthing

2.3 Faults
2.4.1Faults and other abnormalities
2.4.2 Nature and causes of faults
2.4.3 Fault statistics

2.4 Basic terms used in protection

2.5 Necessity for back-up protection
2.6 Economic considerations
2.6.1 General
2.6.2 Distribution systems
2.6.3 Transmission systems

Chapter No3: Protection Principles and

Components
3.1Fundamental principles
3.1.1 Methods of discrimination

3.1.2 Derivation of relaying quantities

3.1.3 Combined overcurrent and earth fault relays
3.1.4 Derivation of a representative single-phase
quantity from a three-phase system

3.2 Components of protection

3.2.1 Relays
3.2.2 Current transformers
3.2.3 Voltage transforming devices
3.2.4 Capacitor dividers
3.2.5 H.F. capacitor couplers
3.2.6 Line traps
3.2.7 Circuit-breakers
3.2.8Tripping and other auxiliary supplies
3.2.9Fuses, small wiring, terminals and test links
3.2.10 Pilot circuits

Chapter No4: Protective relays

4.1 Zone Protection
4.2 Fault Detection
4.3 Differential Protection
4.4 Overcurrent Protection
4.5 Distance Protection
4.6 Overvoltage Protection
4.7 Undervoltage Protection
4.8 UnderFrequency Protection
4.9 Reverse current Protection
4.10 Phase unbalance Protection
4.11 Reverse Phase rotation Protection
4.12 Thermal Protection

Chapter No:02
Role and Importance of protection schemes in
power system.
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 General considerations:
The history of electrical-power technology throughout the world is one of steady and, in
recent years, rapid progress, which has made it possible to design and construct
economic and reliable power systems capable of satisfying the continuing growth in the
demand for electrical energy. In this, power system protection and control play a
significant part, and progress in design and development in these fields has necessarily
had to keep pace with advances in the design of primary plant, such as generators,
transformers, switchgear, overhead lines and underground cables, Indeed, progress in
the fields of protection and control is a vital prerequisite for the efficient operation and
continuing development of power supply systems as a whole, This work, in three
volumes, deals with all the relevant aspects of protection in current British practice for
generation, transmission and distribution systems, The subject matter has been divided
into a number of discrete chapters covering, as completely as is necessary for the
purpose of the work, general principles, design and performance and, by no means of
least importance, application. The purpose of the present chapter is to provide the
background knowledge necessary to a proper understanding of the aims and the role of
protection in a power system.
The word 'protection' is used here to describe the whole concept of protecting a power
system. The term 'protective gear' (or 'protective equipment') is widely used in that
sense: but here that term will be used in the narrower sense of the actual components
used in achieving the desired protection.
The function of protective equipment is not the preventive one its name would imply, in
that it takes action only after a fault has occurred: it is the ambulance at the foot of the

cliff rather than the fence at the top. Exceptions to this are the Buchholz protector, a
gas-operated device which is capable of detecting the gas accumulation produced by
an incipient fault in a power transformer, and the surge arrester which is designed to
prevent a dangerous rise of potential, usually between earth and the conductor or
terminal to which it is connected. As commonly used, 'protective gear' refers to relay
systems and does not embrace the surge arrester, the arc suppression coil and similar
preventive devices.

2.1.2 Role of protection in a power station:

We begin with this so that the subject can be seen in its proper perspective. It is fair to
say that without discriminative protection it would be impossible to operate a modern
power system. The protection is needed to remove as speedily as possible any element
of the power system in which a fault has developed. So long as the fault remains
connected, the whole system may be in jeopardy from three main effects of the fault,
namely:
(a) it is likely to cause the individual generators in a power station, or groups of
generators in different stations, to lose synchronism and fall out of step with consequent
splitting of the system;
(b) a risk of damage to the affected plant; and
(c) a risk of damage to healthy plant.
There is another effect, not necessarily dangerous to the system, but important from the
consumers' viewpoint, namely, a risk of synchronous motors in large industrial premises
falling out of step and tripping out, with the serious consequences that entails loss of
production and interruption of vital processes. It is the function of the protective
equipment, in association with the circuit breakers, to avert these effects. This is wholly
true of large h.v. networks, or transmission systems. In the lower-voltage distribution
systems, the primary function of protection is to maintain continuity of supply. This, in
effect, is achieved incidentally tn transmission systems if the protection operates

correctly to avert the effects mentioned above; indeed it must be so, because the
ultimate aim is to provide 100 per cent continuity of supply. Obviously this aim cannot be
achieved by the protection alone. In addition the power system and the distribution
networks must be so designed that there are duplicate or multiple outlets from power
sources to load centres (adequate generation may be taken for granted), and at least
two sources of supply (feeders) to each distributing station. There are certain
conventional ways of ensuring alternative supplies, as we shall see, but if full advantage
is to be taken of their provision (always a costly matter) the protection must be highly
selective in its functioning. For this tt must possess the quality known as discrimination,
by virtue of which it is able to select and to disconnect only the faulty element in the
power system, leaving all others in normal operation so far as that may be possible.
With a few exceptions the detection and tripping of a faulty circuit is a very simple
matter; the art and skill lie in selecting the faulty one, bearing in mind that many circuits
- generators, transformers, feeders - are usually affected, and in much the same way by
a given fault, This accounts for the multiplicity of relay types and systems in use. Other
chapters will explain their intricacies.

2.2 System and substation layout

2.2.1 System layout:
Turning now to the matter of system layout, with particular reference to the

implications it has for protection, power systems, and especially distribution systems,
can in general be arranged as:
(a) radial feeders
(b) parallel feeders

Fig:2.2.1(A) Radial System

(c) ring systems
(d) combinations of (a), (b) and (c).
Arrangement (a) does not satisfy the requirements of a duplicate supply, unless there is
a source of generation at each end (Fig. 2.2.1A): nevertheless, discriminative protection
is needed to limit the extent of the dislocation of supply. Arrangement

Radial System

Ring System

Fig:2.2.1(B) Typical Applications Of Parallel Feeders.

(b), two applications of which are shown in Fig. 2.2.1B, provides a satisfactory
duplicate supply. Arrangement (c) is, in effect, a logical extension of the idea of two
parallel feeders. In its simplest form (Fig. 2.2.1C) it provides a duplicate supply
to every substation, provided that the ring is closed. When the ring is open the system
reverts to one of two radial feeders. In the more complex form of Fig. 1.2.1D with
interconnecting (tie)lines and multiple power sources - a form suited to a transmission
system - more sophisticatedforms of protection are needed than would be acceptable
for the simple ring system if the aims of the protection, as already defined, are to be
fulfiUed. In thisform can be discerned also combinations of (a), (b) and (c).

Fig: 2.2.1 (C) Ring Main System.

Fig:2.2.1(D). Interconnected Power System.

2.2.2 Substation layout (electrical):

This topic is relevant to the subject inasmuch as the electrical connections of a
substation can affect the protection, albeit in minor and rather subtle ways.
Substations, with which can be grouped switching stations, are points in a power
system where transmission lines or distribution feeders are marshalled for purposes
of controlling load flow and general switching for maintenance purposes, and to
which supplies are taken from generating stations and transformed in voltage, if
necessary, for distribution.
Although substations differ greatly in size, construction, cost and complexity
according to voltage, location and function, the feature they all have in common is

the marshalling of all the associated circuits, through circuit-breakers, or switches,

on to busbars (see Fig. 2.2.2A). Herein lies one of the ways in which protection is
affected
Figure?

2.2.3 Current transformer location:

2.3 System earthing:
2.3.1 Neutral-earthing methods:
2.3.2 Special cases of resistance earthing:

2.3 Faults
2.4.1Faults and other abnormalities:
2.4.2 Nature and causes of faults:
2.4.3 Fault statistics:

2.4 Basic terms used in protection

2.5 Necessity for back-up protection
2.6 Economic considerations
2.6.1 General:
2.6.2 Distribution systems:
2.6.3 Transmission systems:

Chapter No3: Protection Principles and

Components
3.1Fundamental principles

3.1.1 Methods of discrimination:

3.1.2 Derivation of relaying quantities:
3.1.3 Combined overcurrent and earth fault relays:
3.1.4 Derivation of a representative single-phase
quantity from a three-phase system:

3.2 Components of protection

3.2.1 Relays:
3.2.2 Current transformers:
3.2.3 Voltage transforming devices:
3.2.4 Capacitor dividers:
3.2.5 H.F. capacitor couplers:
3.2.6 Line traps:
3.2.7 Circuit-breakers:
3.2.8Tripping and other auxiliary supplies:
3.2.9Fuses, small wiring, terminals and test links:
3.2.10 Pilot circuits:

Chapter No4:Protective relays

Introduction To Protective Relays:

A particular type of equipment applied to electric power systems to detect abnormal and
intolerable conditions and to initiate appropriate corrective actions. These devices
include lightning arresters, surge protectors, fuses, and relays with associated circuit
breakers, reclosers, and so forth.
a protective relay is a device designed to trip a circuit breaker when a fault is detected.
The first protective relays were electromagnetic devices, relying on coils operating on
moving parts to provide detection of abnormal operating conditions such as overcurrent, over-voltage, reverse power flow, over- and under- frequency. Microprocessorbased digital protection now emulate the original devices, as well as providing types of
protection and supervision impractical with electromechanical relays. In many cases a
single microprocessor relay provides functions that would take two or more
electromechanical devices. By combining several functions in one case, numerical
relays also save capital cost and maintenance cost over electromechanical relays.
However, due to their very long life span, tens of thousands of these "silent sentinels"
are still protecting transmission lines and electrical apparatus all over the world. An
important transmission line or generator unit will have cubicles dedicated to protection,
with many individual electromechanical devices, or one or two microprocessor relays.

4.1 Zone Protection:

To limit the extent of the power system that is disconnected when a fault occurs,
protection is arranged in zones. Ideally, the zones of protection should overlap, so that
no part of the power system is left unprotected.

For practical physical and economic reasons, this ideal is not always achieved,
accommodation for current transformers being in some cases available only on one side
of the circuit breakers. This leaves a section between the current transformers and the
circuit breaker A that is not completely protected against faults. In Figure 2 b) a fault at F
would cause the busbar protection to operate and open the circuit breaker but the fault
may continue to be fed through the feeder. The feeder protection, if of the unit type,
would not operate, since the fault is outside its zone. This problem is dealt with by
intertripping or some form of zone extension, to ensure that the remote end of the
feeder is tripped also. The point of connection of the protection with the power system
usually defines the zone and corresponds to the location of the current transformers.
Unit type protection will result in the boundary being a clearly defined closed loop.
Figure 3 illustrates a typical arrangement of overlapping zones.
Alternatively, the zone may be unrestricted; the start will be defined but the extent (or
reach) will depend on measurement of the system quantities and will therefore be
subject to variation, owing to changes in system conditions and measurement errors.

Fig: 1

Fig: 2 (a&b)

Fig: 3

4.2 Fault Detection

Fault detection is accomplished by a number of techniques. Some of the common
methods are the detection of changes in electric current or voltage levels, power
direction, ratio of voltage to current, temperature, and comparison of the electrical
quantities flowing into a protected area with the quantities flowing out. The lastmentioned is known as differential protection

4.3 Differential Protection

The relays used in power system protection are of different types. Among them
differential relay is very commonly used relay for protecting transformers and
generators from localised faults.
Differential relays are very sensitive to the faults occurred within the zone of protection
but they are least sensitive to the faults that occur outside the protected zone. Most of
the relays operate when any quantity exceeds beyond a pre-determined value for
example over current relay operates when current through it exceeds pre-determined
value. But the principle of differential relay is somewhat different. It operates depending
upon the difference between two or more similar electrical quantities.

Definition of Differential Relay

The differential relay is one that operates when there is a difference between two or
more similar electrical quantities exceeds a pre-determined value. In differential relay
scheme circuit, there are two currents come from two parts of an electrical power circuit.
These two currents meet at a junction point where a relay coil is connected. According
to Kirchhoff Current Law, the resultant current flowing through the relay coil is nothing
but summation of two currents, coming from two different parts of the electrical power
circuit. If the polarity and amplitude of both currents are so adjusted that the phasor sum
of these two currents, is zero at normal operating condition. Thereby there will be no
current flowing through the relay coil at normal operating conditions. But due to any
abnormality in the power circuit, if this balance is broken, that means the phasor sum of
these two currents no longer remains zero and there will be non-zero current flowing
through the relay coil thereby relay being operated.
In current differential scheme, there are two sets of current transformer each connected
to either side of the equipment protected by differential relay. The ratio of the current
transformers are so chosen, the secondary currents of both current transformers
matches each other in magnitude. The polarity of current transformers are such that the
secondary currents of these CTs opposes each other. From the circuit is clear that only
if any non-zero difference is created between this to secondary currents, then only this
differential current will flow through the operating coil of the relay. If this difference is
more than the pick-up value of the relay, it will operate to open the circuit breakers to
isolate the protected equipment from the system. The relaying element used in
differential relay is attracted armature type instantaneously relay since differential
scheme is only adapted for clearing the fault inside the protected equipment in other
words differential relay should clear only internal fault of the equipment hence the
protected equipment should be isolated as soon as any fault occurred inside the
equipment itself. They need not be any time delay for coordination with other relays in
the system.

Types of Differential Relay

There are mainly two types of differential relay depending upon the principle of
operation. 1. Current Balance Differential Relay 2. Voltage Balance Differential Relay
In current differential relay two current transformers are fitted on the either side of the
equipment to be protected. The secondary circuits of CTs are connected in series in
such a way that the carry secondary CT current in same direction. The operating coil of
the relaying element is connected across the CTs secondary circuit. Under normal
operating conditions, the protected equipment (either power transformer or alternator)
carries normal current. In this situation, say the secondary current of CT 1 is I1 and
secondary current of CT2 is I2. It is also clear from the circuit that the current passing
through the relay coil is nothing but I1-I2. As we said earlier, the current transformers
ratio and polarity are so chosen, I1 = I2, hence there will be no current flowing through
the relay coil. Now if any fault occurs external to the zone covered by the CTs, faulty
current passes through primary of the both current transformers and thereby secondary
currents of both current transformers remain same as in the case of normal operating
conditions. Therefore at that situation the relay will not be operated. But if any ground fault
occurred inside the protected equipment as shown, two secondary currents will be no
longer equal. At that case the differential relay is being operated to isolate the faulty

equipment (transformer or alternator) from the system.

Principally this type of relay systems suffers from some disadvantages
1.

There may be a probability of mismatching in cable impedance from CT

secondary to the remote relay panel.

2.

These pilot cables capacitance causes incorrect operation of the relay when
large through fault occurs external to the equipment.

3.

Accurate matching of characteristics of current transformer cannot be achieved

hence there may be spill current flowing through the relay in normal operating
conditions.

Percentage Differential Relay

This is designed to response to the differential current in the term of its fractional
relation to the current flowing through the protected section. In this type of relay, there
are restraining coils in addition to the operating coil of the relay. The restraining coils
produce torque opposite to the operating torque. Under normal and through fault
conditions, restraining torque is greater than operating torque. Thereby relay remains
inactive. When internal fault occurs, the operating force exceeds the bias force and
hence the relay is operated. This bias force can be adjusted by varying the number of
turns on the restraining coils. As shown in the figure below, if I 1 is the secondary current
of CT1 and I2 is the secondary current of CT2 then current through the operating coil is I1
- I2 and current through the restraining coil is (I1+ I2)/2. In normal and through fault
condition, torque produced by restraining coils due to current (I 1+ I2)/2 is greater than
torque produced by operating coil due to current I 1- I2 but in internal faulty condition
these become opposite. And the bias setting is defined as the ratio of (I 1- I2) to (I1+ I2)/2

It is clear from the above explanation, greater the current flowing through the restraining
coils, higher the value of the current required for operating coil to be operated. The relay
is called percentage relay because the operating current required to trip can be
expressed as a percentage of through current.

CT Ratio and Connection for Differential Relay

This simple thumb rule is that the current transformers on any star winding should be
connected in delta and the current transformers on any delta winding should be
connected in star. This is so done to eliminate zero sequence current in the relay circuit.
If the CTs are connected in star, the CT ratio will be I n/1 or 5 A CTs to be connected in
delta, the CT ratio will be In/0.5775 or 5X0.5775 A

Voltage Balance Differential Relay

In this arrangement the current transformer are connected either side of the equipment
in such a manner that EMF induced in the secondary of both current transformers will
oppose each other. That means the secondary of the current transformers from both
sides of the equipment are connected in series with opposite polarity. The differential
relay coil is inserted somewhere in the loop created by series connection of secondary
of current transformers as shown in the figure. In normal operating conditions and also
in through fault conditions, the EMFs induced in both of the CT secondary are equal and
opposite of each other and hence there would be no current flowing through the relay
coil. But as soon as any internal fault occurs in the equipment under protection, these
EMFs are no longer balanced hence current starts flowing through the relay coil thereby
trips circuit breaker.
There are some disadvantages in the voltage balance differential relay such as A multy
tap transformer construction is required to accurate balance between current
transformer pairs. The system is suitable for protection of cables of relatively short
length otherwise capacitance of pilot wires disturbs the performance. On long cables the
charging current will be sufficient to operate the relay even if a perfect balance of
current transformer achieved.
These disadvantages can be eliminated from the system by introducing Translay
system which is nothing but modified balance voltage differential relay system. Translay
scheme is mainly applied for differential protection of feeders. Here, two sets of current

transformers are connected either end of the feeder. Secondary of each current
transformer is fitted with individual double winding induction type relay. The secondary
of each current transformer feeds primary circuit of double winding induction type relay.
The secondary circuit of each relay is connected in series to form a closed loop by
means of pilot wires. The connection should be such that, the induced voltage in
secondary coil of one relay will oppose same of other. The compensating device
neutralises the effect of pilot wires capacitance currents and effect of inherent lack of
balance between the two current transformers. Under normal conditions and through
fault conditions, the current at two ends of the feeder is same thereby the current
induced in the CTs secondary would also be equal. Due to these equal currents in the
CTs secondary, the primary of each relay induce same EMF. Consequently, the EMF
induced in the secondaries of the relays are also same but the coils are so connected,
these EMFs are in opposite direction. As a result, no current will flow through the pilot
loop and thereby no operating torque is produced either of the relays. But if any fault
occurs in the feeder within the zone in between current transformers, the current leaving
the feeder will be different from the current entering into the feeder. Consequently, there
will be no equality between the currents in both CT secondaries. These unequal
secondary CT currents will produce unbalanced secondary induced voltage in both of
the relays. Therefore, current starts circulating in the pilot loop and hence torque is
produced in both of the relays. As the direction of secondary current is opposite into
relays, therefore, the torque in one relay will tend to close the trip contacts and at the
same time torque produced in other relay will tend to hold the movement of the trip
contacts in normal un-operated position. The operating torque depends upon the
position and nature of faults in the protected zone of feeder. The faulty portion of the
feeder is separated from healthy portion when at least one element of either relay
operates.
This can be noted that in Translay protection scheme, a closed copper ring is fitted with
the Central limb of primary core of the relay. These rings are utilised to neutralise the
effect of pilot capacity currents. Capacity currents lead the voltage impressed of the pilot
by 90 and when they flow in low inductive operating winding, produce flux that also

leads the pilot voltage by 90. Since the pilot voltage is that induced in the secondary
coils of the relay, it lags by a substantial angle behind the flux in the field magnetic air
gap. The closed copper rings are so adjusted that the angle is approximately 90. In this
way fluxes acting on the disk are in phase and hence no torque is exerted in the relay
disc.

4.4 Over-current Protection:

Introduction:
As the fault impedance is less than load impedance, the fault current is more than
load current. If a short circuit occurs the circuit impedance is reduced to a low value and
therefore a fault is accompanied by large current.
Over-current protection is that protection in which the relay picks up when the
magnitude of current exceeds the pickup level.
The basic element in Over-current protection is an Over-current relay.
The Over-current relays are connected to the system, normally by means of CT's.

Over-current relaying has following types:

1.

High speed Over-current protection.

2.

Definite time Over-current protection.

3.

Inverse minimum time Over-current protection.

4.

Directional Over-current protection (of above types).

Over-current protection includes the protection from overloads. This is most widely
used protection. Overloading of a machine or equipment generally) means the machine
is taking more current than its rated current. Hence with overloading, there is an
associated temperature rise. The permissible temperature rise has a limit based on

insulation class and material problems.

Over-current protection of overloads is generally provided by thermal relays.
Over-current protection includes short-circuit protection. Short circuits a be phase
faults, earth faults or winding faults. Short-circuit currents are generally several times (5
to 20) full load current. Hence fast fault clearance is always desirable on short-circuits.
When a machine is protected by differential protection, the over-current is provided
in addition as a back-up and in some cases to protect the machine from sustained
through fault.
Several protective devices are used for over-current protection these include:
1.

Fuses

2.

Circuit-breakers fitted with overloaded coils or tripped by over-current relays.

3.

Series connected trip coils operating switching devices.

4.

Over-current relays in conjunction with current transformers.

The primary requirements of over-current protection are:

The protection should not operate for starting currents, permissible overcurrent, and current surges. To achieve this, the time delay is provided (in
case of inverse relays). If time delay cannot be permitted, high-set
instantaneous relaying is used.

The protection should be coordinated with neighboring over-current

protections so as to discriminate.

Applications of Over-current Protection

Over-current protection has a wide range of applications. It can be applied where there
is an abrupt difference between fault current within the protected section and that
outside the protected section and these magnitudes are almost constant.

The over-current protection is provided for the following

Motor Protection:
Over-current protection is the basic type of protection used against overloads and shortcircuits in stator windings of motors. Inverse time and instantaneous phase and ground
over-current relays can be employed for motors above 1200 H.P. For small/medium size
motors where cost of CT's and protective relays is not economically justified, thermal
relays and HRC fuses are employed, thermal relays used for overload protection and
HRC fuses for short-circuit protection.

Transformer Protection:
Transformers are provided with over-current protection against faults, only, when the
cost of differential relaying cannot be justified. However, over-current relays are
provided in addition to differential relays to take care of through faults. Temperature
indicators and alarms are always provided for large transformers.
Small transformers below 500 kVA installed in distribution system are generally
protected by drop-out fuses, as the cost of relays plus circuit-breakers is not generally
justified Line Protection.
The lines (feeders) can be protected by
(1)

Instantaneous over-current relays.

(2)

Inverse time over-current relays.

(3)

Directional over-current relay.

Lines can be protected by impedance or carrier current protection also.

Protection of Utility Equipment:

The furnaces, industrial installations commercial, industrial and domestic equipment are
all provided with over-current protection.

4.5 Distance Protection:

There is one type of relay which functions depending upon the distance of fault in
the line. More specifically, the relay operates depending upon the impedance between
the point of fault and the point where relay is installed. These relays are known as
distance relay or impedance relay.

Working Principle of Distance or Impedance Relay:

The working principle of distance relay or impedance relay is very simple. There is
one voltage element from potential transformer and an current element fed from current
transformer of the system. The deflecting torque is produced by secondary current of
CT and restoring torque is produced by voltage of potential transformer. In normal
operating condition, restoring torque is more than deflecting torque. Hence relay will not
operate. But in faulty condition, the current becomes quite large whereas voltage
becomes less. Consequently, deflecting torque becomes more than restoring torque
and dynamic parts of the relay starts moving which ultimately close the No contact of
relay. Hence clearly operation or working principle of distance relay, depends upon the
ratio of system voltage and current. As the ratio of voltage to current is nothing but
impedance a distance relay is also known as impedance relay.

The operation of such relay depends upon the predetermined value of voltage to current
ratio. This ratio is nothing but impedance. The relay will only operate when this voltage
to current ratio becomes less than its predetermined value. Hence, it can be said that
the relay will only operate when the impedance of the line becomes less than
predetermined impedance (voltage / current). As the impedance of a transmission line is
directly proportional to its length, it can easily be concluded that a distance relay can
only operate if fault is occurred within a predetermined distance or length of line.

Types of Distance or Impedance Relay:

There are mainly two types of distance relay1.

Definite distance relay.

2.

Time distance relay.

4.6 Overvoltage Protection:

Lightning in the area near the power lines can cause very short-time
overvoltages in the system and possible breakdown of the insulation. Protection for
these surges consists of lightning arrestors connected between the lines and ground.
Normally the insulation through these arresters prevents current flow, but they
momentarily pass current during the high-voltage transient to limit overvoltage.
Overvoltage protection is seldom applied elsewhere except at the generators, where it
is part of the voltage regulator and control system. In the distribution system,
overvoltage relays are used to control taps of tap-changing transformers or to switch
shunt capacitors on and off the circuits.

4.7 Undervoltage Protection:

This must be provided on circuits supplying power to motor loads. Low-voltage
conditions cause motor to draw excessive currents, which can damage the motors. If a
low-voltage condition develops while the motor is working, the relay senses this
condition and removes the motor from services.
Under-voltage relays can also be used effectively prior to starting large induction
or synchronous motors. These types of motors will not reach their rated speeds if
started under a low-voltage condition. Relays can be applied to measure terminal

voltage, and if it is below a pre-determined value the relay prevents starting of the
motor.

4.8 UnderFrequency Protection:

A loss or deficiency in the generation supply. The
transmission lines, or other components of the system, resulting
primarily from faults, can leave the system with an excess of load.
Solid-state and digital-type under-frequency relays are connected
at various points in the system to detect this resulting decline in
the normal system frequency. They operate at disconnect loads or
to separate the system into areas so that the available generation
equals the load until a balance is re-established.
4.9 Reverse current Protection:
This is provided when a change in the normal direction of current indicates an abnormal
condition in the system. In an a.c circuit, reverse current implies a phase shift of the
current of nearly 180 from normal. This is actually a change in direction of power flow and
can be directed by a.c directional relays.

A common application of reverse-current protection is shown in fig: 4.9 . in this example,

a utility supplies power to an industrial plant having some generation of its own. Under
normal conditions, current flows from the utility to the plant (fig: 4.9a). in the event of a
fault occurring on the utility feeder (fig: 4.9b) the current reverses direction and flow
from the plant to the fault location. The relay operates and trips the circuit breaker ,
isolating the plant from the utility, thus preventing an excessive burden on the plant
generator. Usually in these cases, the plant generator can not carry the plant load, so
that under-frequency relays are used to shed non-critical load. When the utility tie is
restored, the shed loads then can be reconnected for full plant service.

Fig:4.9 reverse current protection. (a) Normal Load Conditions. (b) Internal Fault
Condition; Relay Trip Circuit Breaker Under Reverse-Current Condition.

4.10 Phase unbalance Protection:

This protection is used on feeders supplying motors where there is a possibility of
one phase opening as a result of a fuse failure or a connector failure. One type of relay
compares the current in one phase against the currents in the other phases. When the
unbalance becomes too great, the relay operates. Another type monitors the threephase bus voltages for unbalance. Reverse phases will operate this relay.

4.11 Reverse Phase rotation Protection:

Where direction of rotation is important, electric motors must be protected
against phase reversal. A reverse-phase-rotation relay is applied to sense the phase
rotation. This relay is a miniature three-phase motor with the same desired direction of
rotation as the motor it is protecting. If the direction of rotation is correct, the relay will let
the motor start. If incorrect, the sensing relay will prevent the motor starter from
operating.

4.12 Thermal Protection:

Motors and generators are particularly subject to overheating due to overloading and
mechanical friction. Excessive temperatures leads to deterioration of insulation and

increased losses within the machine. Temperature-sensitive elements, located inside

the machine, from part of a bridge circuit used to supply current to a relay. When a
predetermined temperature is reached, the relay operates, initiating opening of a circuit
breaker or sounding of an alarm.