chapter six

Design of heads and covers

Contents
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4

Introduction ...............................................................................................
Hemispherical heads under internal pressure .....................................
ASME equation for hemispherical heads ..............................................
Example problem 1....................................................................................
6.4.1 Thin-shell theory ............................................................................
6.4.2 Exact theory ................................................................................
6.4.3 ASME equation (assuming E 1) ..............................................
6.5 ASME design equation for ellipsoidal heads .......................................
6.6 ASME equation for torispherical heads.................................................
6.7 Example problem 2....................................................................................
6.7.1 Solution for ASME head using Eq. (6.15)..................................
6.8 ASME design equations for conical heads............................................
6.9 ASME design equations for toriconical heads......................................
6.10 Flat heads and covers................................................................................
6.10.1 Case 1 ...............................................................................................
6.10.2 Case 2 ...............................................................................................
6.11 ASME equation for unstayed flat heads and covers...........................
6.12 Example problem 3....................................................................................
6.12.1 Considering simply supported edges ........................................
6.12.2 Considering clamped edges .........................................................
6.12.3 Considering unstayed plates and covers...................................
References .............................................................................................................

6.1 Introduction
Heads are one of the important parts in pressure vessels and refer to the
parts of the vessel that confine the shell from below, above, and the sides.
The ends of the vessels are closed by means of heads before putting them
into operation.

Copyright 2005 by CRC Press, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

The heads are normally made from the same material as the shell and
may be welded to the shell itself. They also may be integral with the shell in
forged or cast construction. The head geometrical design is dependent on
the geometry of the shell as well as other design parameters such as
operating temperature and pressure.
The heads may be of various types such as:







Flanged
Ellipsoidal
Torispherical
Hemispherical
Conical
Toriconical

The different types of heads are shown in Figure 6.1.

The geometry of the head is selected based on the function as well as on
economic considerations, and methods of forming and space requirements.
The elliptical and torispherical heads are most commonly used. The carbon
steel hemispherical heads are not so economical because of the high
manufacturing costs associated with them. They are thinner than the
cylindrical shell to which they are attached, and require a smooth transition
between the two to avoid stress concentration effects.
The thickness values of the elliptical and torispherical heads are
typically the same as the cylindrical shell sections to which they are
attached. Conical and toriconical heads are used in hoppers and towers.

6.2 Hemispherical heads under internal pressure

The force due to internal pressure is resisted by the membrane stress in the
shell (see Figure 6.2). Because of the geometrical symmetry, the membrane
stresses in the circumferential and the meridional directions are the same,
and are denoted by S. We have
PR2 2RSt
and
S

PR
2t

6:1

where S is the membrane stress, S S ), from symmetry.

The hoop and meridional strains are indicated by " and "
"

w
"
R

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6:2

Figure 6.1 Different types of heads.

(Modified from ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, ASME, New York.)

where w is the radial displacement, and

"R

dw
dR

6:3

The stressstrain relationship is given by

"R

 1
1
S  S S SR  2S 
E R
E

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6:4

Figure 6.2 Hemispherical head.

"

 1
1
S  SR S 1  S  SR 
E 
E

"R

dw
w
; "
dR
R

w R"
"R

dw
d
R"
dR dr

1
1   d
 d
S  2S 
RS 
RSR
" R
E dR
E dR
or

1  

d
d
RS  
RSR  SR 2S 0
dR
dR

From Figure 6.3 the force equilibrium gives



d
d
dSR
2S R dR 2S R dR SR
dR R dRdR dRd
2
2
dR
 SR dRRdRd 0
With S S ; d d

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6:5

Figure 6.3 Equilibrium of a hemispherical element.





dSR
dR R2 2RDRd2  SR R2 d2 0
2RS dRd SR
dR
2

2RS dRd2 SR R2 d2 2RSR dRd2 R2

dSR
dS dR2
dRd2 2R R
dR
dR d2

 SR R2 d2 0

2S 2RSR  R

dSR
dR

1 d
R2 SR
R dR

S 

1 d  2 
R SR
2R dR

Substituting, we have

1   d 1 d
d
 d  2 
RSR  SR 
R SR 0

R2SR  
2 dR R2 dR
dR
R dR

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which gives

d 1 d  3 
R SR 0
R
dR R2 dR
SR

A B

3 R3

6:6

With the boundary conditions specified as

SR P at R Ri
SR 0 at R Ro

6:7

A B
AR3o
3 or B
3 Ro
3

Therefore
A
R3
1  o3
SR
3
Ri

and
A
R3
P
1  o3
3
Ri

This gives
3R3i P
AR3o
; B
3
3
3
Ro  Ri
!
PR3
R3
SR 3 i 3 1  o3
Ro  Ri
R
A

6:8

and
PR
R3
S S 3 i 3 1 o3
2R
Ro  Ri

Copyright 2005 by CRC Press, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

!
6:9

6.3 ASME equation for hemispherical heads

ASME Section VIII Division 1 provides the following equation for internal
pressure.1 This is a compromise between a thin-shell equation and exact
equation.
The design thickness of a hemispherical head is given by
t

PR
25E  0:2P

6:10

where R is the inside radius, S is the allowable shear, and E is the joint
efficiency.

6.4 Example problem 1

A hemispherical head having an inside radius of 380 mm is subjected to an
internal pressure of 28 Megapascals (MPa). This allowable stress is
160 MPa. What is the required thickness using the shell theory and
exact theory, and the ASME equation (assume joint efficiency, E 1)?

6.4.1

Thin-shell theory

From Eq. (6.1) membrane stress

S

PR
2t

or
t

PR 28  380

33:25 mm
2s
320

taking the radius as the inside radius.

6.4.2

Exact theory

Using Eq. (6.9)

PR3
R3
S S S 3 i 3 1 o3
Ro  Ri
2Ri
which simplifies to
s
2S PR3i
Ro
2S  P

Copyright 2005 by CRC Press, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Thus
s
2160 28  3803
413:4 mm
Ro
2160  28
Therefore
t Ro  Ri 413:4  380 33:4 mm

Therefore the assumption of this shell theory is valid here.

6.4.3

ASME equation (assuming E 1)

Using Eq. (6.10)

t

28  380
33:8 mm
21601  0:228

The ASME estimate is conservative in this case.

6.5 ASME design equation for ellipsoidal heads

For an internal pressure P, the thickness t of the ellipsoidal head is given by
t

PDK
2SE  0:2P

6:111

where D diameter of the shell to which the head is attached, E joint

efficiency, S allowable stress, and K stress intensity factor.
K is given by the following expression:
K

a2

1
2
6
b

6:12

where a and b are the semi-major and semi-minor axes of the ellipse.

6.6 ASME equation for torispherical heads

For an internal pressure P, the thickness of the torispherical head is given by
t

PLM
2SE  0:2P

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6:131

where L spherical cross radius, S allowable stress, E joint efficiency,

and M shear intensity factor. M, the stress intensity factor
1
3
M
4

r!
L
r

6:14

where r is the knuckle radius. The special case when the knuckle radius is 6
percent of the spherical crown radius, or r 0.06L is known as ASME head.
For the ASME head, M 1.77 (from Eq. (6.14)) and the thickness t is then
given by
t

0:885PL
SE  0:1P

6:15

It turns out that for large ratios of R/t, the knuckle region of the head is
prone to buckling under internal pressure. Based on plastic analysis,1 the
following expression is used for t:
r
 r 2
 r 2

t
ln 1:26177  4:55246
0:66299  2:24709

28:9133
l
D
D
D

r
 r 2
P
ln :
0:66299  2:24709
15:62899
D
D
S

r
 r 2
 P2
0:26879  104  0:44262
ln
1:88783
D
D
S
where L crown radius, r knuckle radius, D diameter of the shell to
which the head is attached, and S allowable stress.

6.7 Example problem 2

What is the required thickness of a torispherical head attached to a shell of
diameter 6 mm, to have a crown radius of 6 mm and a knuckle radius of
360 mm? (ASME head r/L 0.06). The allowable stress is 120 MPa and the
internal pressure is 345 KPa.

6.7.1

Solution for ASME head using Eq. (6.15)

t

0:885PL
SE  0:1P

Copyright 2005 by CRC Press, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

assuming E 1. With S 120 MPa, we have

t

0:8850:3456
0:0153 m 15:3mm
1201  0:10:345

The thickness is small compared to the diameter of the head and should
be checked for buckling at the knuckle region of the head.
We also have
r
0:36

0:06
D
6
P 0:345

0:002875
S
120
P
5:8517
S


P 2
ln
34:2424
S
ln

6:16

We have using Eq. (6.16)


t
1:26177  4:552460:06 28:933160:062
l


0:66299  2:47090:06 15:682990:062  5:8517


0:26879  104  0:442620:06 1:887830:062 34:2424
ln

1:26177  0:27315 0:10416  5:85170:66299  0:13483 0:05646

34:8240:26879  104  0:02656 0:0680  5:53897
This gives t/L 0.00393, or t (60000)(0.00393) 23.6 mm. Hence a
minimum thickness 23.6 mm is required. The design is therefore dictated
by stability of the knuckle region of the head.

6.8 ASME design equations for conical heads

ASME Code Section VIII Division I provides the following equation for
thickness t of conical heads subjected to an internal pressure P.1 With  as
the semi-apex angle of the cone
t

PD
2 cos SE  0:6P

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6:17

where D is the inside diameter of cone measured perpendicular to

longitudinal axis, S is the allowable stress, and E is the joint efficiency

6.9 ASME design equations for toriconical heads

A toriconical head is a blend of conical and torispherical heads.
Accordingly, the thickness, tc in the cone region is calculated using conical
head equations and that in the head transition section is calculated using
torispherical head equations.
Referring to Figure 6.4 for the conical region we have, using Eq. (6.17),
tc

PD1
2 cos SE  0:6P

6:18

and for the torispherical region using Eq. (6.13)

tk

PLM
2SE  0:2P

6:19

where
L

D1
2 cos 

and
1
3
M
4

r!
L
r

from Eq. (6.14)

A pressure vessel designer generally has flexibility in selecting head
geometry. Most common is of course the torispherical head, which is
characterized by inside diameter, crown radius, and knuckle radius. The
designer selects a head configuration that minimizes the total cost of the
plate material and its formation.

Figure 6.4 Toriconical head.

Copyright 2005 by CRC Press, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

6.10 Flat heads and covers

Flat heads or covers are used widely as closures to pressure vessels. They
are either integrally formed with the shell, or may be attached by bolts.
Figure 6.5 shows some typical designs of covers.

6.10.1

Case 1

A simply supported circular plate of radius R and thickness t subjected to

uniform pressure P. The deflection at the center of this plate is a maximum
and this value is given by2,3
max

5  PR4

1  64D

6:20

Et3
121  2

6:21

where
D

where t plate thickness.

The stress is a maximum at the bottom surface2,3
Sr max S max

6.10.2

33  PR2
8
t2

6:22

Case 2

A circular plate is clamped around outer periphery and subjected to

uniform pressure P. The maximum deflection occurs at the center of the
plate where the value is2,3
max

PR4
64D

6:23

The maximum radial and tangential stresses are given by2,3

Sr max

3PR2
4t2

6:24

occurring at the edge and at the top surface, and

S max

31  PR2
8
t2

occurring at the center and the top surface of the plate.

Copyright 2005 by CRC Press, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

6:25

Figure 6.5 Cover plate designs. (Modified from ASME Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code, ASME, New York.)
Copyright 2005 by CRC Press, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

6.11 ASME equation for unstayed flat heads and

covers
The thickness of unstayed flat heads and covers subjected to a pressure P,
and an allowable stress S with a joint efficiency E, for a variety of cases
characterized by the constant C, is given by
r
CP
td
SE

6:261

The cases are shown in Figure 6.5 each with a typical value of C. The
value of C could range anywhere from 0.10 to 0.33.

6.12 Example problem 3

A circular plate of diameter 1 m, forms the cover for a cylindrical pressure
vessel subjected to a pressure of 0.04 MPa. We wish to determine the
thickness of the head if the allowable stress in the material is limited to
120 MPa.

6.12.1

Considering simply supported edges

Using Eq. (6.22) we have

Smax

33  PR2
8
t2

or

120



9:9
500 2
0:04
8
t

500
1208 :1=2

49:24
t
9:90:04
t 10:16 mm

Copyright 2005 by CRC Press, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

6.12.2

Considering clamped edges

Sr jmax > S jmax

500
1204 1=2

63:25
t
0:12
t 7:91 mm

6.12.3

Considering unstayed plates and covers

See Figure 6.5. We have from Eq. (6.26)

r
CP
td
SE
where C 0.100.33 depending on construction, d diameter of the head, P
design pressure, S allowable tensile stress, and E butt weld joint
efficiency. Assuming E 1, then S 120 MPa.
For C 0.10
s
0:100:04
t 1000
5:77 mm
1120
For C 0.33
s
0:330:04
10:49 mm
t 1000
1120

References
1. American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code,
ASME, New York.
2. Timoshenko, S.P., and Woinowsky-Kreiger, S., Theory of Plates and Shells, 2nd
ed., McGraw-Hill, 1959.
3. Roark, R.J. and Young, W.C., Formulas for Stress and Strain, 5th ed., McGrawHill, New York, 1975.

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