Question Bank On Radiation Protection

QUESTION BANK ON RADIATION
PROTECTION
1.
Define - Atom
Atom is the smallest unit of an element exhibiting the properties of that element.
2.
Define - Atomic mass number

The number of protons and number of neutrons in the nucleus of the atom gives
the mass number (A) of the atom
3.
Define - Atomic number,

Number of protons present in the atom gives the atomic number (Z) of the atom.
4.
Define - Isotopes
Atoms with same number of protons but different number of neutrons are called
isotopes. Isotopes may be stable / unstable.
5.
Define - Isobars nuclides
6.
ISOBARS are the nuclei with the same mass number A but different atomic
number Z are called Isobars. The nuclei 8O16 and 7N16 are having same mass
number (A=16) but different atomic number ( Z = 8 & Z =7 ). The isobars are
atoms of different elements and have different chemical and physical properties.
Define - Isotones
ISOTONES are the nuclei with same number of neutrons and with different
number of protons (Z). Some example of the nuclei are 6C14, 7N15 & 8O16 each
nuclei have 8 neutrons in its nucleus.
7.
Define - Isomers
ISOMERS are the nuclei of atom with same Z and A, but they differ from one
another in their energy states and exhibit difference in their internal structure.
These nuclei are distinguished by their transformation timings.
60m
28Ni
8.
9.
60
28Ni
Define - Radioactivity.
It is the process in which an unstable radionuclide spontaneously changes to
another nuclide by emitting particles or energy. The unstable nuclide is said to be
radioactive. The particles/energy emitted is called nuclear radiation.
226
222
+ (alpha)
88Ra
86Rn
60
60
27Co
28Ni + (Beta) + (Gamma)
Define - Decay law.
The number of radioactive nuclides present goes on decreasing with time and
also the disintegration rate. The rate of disintegration is proportional to the
number of radionuclides present at that time. - dN/dt N : - dN/dt = N : N=N0et
: is called decay constant.
10.
Define - Decay constant

In the decay equation - dN/dt = N, is decay or transformation constant in units
of reciprocal seconds. It is the probability of transformation taking place in unit
time.
11.
What does N represent?

The quantity N represent the decay rate dN/dt.
12.
Define half life, short lived and long lived radionuclides.

Some radionuclides decay very fast and some very slow. The time in which the
number of radionuclides reduces to half of its original value is called HALFLIFE.
In case of air borne activity at KAPS, The radionuclides having half life of less
than 30 minutes are termed as short lived activity.
13.
What is radioactive decay equilibrium?

If the daughter product is also radioactive, it will decay into another daughter
product resulting in a chain. The daughter product will be in equilibrium with
parent.
i)
ii)
iii)
14.
Secular equilibrium T1 1/2 >> T2 1/2 or 1 << 2

Transient equilibrium. T1 1/2 > T2 1/2 or 1 < 2
No equilibrium.
What is the unit of radioactivity?

Bequerrel is that quantity of radioactive material in which one atom is
transformed per second.
Curie is that quantity of radioactive material in which 3.7 x 1010 transformation
per second takes place.
15.
Define specific activity. What is the relation between mass and activity?
Activity per unit mass is called specific activity.
Specific Activity =Act/mass=N/NM/Av= Av/M
16.
What is artificial and natural radioactivity?

40
14
Natural radioactivity is the one existing in the nature like K , C , Uranium and
Thorium series.
60 131
Artificial radioactivity is man made radioactivity like Co , I , Fission products
etc.
17.
What are the various sources of natural radiation?

Source
Natural Sources
Cosmic rays
Soil
Water, food
Uranium series
Thorium series
Manmade sources
Medical X Rays
Nuclear Installation
Total
Annual Exposure in Sv
450
150
250
1340
340
200
10 - 20
2000 2400
18.
What is the dose delivered by these sources?

On the average 2 mSv/year dose is delivered by natural sources.
19.
What are the different factors on which the dose due to natural radiation
depends?
Dose due to natural radiation depends on altitude, latitude of the location and
radioactivity present in the earth crust.
20.
What is fission product? Name some fission product

Radionuclides produced after fission reaction are called fission product. e. g.
131
I , Cs137, Sr90
21.
What are the different types of radiation?

Energy emitted by unstable nuclides is called nuclear radiation.
Nuclear radiation is of four types
i)
Alpha Radiation ()
ii)
Beta Radiation ()
iii)
Gamma Radiation ()
iv)
Neutron Radiation (n)
22.
What is particle? Explain alpha decay.
Alpha disintegration occurs mainly in heavy nuclei. (A >200) An alpha particle
consisting of two protons and two neutrons (Helium nucleus) is ejected. After
emission of alpha particle the daughter nucleus will be left with Z-2 protons
(atomic number) and atomic mass of A-4. After emission of alpha particle the
nucleus is still in excited state. This excess energy is emitted in form of
electromagnetic radiation known as Gamma rays.
23.
What is particle? Explain decay.

During the process of disintegration one of the neutron within the nucleus
changes into a proton and a negative electron which is ejected as a particle. In
such a transformation the mass number of the daughter product will remain the
same but the atomic number increases by 1 since there is now one more proton
in the nucleus.
24.
What are rays? Explain decay.

Usually after an alpha decay or beta decay processes, the newly formed daughter
nucleus is left in the excited state. This daughter nucleus thus emits
electromagnetic radiation known as gamma rays to come to the ground state i.e.
stable state. The energy of the gamma radiation is equal to the energy level
difference of the excited state and the ground state of the daughter nucleus.
25.
What is the unit used for expressing the energy of radiation?

Electron volt (eV). It is the energy acquired by an electron when it is accelerated
-12
through a potential difference of 1 volt. 1 eV = 1.6 x 10 erg.
26.
How radiation interacts with matter?

Charged particle interacts with matter directly by causing excitation or ionization
of the atoms in the medium.
Uncharged particle (neutrons) interact indirectly with the atoms of the medium.
Electromagnetic radiation interacts with medium causing Photoelectric effect
(bound), Compton scattering (free), Pair production (E-1.02).
27.
How the Gamma radiation interacts with matter?

i)
Photoelectric effect
In this process inner bound electron is involved. Ejected electron is
known as photoelectron.
5
4
Probability Z / E where Z= Atomic Number
ii) Compton scattering
In this process outer free electron is involved
Probability Z / E
iii) Pair production

This process takes place in the vicinity of the
2
nucleus Probability
Z * ( E-1.02)
28.
How does a charged particle interact with matter? What is excitation?

Charged particle interacts with matter directly by causing excitation or ionization
of the atoms in the medium. Excitation is raising the orbital electrons to its
higher energy level.
29.
What is ionization? What is specific ionization? Which radiation can cause

ionization?
While passing through the medium a fast moving charged particle, on
approaching close to an atom removes an electron from the atom. This is called
ionization.
The rate of energy loss per unit path is called specific ionization. It also
represents the number of ion pairs produced per unit path. Mathematically the
energy loss per unit path is represented by
2 4
2
dE/dx = 4NZz e l/mev
It is seen that the energy loss depends directly on Z of medium and inversely on
energy of the particle.
30.
Explain attenuation of gamma rays in matter? Explain each term?

While passing through the medium, gamma photons are removed so the intensity
falls off in exponential manner.
For absorber of thickness 'x' the attenuation of a narrow collimated beam of
gamma photon, transmitted intensity is given by
-x
I=I0 e
31.
What is relaxation length?

Relaxation length or Mean free path () = 1/. It is the distance a gamma photon
travels through the medium without undergoing any interaction.
32.
What are tenth and half valve layers?

Half Value Layer (HVL) is the thickness of the absorber (material) required to
reduce the radiation intensity to half of its initial value.
Tenth-Value Layer (TVL) is the thickness of the absorber (material) required to
reduce the radiation intensity to one tenth of its initial value.
33.
What is the relation between TVL/ HVL?
I=I0 e- x : I0/10=I0 e- TVL : e- TVL=1/10 : e TVL=10 : TVL=loge 10= TVL :

TVL=2.303/
The ratio of TVL/ HVL is given as
TVL/ HVL = 2.303// 0.693/ = 3.3
34.
How neutrons are produced?

A radioactive source which emits neutrons is not available easily. Hence
neutrons sources are made by utilising nuclear reactions producing neutrons.
i)
FISSION
U235 , U2331 , Pu239
a)U235
+ 0n
F.P. + 0n1 ( 2 or 3 ) + Energy (~ 200 MeV)
252
b) SPONTANEOUS FISSION of Cf ( T1/2 = 2.65 Years
ii) ACCELERATOR
2
2
3
1
DD Reaction: 1H + 1H
2He + 0n + 3.26 MeV.
4
1
DT Reaction: 1H2 + 1H3
2He + 0n + 17.6 MeV.
3
1
7
1
+ 1H
1Li
4Be + 0n + Energy
iii) PHOTO NEUTRON SOURCES
ray emitter used are Ra226, Sb124, Ga72, La140, Na24 . Mono energic neutrons
are produced depending on the gamma energy.
9
8
1
+
4Be
4Be + 0n - 1.66 MeV. (Q)
Drawback : High field associated with neutron sources.
123
Note : Source used in KAPS reactor is Antimony-Beryllium source. Sb
124
gets activated to Sb , which is (1.66MeV) emitter. The interact with
Beryllium giving out photo neutron.
iv) ALPHA NEUTRON SOURCES
226
239
210
Alpha emitting radionuclides like Ra , Pu , Po are used with beryllium to
produce neutrons.
9
12
+ 2He4
+ 0n1 + Energy
4Be
6C
35.
How neutrons are classified?

Neutrons are classified according to its energy
TYPE
ENERGY
Energy below 0.5
Thermal Neutrons
eV ( mostly 0.025
eV)
Intermediate Energy
0.5 eV - 100 KeV
Fast Neutrons
100 KeV - 20 MeV
High Energy
ABOVE 20 MeV
39.
36.
What are the different interactions of neutrons with matter?

1.
Elastic Scattering
2.
Inelastic Scattering
3.
Non-Elastic Scattering Or Nuclear Reactions
4.
Neutron Capture
5.
Fission and Spallation
37.
What is nuclear fission? What is fissile and fertile

material? NUCLEAR FISSION
This is a capture phenomenon in which the incident neutron is capable of
breaking the interacting nucleus into two non-equal fragments with lot of energy.
235
For example,U is fissionable with thermal neutrons with a cross-section of 535
barns and about 200 MeV energy per fission is liberated. Fission has i t s
Importance as it can be used as a continuous source of energy by maintaining a
chain reaction.
235
1
94
140
1
eg.
+ 0n
+ 54Xe + 2 0n +
92U
38Sr
38.
How much energy is released in fission reaction?

200 MeV (~0.2 amu)
Distribution of fission energy
i)
Kinetic energy of fission fragments
ii)
Fission neutron energy
iii)
Prompt gamma rays
iv)
Total
168 MeV
5
"
5
"
200
What is cross section? What is its unit?

The probability of a particular nuclear reaction per unit area is represented by
cross section. It is an imaginary area offered by a nucleus to the neutron to cause
particular reaction. barn=10-24 cm2 is the unit of cross section.
40.
Explain radiological significance of ,, and neutron radiation.

Alpha radiation is least penetrating radiation. Hence it does not cause any harm
externally. External monitoring of alpha radiation is not required. The specific
ionisation of radiation is very high. Hence it is most harmful internally.
Internal contamination / organ dose due to radio nuclides emitting alpha
radiation (e.g.
239
Pu ) is monitored by bio assay technique. Lung monitor is also used for
Monitoring activity in the lungs.
Beta radiation is more penetrating than radiation. It can penetrate the skin
resulting skin dose. TLD is used for monitoring beta dose. Internal contamination
90
/ Dose due to radionuclides emitting beta radiation (e.g. Sr ) is monitored by
bioassay technique.
Gamma radiation is most penetrating radiation. It penetrates through human
body resulting whole body dose. TLD is used for monitoring gamma dose.
Internal contamination / dose due to radionuclides emitting gamma radiation
(e.g. Co60) is monitored by Whole body monitors.
Neutron radiation is penetrating radiation like gamma radiation. The harm/dose
delivered to human body depends on its energy. The radiation weighting factor
varies from 5 to 20 for various energy. The dose is monitored by neutron badges
(CR39)
41.
What are the different materials used for shielding ,, and radiation?
Radiation
42.
Shielding material
No Shielding required, paper
Aluminium
Lead, concrete, water, depleted
Uranium
Hydrogenous material, concrete
Define dose.
43.
Dose meaning absorbed dose, is the energy absorbed from ionising radiation per
unit mass of the material at the point of interest.
Unit of absorbed dose is Gray (Joule per kg) : Old unit is RAD (100 ergs/gm)
Define Radiation weighting factor
The probability of stochastic effects is found to depend on the absorbed dose and
also on type and energy of the radiation causing the dose. WR Depends on type
and energy of radiation. Relative biological effectiveness of the radiation in
causing the particular effect is represented by Radiation Weighting Factor.
Type And Energy Range
Photon of all energies
Electrons, muons of all energies
Neutrons <10 kev
10 kev to 100 kev
100 kev to 2 Mev
2 Mev to 20 Mev
>20 Mev
Protons >20 Mev
- particles, fission fragments
44.
WR
1
1
5
10
20
10
5
5
20
Equivalent dose
Different types of radiation may result in different amount of biological damage.
Equivalent Dose takes into account the absorbed dose and its biological
effectiveness in causing the damage.
HT = RWR.DR
Unit of equivalent dose is Sievert (Joule per kg).
45.
Tissue weighting factor

It is a ratio of the detriment of each tissue specific cancer or hereditary disease
relative to the total aggregated detriment to the whole body.
Tissue or organ
Tissue weighting
factor (WT)
Gonads
0.2
Red Bone marrow
0.12
Colon
0.12
Lung
0.12
Stomach
0.12
Bladder
0.05
Breast
0.05
Liver
0.05
Oesophagus
0.05
Thyroid
0.05
Skin
0.01
Bone surface
0.01
Remainder
0.05
Remainder includes the adrenals, brain, small intestine, upper large intestine,
kidney, muscle, pancreas, spleen, thymus and uterus.
46.
Effective dose
Radiation dose may be delivered uniformly to whole body or to certain organs or
tissues. In order to find out the risk to the whole body due to the damage suffered
by exposed organs, an effective dose to the whole boy is computed.
HE = TWT.HT
Its unit is Sievert
47.
Committed equivalent dose (H50,T)

Committed Equivalent dose to a given organ or tissue from a single intake of
radioactive material into the body is the dose equivalent that will be accumulated
over 50 years, representing the working life. It is the time integral of the dose
equivalent rate following an intake of radionuclide.
t+50
48.
H50 = H(t) dt
Committed effective dose (HE,50)
Committed effective Dose Equivalent is the time integral of the effective dose
equivalent rate following an intake of a radionuclide.
HE50 = t H50(t) WT(t)
49.
What is collective dose?

Collective dose is the sum of the individual doses received by the members in a
population group and is expressed in units of person-Sv or man-rem.
50.
How does radiation interact with cell?

Radiation induces damage in cells either by directly ionising the DNA molecule
or indirectly by producing chemically reactive species namely the radiolytic
products of water. Since the cells contain 80% water, radiolytic products like
o
o
o
radicals H , OH , HO2 , molecular product H2O2 and O2- are formed. Indirect
effects brought by these chemical species account for more than 70% of all the
damage induced by low LET radiations.
51.
What is stochastic effect?

Stochastic Effects result from radiation induced non lethal cell modification.
These are late effects whose occurrence probability is proportional to the dose.
No threshold dose exists for these types of effects. The probability or the risk of
expression of these effects starts from very low dose and goes on increasing with
dose. Radiation carcinogenesis and genetic effects come under this category.
These effects can occur at low dose also. Other environmental agents also cause
these effects.
52.
What is deterministic effect?

Deterministic (Non stochastic) effects are caused as a result of accidental
exposure to large doses of radiation. Large number of cells may have to be killed
for the induction of such damage. The examples of such effects are radiation
sickness, death and damage to individual organs such as skin, bone marrow,
gonads, intestines, eye lens etc. Deterministic effects do not occur below the
threshold doses or following chronic exposures as encountered in occupational
radiation workers.
53.
What is radiation sickness?

Radiation sickness refers to early response to acute whole body radiation
exposures in excess of 1 Sv. The syndrome is characterised by nausea, vomiting,
diarrhea, lack of appetite, fever, headache, dizziness etc. Almost all the exposed
individuals show radiation sickness if the dose is approximately 3 Sv. Time
course of onset of the syndrome and its persistence is dose dependent. At higher
doses (4-6 Sv) the sickness ensues within an hour after exposure, for doses of 12 Sv the sickness may appear after 3 hours.
54.
Explain acute and chronic effects

Acute Effects:
Effect observed after acute exposure (high dose rate in short period of time) is
termed as Acute effects.
Chronic Effects:
Effect observed after Chronic exposure (low dose rate for longer duration of
time) is termed as chronic effects.
55.
What is the aim of radiation protection?

The primary aim of radiological protection is to protect man from radiation while
deriving benefits from nuclear activities.
56.
What is the objective of radiation protection?

The above aim will be achieved with following objectives.
i)
ii)
To prevent deterministic effects, and

To limit the occurrence of stochastic effects in the exposed persons and
their progenies.
57.
What is intervention?
Any human activity, which reduces radiation exposure, is termed as intervention.
Counter measures adopted during radiological emergencies comers under this
category.
58.
i)
What are the dose limits for occupational radiation workers?

The cumulative effective dose constraint for five year block is 100 mSv
for individual radiation workers.
ii)
The annual effective dose to individual workers in any calendar year
during the five year block shall not exceed the limit of 30 mSv.
iii)
The cumulative life-time occupational effective dose limit is 1 Sv (100
rem)
iv)
When the cumulative occupational effective dose reaches 0.5 Sv (50
rem) further exposure of such individual shall be reviewed by medical
authorities.
59.
What are the annual dose limits for skin, lenses of the eyes?
The annual dose limits for skin, lenses of the eyes are 500 , 150 mSv
respectively.
60.
What are the dose limits for temporary workers?

The dose limits for temporary workers are 10 mSv in a month and 15 mSv in a
year.
61.
What is planned exposure and how much it is more than monthly dose
limit? Exposures above monthly investigation level of 10 mSv are planned
during excegencies of work in consultation/ information to head HPD,BARC.
Maximum planned exposure is 15 mSv in a month.
62.
What is emergency exposure?

1) For occupational worker:
- 250 mSv
2) For member of public:
- 100 mSv
63.
What do you understand by over exposure?

Exposures exceeding the investigation level and authorised limit are termed over
exposure.
64.
What is the procedure followed for handling exposure exceeding

investigation level cases?
Over exposure committee handles such cases and gives necessary
recommendation?
65.
66.
Who are the members of the exposure investigation committee?

The committee is having following members.
i)
Chief Superintendent - Convenor
ii)
Health Physicist - Member Secretary
iii)
Section Head of the worker - Member
iv)
Medical Superintendent - Member (In case exposure exceeding
authorised limit)
Who investigates the exposure cases exceeding 2 rem (in a year)?
Apex committee constituted by SARCOP
67.
Who investigates the exposure cases exceeding 10 rem (in 5 years)?

Special committee constituted by AERB in which Head, HPD is one of the
members.
68.
What is the difference between contamination and radiation?

Radiation is emitted by radioactive substance. Contamination is presence of
radioactive substance where it is not expected or desirable. Radiation will be
always present wherever contamination is there. But presence of radioactive
substance does not necessarily imply that contamination is present.
69.
What are external and internal exposures?

Exposures resulting from radioactive substance present outside the body are
called external exposure. Exposures resulting from radioactive substance present
inside the body are called internal exposure.
70.
What are the different ways by which internal contamination is caused?

Internal contamination is caused by i)
Inhalation
ii)
Ingestion.
iii)
Injection
iv)
Absorption through skin.
71.
What are the different methods used for controlling internal

contamination? How the internal contamination is measured?
Whole body counting for gamma emitters, bioassay, urine samples for beta,
alpha emitters.
The different methods used for controlling internal contamination i)
By using respirator in areas having air borne activity.
ii)
By preventing eating and drinking in controlled area.
iii)
By using proper protective clothing.
iv)
By covering the injuries or preventing entries of persons to
contaminated areas of persons having injuries.
72.
What is ALI?
It is the amount of that radio nuclide in an year which would result in a
committed effective dose equal to annual effective dose limit 20 mSv.
73.
What is DAC?
It is the concentration of the radionuclide in air, which if breathed for a working
3
year of 2000 hours (breathing rate 1.2 m /hr) will result in intake of 1 ALI.
DAC =ALI(Bq)/2400m3
1 DAC-hr will give CED of 1 mR (10 Sv)
74.
What are the methods of external exposure control?

Methods used for external exposure control are
i)
Time
ii)
Distance
iii)
Shielding
75.
How is exposure control implemented in KAPS?

RWPs are cleared by HP taking into consideration all the three methods of
exposure control. Station ALARA committee reviews jobs expected to result in
collective dose of 5 Person-mSv and recommendation based on these three
methods are given for reducing the radiation level and collective dose.
76.
What is the function of station level ALARA committee and sectional level
ALARA committee?
Station level ALARA committee Prepares, review budget, suggest methods for
dose-reduction. It also coordinates activities between different sections.
Sectional level ALARA committee prepares and reviews budget for the section.
It also conduct ALARA meetings for jobs expected to consume 5 Person-mSv.
77.
Who are the members of the committee?

The members of the station level ALARA committee are CS,OS,MS,TSS,ALL
SMEs, and HP.
The members of the sectional level ALARA committee are Section head,
concerned supervisor/engineer and HP representative.
78.
Name the radionuclides seen in reactor water.

Important fission product nuclides observed in Reactor water
Radio Nuclide
HALF LIFE
Radiation/Energy in MeV
I
I133
I132
I134
I135
8.05 days
21hrs
2.2 hrs
52 mins
6.7 hrs
Beta
0.608
1.3
1.22
2.43
1.0
Gamma
0.364
0.53
0.773
0.85
1.14
Cs137
Cs134
30 yrs
2.3yrs
0.514
0.662
0.662
0.6&0.8
131
6.0 hrs
0.14
Tc99m
239
2.33
days
0.437
0.106
Np
Important Activation product nuclides observed in Reactor water
Radio
Nuclide
Co60
Co58
Cr51
Mn54
Fe59
Cu54
Mode
of Half Life
formation
5.3 yrs
Co59(n,) Co60
58
58
Ni (n,p) Co
72 days
50
51
27.8 days
Cr (n,) Cr
53
54
300 days
Mn (n,)Mn
58
59
45.1 days
Fe (n,)Fe
63
64
0.53 days
Cu (n,)Cu
Radiation emitted and energy

in MeV
0.314
1.17&1.33
0.47
0.81
0.32
0.835
0.475
1.095
0.571
79.
What are the radionuclides observed in FPNG?

26 radio nuclides of FPNG are produced during fission reaction. Out of these 22
radionuclides reach off gas system. 17 radio nuclides gets released to
environment through stack. All other gets decayed. Following six radio nuclides
are analysed and extrapolated to 17 radio nuclides released through stack.
Xe 133 (5.3 d), Xe 135(9.2 h), Xe 138(18 m), Kr 85m( 4.4 h), Kr 87(78 m), Kr 88(2.8 h)
.
80.
What are the radionuclides observed in Particulate and Iodine?

140
140
137
89
90
60
Important radio nuclides observed are La , Ba , Cs , Sr , Sr , Co etc. in
particulate form and iodine radio nuclides observed are I131and I133.
81.
What is the technical specification for liquid effluent releases? What is the
basis?
Annual average concentration of 5.55 Bq/l at MOF corresponding to 5 mrem/yr
to critical group.
82.
What are the AERB authorised limits for radio active waste
disposal? Solid waste:
Category
I
II
III
83.
Radiation level R/h

D<=0.2
0.2<D<=2
2<D
AERB Authorised limit

Volume m3
Activity MBq
400
44 E04
80
20 E06
60
56 E06
What is the dose limit for member of public?

The dose limit for member of public is 1 mSv/yr(100 mrem/yr) .
84.
What are the principles of radiation detection?

The radiation is detected by the following processes.
Ionisation, scintillation, fluorescence, el-hole pair in semiconductors, formation
of recoil protons tracks
85.
How many types of radiation detectors you know and on what principle do
they operate?
Ionisation chamber, inorganic & organic scintillators, GM tubes, solid state HPGe.
86.
Name radiation monitoring instruments used in KAPS. Indicate the type of

detector used and radiation monitored by them.
Instrument
TLD
Direct reading dosimeter
Digital dosimeter
Neutron dosimeter
Portal monitor
Hand |& Shoe monitor
Contamination monitor
Teletector
Gun monitor
GM survey meter
Neutron monitor
87.
Type of detector
Radiation
monitored
Thermo luminescent
Ionisation chamber
Semi-conductor
CR39- Recoil proton n

track
GM
GM
GM
GM
Ionisation chamber
GM
BF3 Counter
n
What is the function of Area radiation monitor?

Function of Area radiation monitor is to monitor ambient area radiation level and
to notify the increase in radiation level by alarm.
88.
How areas are classified on the basis of contamination? What is the

contamination level permitted in these areas? What are protective clothing
requirement for working in these areas?
The areas are classified as zones as follows.
Zone
1
2
Permitted
contamination
level
Nil (clean area)
0.1 0.1 DWL
(DWL=37
2
kBq/m )
3.
0.5 DWL
4.
>0.5 DWL
Clothing Requirement
Areas in the station
Personal clothing.
Area up to HP counter.
Personal clothing + plant 1. Change room.
shoes
2. Passage to RW
3. Service bldg 118
corridor
Lab coat, cap, cotton shoe All areas in RB, TB,
cover & gloves
RWB
Type II / III clothing.
All step off pad area
89.
What is radioactive waste? How many types of solid radioactive wastes are
generated at our plant? What are the methods of their disposal?
Solid waste- low active in earthen trenches, high active in concrete trenches,
alpha bearing and resins in tile holes, SPERT (temporary storage for active
resins)
90.
What are the three techniques used for waste management?

The three techniques used for waste disposal are
i)
ii)
iii)
91.
a.
b.
Dilute and disperse.

Delay and decay.
Concentrate and confine.
How many types of liquid wastes are generated at our plant and what are
the methods of their treatment and disposal? What is the limit for storage of
liquid waste in outside tank? What is the basis?
DRW/CRW based on conductivity.
CC (conc. / containment)
DD (delay, dilution) philosophy 0.93TBq(25 Ci) (yearly
discharge limit not to be exceeded).
92.
How the solid waste is categorised? Is there any restriction / limitation on

volume / activity of solid waste generated? Explain?
AERB guidelines (SW classification)
Category
Dose rate
Volume
Act. limit / yr
I
<=2 mGy/hr
400 m3
44* 104 MBq
6
20* 10
II
<=20 mGy/hr
80
56* 106
III
> 20 mGy/hr
60
IV
Alpha
Nil
93.
What is radiation emergency?

Un-intended event which may have potential to result in exposure above
stipulated dose limit.
94.
How many types of emergencies are there?

There are 5 types of emergencies.
i)
Emergency Alert
ii)
Personnel Emergency
iii)
Plant Emergency,
iv)
Site Emergency and
v)
Off-Site Emergency
95.
What is exclusion zone, Sterilised zone and

EPZ? Exclusion zone ( 0 1.6 km )
The exclusion zone extends up to a distance of 1.6 km around the plant where no
public habitation is permitted. This zone is physically isolated from outside areas
by plant fencing and is under the control of NPP.
Sterilised zone ( 1.6 5 km )
Sterilised zone is an area where no new growth of population is permitted.
Natural growth is however allowed in this zone. This area extends up to a radius
of 5 km from the plant.
Primary Zone: (1.6 8 km)

Primary Zone covers between 1.6 km and 8 km radius around the center of
KAPS Nuclear Facility.
Secondary Zone: (1.6 16 km)
Secondary Zone covers between 1.6 km and 16 km radius around the center of
KAPS Nuclear Facility.
EPZ - Emergency planning zone
Emergency planning zone defined around the plant up to 16 km radius, provides
a basic geographic frame work for decision making on implementing measures
as part of a graded response in the event of an emergency.
96.
What are projected dose and averted dose?

Dose likely to be received during emergency if countermeasures are not
implemented is projected dose.
Averted dose is the dose reduced due to implementation of countermeasures
97.
How emergency is declared at KAPS?

SCE on duty makes the assessment of the situation. He informs OS/CS/SD. He
declares emergency after consulting these authorities.
98.
What are the immediate counter measures taken during emergency?

At Plant / site
Assembly
Administration of prophylactics /evacuation.
i)
ii)
At Off site
i)
Administration of prophylactics
ii)
Sheltering
iii)
Evacuation.
iv)
Control of foodstuff.
99.
How site and off-site emergency declared?

Site emergency is declared by site director after consulting the SEC members.
Siren is blown in all the plants in the site.
Siren 5 s on 5 s off for 2 minutes.
Off site emergency is declared by Off site director in consultation with SE
director. Announcement is made on PA system in the affected areas.
100.
How plant and off-site emergency terminated?

Continuous siren for 2 minutes
101.
What is prophylaxis?
Administration of stable iodine to prevent uptake due to 131I.
.
102.
103.
When is prophylactic distribution and administration done during radiation

emergency?
As early as possible
How effective is prophylactic administration?
Time of administration of stable iodine is important for thyroid dose reduction.
The reduction factors are given below
Time of Stable Iodine Administration

Before exposure
1 hr after exposure
6hrs after exposure
1 Day after exposure
104.
i)
ii)
105.
106.
Dose Reduction%
100
80
50
Negligible
What do you understand by sheltering, when is it undertaken?

Sheltering means 'stay in-doors' and refrain from going outside until further
advice.
Sheltering is normally assumed for a period of 12 to 24 hours and may
precede evacuation.
What is difference between evacuation and relocation?
Evacuation - Movement of population from affected zone to radio logically safe
zone.
Relocation - Resettling of evacuated population.
When is evacuation implemented?

If the DIL have exceeded in the affected area, the evacuation is implemented as a
last resort considering psychological impact to avoid high exposure.
1.
What is dose?
A measure of the radiation received or absorbed by a target.
2.
What is dose rate?

Dose rate is amount of Energy absorbed per unit mass of the body per unit time
(Gy/hr). The effect of radiation depends on dose and dose rate of the radiation.
As the time of exposure increases, the amount of dose received increases.
3.
What is absorbed dose?

The amount of radiation energy absorbed per unit mass of the material is called
absorbed dose.
DTR
Where D
D
M
4.
TR
=
=
=
=
D/M
Absorbed dose in tissue T due to radiation R
Energy absorbed
Mass of the organ
What is equivalent dose?

Equivalent dose is defined as
HT
WR DTR
When DTR
WR
=
=
Absorbed dose
Radiation weighting factor
W R (radiation weighing factor) depends on the linear energy transfer (LET) of the
radiation which in turn is related to specific ionization of the radiation. The unit of
equivalent dose is Sievert (Sv) (1 Sv = 100 rem).
WR
for different radiation types
Radiation Type
Gamma rays
Alpha particles
Bet particles and muons (all energies)
Protons other than recoil protons (all energies)
Neutrons with e nergy < 10 keV
10 keV to 100 keV
100 keV to 2 MeV
2 MeV to 20 MeV
> 20 MeV
Fission fragments (all energies)
Heavy nuclei (all energies)
5.
Radiation weighting
factor
1
20
1
1
5
20
10
5
10
20
20
What is effective dose and committed effective dose?

The equivalent dose when multiplied by the tissue-weighting factor (WT) for the
tissue or organ T receiving the dose is called effective dose, E.
E
=
WT
W R DTR
T
R
Where D TR means absorbed dose in tissue or organ T delivered by radiation R.

WR
=
radiation weighting factor
The effective dose calculation is important, as the effect of radiation is different
for different tissue or organs.
=
maximum for Gonads
=
0.30
WT
=
1 for whole body
WT
When a radionuclide is taken inside the body, it continuously keeps irradiating our
body and we continue receiving the radiation dose till the radionuclide resides
inside our body or in other words we commit ourselves to this particular amount
of dose. This is called as committed dose and when the tissue weighting factor for
the particular organ or tissue which is getting irradiated and also the radiation
type being emitted by the radio -nuclide (radiation weighting factor) is taken into
account it is called committed effective d o s e .
6.
What are Stochastic and deterministic effects of radia tion?

Stochastic effects
1. The probability of occurring the
effects in proportional to the
dose and
2. The probability of occurrence
increases with the dose.
3. Occurs in exposed individual
and future generations
4. Delayed effects
Deterministic effects
1. These effects occur above a
threshold and
2. The severity increases with the
Dose
3. Occurs in exposed individuals
only
4. Early effects
Example: Cancer, Genetic effects
7.
Examples: Skin erythema
Dose limit for occupational workers, contract workers trainees e tc .?

Summary of Annual Dose Limits and Constraint
Category
Life
time
E
(Sv)
Annual
dose
(mSv)
Equivalent
dose
limit
(mSv)
Lens of eye
(mSv)
Skin mSv)
Extremities
(mSv)
Intake
Radiation
Workers
1.0 **
Apprentices
trainee
Temporary
worker
Member
public
30
15
150
50
75
15
500
500
150
150
250
250
50
-
1 ALI
30%
* E = Effective Dose
** = Medical review after 0.5 Sv
of
8.
Explain Annual Limit of Intake (ALI) & DAC? On what factors does the
ALI value of a radionuclide depends? How DAC calculation for tritium
(HTO) is different than that for I- 131
Annual limit of intake (ALI) is that quantity of a radionuclide taken inside the
body which could lead to an effective committed dose (1 50 year dose
commitment) not exceeding 20 mSv and an annual equivalent dose to any single
organ or tissue not exceeding 500 mSv.
The ICRP has recommended ALI values for a number of radionuclides:
ALI for
1H
(HTO form)
1 X 10 Bq
The quantity (Bq) which defines 1ALI varies widely for diffe rent radionuclides.
ALI for a radionuclide depends on each of the following.
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
The
Type of radiation emitted (W R)

Energy of radiation emitted.
Selective deposition in the body.
Presence of radioactive daughters
Derived air concentration (DAC)
It is the concentration of any radionuclide in air to which is a person is exposed
for 2000 hours (40 hours a week, 50 weeks a year).
DAC
ALI
.
Annual breathing rate
The annual breathing rate for a Reference man is 2.4 x 10 m.

Derived Air Concentration (DAC) for Tritium (HTO)
In in the case of HTO, the DAC value has to be obtained by multiplying the above
value by 2/3 for accounting 66% uptake through inhalation route. Hence for this
particular radio-nuclide of tritium DAC is calculated as below:
ALI (Bq)
DAC = 2/3 x ----------------2400 m
9.
How is tritium produced in our Reactor and why is it hazardous?

Heavy water is used as Moderator and also as primary coolant in PHT system
Tritium production is as per the reaction
1H
0n
1H
+r
In the physical for tritium is present in the form of TDO (Tritiated Heavy Water).
The behavior of tritium will be same as that of water or water vapour. Whenever
water is exposed to air, some of the heavy water and its contained tritium will
evaporate and so we will have an air born tritium hazard.
10.
Tritium is hazardous due to the following reasons:

Tritium is not an external hazard duct to the following r e a s o n s .
(i)
Tritium emits beta particles but no rays.
(ii)
Emax
(iii)
Living cells are covered with a outer dead layer of skin (at least 0.007 mm
(iv)
Tritium beta can penetrate only 0.05 mm.
(v)
Particles require at least 70 kv to penetrate the outer layer of skin.
()
18 Kev
thick).
Hence, tritium is not an external hazard. Tritium is a serious internal hazards as

a)
The cells inside the body are not protected by a dead layer.
b)
When tritium is inside the body is in direct contact with live cells and even diffuses
right inside them.
c)
In spite of their extremely low penetrating lever, tritium beta particles can damage
the cells.
Hence to minimize the amount of damage, the amount of tritium allowed in the
body is to be limited.
11.
12.
How is protection factor defined? What i s the p r o t e c t i o n factor for

different clothings?
Protection factor (PF) =
Uptake without protection

Uptake with protection
PF for plastic suit

=
PF for an air respirator =
30 (against 1H)
2 (a gainst 1H)
What are three principles of radiation protection?

The main features of the system of dose limitation shall be the following:
Justification:
No practice shall be adopted unless its introduction produces a sufficient benefit
to the exposed individual or to the society to offset the radiation harm that it
might cause.
Optimization:
All exposures shall be kept As Low As Reasonably Achievable (ALARA) economic
and social factors being taken into consideration.
Dose limitation:
The normal exposures of individuals resulting from all relevant practices should be
subjected to dose limits to ensure that no individual is exposed to a risk that is
judged to be unacceptable.
13.
What are the basic fundamental methods to protect against external

exposures?
The basic principles adopted to control external exposures are:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Time: Time spent in radioactive work area should be optimized.

Distance: Keep distance from the source
Shielding: Shielding the source will reduce radiation intensity.
Decay: allow the short lived radio nuclides to decay before entry.
14.
What are the basic fundamental methods to protect against internal

exposures?
The basic principles used to protect against internal exposures are:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Inhalation route: use suitable respiratory protection

Ingestion route: Eatables should not be taken to radioactive areas.
Ingestion through open wound: Not allow to work in radioactive area
Through skin absorption: Use ventilated respiratory protection
15.
Why is the nuclear plant divided in four zones? What are the four zones in a
typical plant? What is the change room and what are the three fold purposes
of designing a change room?
A Nuclear plant-operating island is divided into four zones called Zone 1, Zone
2, Zone 3 and Zone 4 to prevent from spread of contamination.
Zone 1
Zone 2
Zone 3
Zone 4
: Clean Zone. No contamination exists

: As such no contamination exists. Area may get
to personnel movement.
: Contamination exists but contained
: Source of contamination
contaminated due
Change Room:
Change Room is the place where personnel clothings are removed and plant
clothes are worn by plant personnel proceeding to work in radioactive areas
(Zone 3 & 4 ).
Objectives:
1.
2.
3.
16.
To separate plant and personnel clothes to avoid cross contamination

To avoid spread of contamination to Zone 1 areas
To avoid individuals getting contaminated during radioactive job.
What is the procedure for entering to shutdown accessible area during reactor
operation?
Entry procedure for shutdown accessible areas like pump room, moderator room,
DNM room during Unit operation. Any entry to Shutdown Accessible Area during
Unit operation in called on power entry. The following procedures shall be
followed:
Step -1:
On power entry should be justified, ON power entry should be

for inspection purposes.
made only
Take approval for on power entry in on power entry form (filled in

duplicate) from CS/SD.
Step - 2:
Conduct ALARA meeting for the entry with man-hours, manrem r e q u i r e d

& persons entering the shutdown accessible area.
All individuals should be briefed about the job.
Follow three-way communication.
Step -3:
Collect all protective clothings, (Ventilated plastic suits), protective wear

and respiratory protection prior to the entry. The dosimeters to be collected
include high range DRD, Alarming dosimeter, Neutron Badge in addition to
TLD and DRD.
Step -4:
Time spent in pump room shall be as minimum as possible and

in batches.
Step -5:
Once the job is completed, assess the doses received by each i n d i v i d u a l

& fill up the ALARA planning sheet and conduct post job review.
17.
shall work
While the reactor is operating, the reactor building exhaust duct shows very
high activity alarm. List out various causes for this alarm and the actions
(manual as well as auto) to be taken after this alarm as far as radioactivity is
concerned.
The causes for very high activity in Reactor Building exhaust duct may be due to the
following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
High FPNG release

High argon release
High Iodine 131 release
LOCA condition
Check area radiations field of RB on RADAS.
Manual actions taken during very high activity alarm: The sample cell, which is
sealed at ventilation exhaust room is removed for analysis of various radionuclides
present in the sample by gamma spectroscopy analysis.
This will help in
identifying the source of radiation and origin of the source/system. Depending on
the source system, action will be taken suitably.
Auto actions:
When RB exhaust duct show very high activity alarm, the sample cell and RB will
be boxed up automatically as per logic by triplicated Ventilation Duct Radiation
Monitors. After the situation is assessed and controlled, the logic will be reset.
18.
What the current doses limits are as applied to radiation workers and
members of public?
Dose Limits recommended by A E R B
Application
Dose Limit
Occupational
Effective D o s e
30 mSv per year and 100 mSv when

Averaged over defined period of 5
years.
Public
1 mSv in year and
500 averaged over
5 years.
19.
Annual equivalent
dose for:
Lens of the eye
150 mSv
15 mSv
Skin
500 mSv
50 mSv
Hands and feet
500 mSv
--
Name five fission products and five activation products observed in your plant
and also indicate the systems in which these are found.
Fission
I-131
Cs-137
Cs-134
Sr-90
Xe-133
Xe-135
20.
21.
22.
Products:
Activation Products
Co-60
PHT & Mod
Zr-95
PHT
PHT
Nb-95
AGMS, Mod & PHT Cover gas
PHT
Ar-41
Mod
Fe
-59
Mod & PHT
H-3
PHT
Sb-124
Outline the methods of contamination control in respect of surface
contamination.
Spread polythene sheets before taking up maintenance activities in the working
area.
Avoid keeping contaminated equipment on floors. Wrap all contaminated
equipment with polythene sheet
Decontaminate the floors as soon as identified as contamination is d e t e c t e d .
Proper rubber area / rubber change area.
Follow rubber change procedures.
Outl ine the methods of contamination control in respect of body
contamination.
Use protective clothings
Use respiratory protective equipment
Follow strictly radiation protection procedures, which include rubber station
procedures, which include Rubber Station procedures etc.
Avoid touching contaminated wall / equipment if not required.
What are the limits for contamination in body, personal c l o t h e s a n d
personal shoes?
Derived working levels for radioactive contamination
Derived Working Levels (DWLs) for radioactive contamination
Surfaces
Skin
Hands
Clothes:
Plant
Personnel
Shoes:
Plant
Personnel
Floor/Equipment
Beta Emitters (Bq/cm )

1.5
350*
Alpha Emitters (Bq/cm )

1.0
250*
6
2
2
0.5
37
0.37
3.7
3.7
0.037
0.37
*
*
Total contamination on either side.

No loose contamination is permitted on hands and skin.
23.
What is natural background radiation? On what factors does it depend? Name

the isotopes causing natural background radiation.
The radiation due to presence of naturally occurring radionuclides in atmosphere,
earth crust, etc. gives to natural background radiation. The sources of natural
background radiation include Radon (Uranium series), Thoron (Thorium series), K40, Cs-137 (Nuclear fallout), cosmic rays, etc. The natural back background radiation
in a place depends on
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
Intensity of cosmic radiation

K-40
Nuclear fall out
Presence of Uranium or Thorium materials in the earth crust
The elevation of a place with reference to sea level
24.
A failed fuel bundle was being transported from your station to Bombay. On
the way it met an accident what actions you will undertake as the leader of
the convoy?
Actions to be taken by CIC during level 3 emergencies are:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.
g.
h.
i.
j.
k.
l.
25.
Attend to the injured and if necessary arrange for medical aid

Monitor the cask for radiation and
contamination l e v e l s .
Also monitor the
wagon/conveyance and adjoining areas for possible contamination. Monitor the
radiation levels around the cask.
Inform the local / concerned railway/police/district authorities and seek their
assistance.
In case of fire, get assistance of local fire brigade. Firefighting personnel should
make use of the standard respiratory protective equipment
Cordon off the area as specified in the TREMCARD.
Inform the consignor and the CMG, DAE about the emergency situation in the
prescribed format and seek any assistance that may require.
Keep a watch over the controlled area until the Emergency Response team (ERT)
arrives.
Assist in the efforts of the emergency response personnel sent by the railways,
Police or local fire brigade.
Assist the Emergency Response Team (ERT)
Decontaminate the affected area, if any, and arrange for improvised shielding, tie
-down, etc, for the cask, if require as recommended by the Emergency Response
Team (ERT)
Inform the consignor and the CMG, DAE upon completion of the emergency
response work.
Resume the shipment in accordance with the advice of the ERT.
What are the different categories of radioactive s h i p m e n t s ? Give their
dose limits
Categories of the Radioactive Shipments
All shipments shall be in any one of the following four categories:
Conditions
Category
Maximum radiation level at any point on
Transport
external surface
Index (TI)
26.
1- White
Not more than 0.005 mSv/h (0.5 mR/h)
2- - Yellow
More than 0.005 mSv/h (0.5 mR/h ) but

not more than 0.5 mSv/h (50 mR/h )
More than 0 but not

more than 1
3 - Yellow
More than 0.5 mSv/h (50 mR/h) but not

more than 2 mSv/h (200 mR/h)
More than 1 but not

more than 10
3 - Yellow
(for exclusive
use)
More than 2 mSv/h (200 mR/h ) but not

more than 10 mSv/h (1000 mR/h )
More than 10
A Heat transport pump is to be transported to Bombay. The radiation f i e l d

on contact of the package is 150 mrem/h. Write down its category and the
documents required to be filled up and required to accompany?
Radiation field on contact of the package in 1.5 mSv/h. Since on contact radiation
field is less than 2 mSv/h, the radioactive shipment comes under category III
yellow.
Documents required for category III yellow package:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Radioactive shipment advice (for the consignee and station records)

Normal Release Permit (for station security)
Instructions to vehicle drivers ( for emergency conditions)
Tremcard
Tremdata
The above documents shall be filled up and accompany the consignment.
27.
What is plant emergency? Give a few examples. Who is

Director?
Plant Emergency
This involves excessive release of radioactive materials or high radiation fields in a

section of the plant requiring immediate operator action and /or automatic
operation of safety systems. Although positive isolations or restrictions on
occupancy of the affected areas might be enforced, evacuation of personnel might
be required if it is suspected that the doses to personnel are likely to exceed the
intervention levels
1.
Actual or suspected occurrences of loss of core cooling both during operation and
shutdown.
2.
Closure of RB isolation damper on high activity release or high pressure in reactor

building or emergency core cooling system.
3.
Major fire in Reactor Building.
4.
Earthquake measuring more than 6.0 Richter's scale or major damage observed
due to earthquake.
5.
Failure of a structure inside reactor building which may incapacitate the core
cooling or reactor protection system or regulating system.
Plant Emergency Director: Station D i r e c t o r
28.
Give a sketch for possible escape routes for radioactive materials from fuel to
the environment. What are the likely isotopes to escape?
Fuel
Fuel cladding
Fuel cladding
Primary Heat Transport System
Primary Containment
Secondary Containment
Secondary containment
Environment
Isotopes likely to escape from fuel: I-131, Xe -133, Xe-135 etc.
29.
What is an emergency? What are different types of emergency? Explain with

one example each. What and where is he various counter measures to be
taken in each type of emergency?
Emergency:
Emergency is an incident in a nuclear power plant, which may lead to release of
radioactivity into the environment above the technical specifications in an
uncontrolled manner.
There are three types of emergencies encountered at Nuclear Power Plants:
Plant Emergency:
This involves excessive release of radioactive materials or high radiation fields in a
section of the plant requiring immediate operator action and /or automatic
operation of s a f e t y s y s t e m s . Although positive isolations or
r e s t r i c t i o n s on occupancy of the affected areas might be enforced,
evacuation of personnel might be required if it is suspected that the doses to
personnel are likely to exceed the intervention levels.
Counter measures implemented:
a)
b)
c)
Assembly of personnel in Assembly areas for mutual counting.

Sheltering
Access control
Examples:
1.
Actual or suspected occurrences of loss of core cooling both during operation and
shutdown.
2.
Closure of RB isolation damper on high activity release or high pressure in reactor

building or emergency core cooling system.
3.
Major fire in Reactor Building.
4.
Earthquake measuring more than 6.0 Richter's scale or major damage observed
due to earthquake.
5.
Failure of a structure inside reactor building which may incapacitate the core
cooling or reactor protection system or regulating system.
Site Emergency:
This class of emergency arises due to situation, which seriously affects plant
operations involving high radiation fields in accessible areas and release of
radioactive materials extending beyond the plant up to the site environment. The
protective measures such as incorporation of stable Iodine, sheltering and
evacuation of personnel from plant areas other than control room to areas
designated to be habitable under the site emergency conditions and evacuation of
non-essential persons from the site may be considered.
Counter measures implemented:
a)
b)
c)
Access control
Sheltering
Evacuation
Examples:
1.
Known loss of coolant greater than make up pump capacity.

2.
Actual or suspected core melting.
3.
Fire affecting safety systems.
4.
Primary steam line breaks outside containment without i s o l a t i o n .
5.
Severe natural phenomena being experienced or projected with plant not in cold
shutdown condition.
Off-site Emergency:
An Off-site emergency situation results when the release of radioactive materials
from the plant is of a magnitude necessitating protective action to be taken for
members of the public in the neighborhood of the plant.
Counter measure implemented:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Access control
Administration of stable Iodine
Sheltering
Evacuation
Control on food stuff
Examples:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
30.
Known loss of coolant greater than make up pump capacity.

Actual or suspected core melting.
Fire affecting safety systems.
Primary steam line breaks outside containment without isolation.
Severe natural phenomena being experienced or projected with plant not in cold
shutdown condition.
How area around a nuclear power plant is is divided? What is the significance of
each zone?
Emergency planning zone, defined around the plant up to 16 KM radius, provides
a basic geographic framework for decision making on implementing measures as
part of a graded response in the event of an emergency. The area around the
RAPS site is divided into the following zones up to 16 KM radius.
Exclusion Zone:
The exclusion zone extends up to a distance of 1.6 KM around the central plant
zone of 0.7 KM where no public habitation is permitted. This zone is physically
isolated from outside areas by plant fencing and is under the control of RAPS.
Sterilized Zone:
Sterilized zone is an area where no new growth of population is permitted.
Natural growth is however allowed in this zone. This area extends up to a radius
of 5 Kms from the central plant zone.
This zone is defined to restrict the
population to an easily transportable number in case of an Emergency.
Primary Zone:
The primary zone extends up to 8 Kms from central plant zone where protective
measures like evacuation and sheltering are required against possible plume
exposures during an Emergency.
Secondary Zone:
The secondary zone extends up to 16 Kms from Central Plant Zone protective
measures like sheltering control on foodstuff are required against possible
exposures from ingestion of radioactivity.
Sectional Division of EPZ:
The Emergency-planning zone around the RAPS-3&4 is further divided into 16
sectors radially (designated by letter codes 'A' to 'P' marked clockwise) to implement
protective measures to areas actually affected during an emergency. Each sector
covers 22.5 and the centerlines of sector 'A', 'E', 'I' and 'M' coincide
with the North,
East, South and West directions respectively.
31.
With unit operating at full power Stack Iodine Activity high

annunciates. What could be the causes and what actions will you take?
Stack iodine activity high annunciates when unit is operating at full power
The reasons for above can be
a)
b)
Discharge of failed fuel bundles to SFSB

Loss of coolant accident in RB
Actions to be taken:
a)
Put into service the Iodine filter beds in spent fuel storage bay area for removal of
iodine during failed fuel discharge.
b)
Put into service, the primary containment filtration & pump back system, and
secondary containment of iodine during LOCA condition.
32.
What are the radionuclides that are significant at later stage in the event of
accident? How do they affect the population?
The radionuclides likely to be released to the environment during an offsite
emergency are Cuss-137, I-131, Xe-133, Xe-135, Sr-90, Co-60 etc. Different
radionuclides will be absorbed in different ranges of the body.
Example
Cs-137
I-131
Sr-90
Muscle
Thyroid
Bones
33.
In a hypothetical radiation accident in the plant, automatic closure of

R/B dampers isolates the Reactor Building. Explain the basic principles
or bases or methods for:
a)
b)
c)
d)
How would an assessment of the activity released be made

Declaring Plant and Off-site emergency
Deciding on evacuation and sheltering measures
Treatment of contamination injuries
The Reactor Building gets boxed up by automatic closure of Reactor Building
dampers in a hypothetical accident
a)
The assessment of activity released through the stack is estimated by counting the
5-liter sample cell kept at Ventilation Duct Radiation Monitoring room. The
radionuclides present and quantitative estimation of releases is e s t i m a t e d .
b)
Declaring Plant and Off-site emergency

Plant Emergency is declared based on the following conditions:
Whole body dose: 5 mSv
or committed equivalent dose to thyroid : 50 mSv
to many persons in the plant.
Off-site Emergency:
When the radiation level at 1 m above the ground level is more than 0.01 mSv/h
or food samples containing activity more than allowed limits for c o n s u m p t i o n .
c)
Deciding on evacuation and sheltering measures

Sheltering:
The radiation level is more than 0.01 mSv/h in domain 2 and more than 0.1
mSv/h in domain 1 and persistent for 10 hours, sheltering of the public shall be
done to avoid inhalation dose and plume dose.
Evacuation:
Evacuation is implemented, if the radiation level is more than 1.0 mSv/h and
persistent for 4 hours in domain 1, within 12 hours.
d)
Treatment of contamination injuries

Treatment of contaminated injuries: The contaminated injuries are treated at
Radiation Emergency Medical Center (REMC) prior to decontamination of injured
persons, first aid and medical treatment will be given to save the life. Later,
decontamination of the injured person will be carried out at Radiation Emergency
Medical Center.
34.
Which are the samples to be collected from an affected area? What will be
the follow up actions, if required?
The following samples are collected during a radiation emergency in an affected
area:
a)
Air samples for estimation air borne radioactivity present in the affected
These samples include for particulate and iodine
area.
b)
To estimate the contamination level in food materials, the following food samples
are collected for analysis:
(i)
Water samples
(ii)
Paddy rice
(iii)
Milk
(iv)
Milk products
(v)
Goats thyroid
(vi)
Soil samples etc.,
Follow up actions required during emergency:
The frequency of sample collection shall be increased if the radioactivity levels are
in increasing trend in all food samples as mentioned above. If the activity levels
are more than the allowed limits, the countermeasure of control on foodstuff shall
be implemented. Sheltering and Administration of stable Iodine shall be done
based on radiation levels at 1m above the ground level in the affected
area/village.
35.
Classify the off-site emergency on space domain basis; specify the dose
limits for counter-measures in the domain.
Time space domains are defined to appraise the implementation of countermeasures.

Concepts
Radiation
level
(mSv/h)
Objective
Domain
Domain - 2
0.01-0.1
Domain 3
<0.01
To limit the stochastic

risk to individual
members of the public
Exposure
pathways
To reduce
collective dose
and thus to
minimize the
overall incidence
of stochastic
effects
Ingestion route
predominant
Counter
measures
Control of food
stuff
a.
Domain - 1
>0.1
To avoid individual doses

so as to avoid serious
deterministic effects (0.5
Gy & 5 Gy)
Ingestion route (major)a. Inhalation route

of exposure to thyroid
b. External gamma dose
from plume
c. External gamma dose
from ground deposition
b.
c.
Administration of
stable iodine
Sheltering and
Control of food stuff
a. Administration of stable
iodine
b. Sheltering and / or
c. Evacuation
36.
What are intervention levels for various counter measures in off-site

emergency?
Intervention levels for various counter measures in different domains during an Offsite emergency are given below:
Intervention levels for implementation of c o unte rme as ure s
Domain
Domain 1
Domain 2
Domain 3
Countermeasure
Administration of
stable iodine
Intervention level (mSv)

Whole body
Thyroid
Lower
Upper
Lower
Upper
--500
2500
Sheltering
20
100
--
--
Evacuation
100
500
--
--
Administration of
stable iodine
--
--
50
500
Sheltering
20
--
--
20
50
500
Not anticipated
Note: The Ils for Doma ins 1 and 2 are CED / CEED from intakes during the first
year following the accident
37.
What are the different protective measures suggested in the off-site

emergency? When and how will these be implemented?
The protective measures implemented during an Off-site Emergency are:
a)
Administration of Stable Iodine: KIO3 Tablets are administered at the earliest

by district medical authorities
b)
Sheltering: Sheltering of all public in the affected village is implemented within 24

hours if the radiation level at 1 m above the ground level is more than 0.1 mSv/h
by police personnel.
c)
Evacuation: Evacuation of all public in the affected village is done within 12 hours
of the radiation level at 1 m above the ground level is more than 1.0 mSv/h by
police personnel.
d)
Access Control: Entry and Exit of vehicles from affected villages are diverted
and traffic in controlled by police p e r s o n n e l .
e)
Control on foodstuff: Consumption of contaminated food is restricted by district

authorities.
38.
What are the different design features provided at your station to handle
emergency in order to ensure releases are within technical specifications?
The design features provided to handle emergency in order to ensure releases are
within technical specifications are as f o l l o w s :
a)
Pressure Suppression System:

The suppression pool system is designed to remove undissolved gases and reduce
the pressure of primary contaminant by dissolving certain gases in a water column
of 2.1 meters. Most of the soluble radioactivity may also be contained in the
system.
b)
Primary Containment Filtration and pump back system:

This system is designed to remove iodine released during emergency conditions.
c)
Secondary Containment recirculation and purge system:

This system is derived to remove iodine & particulate activities of any leakage from
primary containment and to avoid ground releases.
e)
Primary Containment Control Discharge:

This system is designed to discharge the gaseous effluents in a controlled manner
during post-accident situation based on suitable meteorological conditions.
f)
Double containment:
The secondary containment avoids the ground releases if any leakage & from
primary containment by keeping at negative pressure and starting of secondary
containment recirculation and purge system.
39.
b)
a)
a.
What is the source term? Mention the inventory of I-131 and
Noble gases in PHWRs.
Outline the s y s t e m of measuring radioactivity discharge from NPP
under building box up conditions during a cci de nt s .
Source Term
Source Term denotes information about the actual or potential release of
radioactive material from a given source, which may include a specification of the
amount, the composition, the rate and the mode of release.
The following characteristics of the source term have an important bearing on the
accident consequences:
(i)
The rate and the total amount of radioactive material released:

This is determined by the reactor inventory (which in turn depends on the design
and operating power of the reactor), and by the nature and severity of the
accident.
(ii)
The relative mixture of radio -nuclides released:
This may be different from the composition existing in the core before the accident.
It is determined by the chemical, physical and radiological properties of the nuclides
concerned.
(iii)
The relative mixture of gases, volatiles and particulates released:

The physical form of the activity released determines primarily its escape
potential from the plant.
(iv)
The environment of release and the accompanying energy:

Atmospheric releases at high level, accompanied by high energy, ensure a wide
dispersal of radioactivity.
Inventory of I-131 and Noble gases at RAPS-3&4
For LOCA:
6
I-131: 1.06 10 curies

6
Noble gases: 1.56 10 curies
For LOCA+ ECCS failure:
6
I-131: 22.6 10 curies

6
Noble gases: 201.7 10 curies
b. Sample Cells are used to analyze air activity of Reactor
Building (RB)
quantitatively and qualitatively during accidental conditions when reactor gets
boxed up. Sample cell is located at Ventilation Duct Radiation Monitoring (VDRM)
room at 106m.El. Of Service building. The air from RB continuously flows through
ugh the cells. When the reactor is boxed up, the cell will be sealed and the air
gets trapped in the cell. The sample is removed and analyzed on MCA for various
radionuclides.
-
The sample cell is connected with quick disconnect couplings.

Shift Charge Engineer will inform Shift Health Physicist about reactor box-up.
Immediately after Reactor box up, disconnect the sample cell.
Note the time of removal of sample cell.
Analyze the cell on Multi Channel Analyzer system as per standard procedure.
Note the activity of each radionuclide.
Inform the values to control room and Station Health Physicist.
Connect the sample cell back in the system.
Reset the flow through the sample cell.
40.
Give the bases, on which the limits of releases of radioactive effluents

are stipulated. Give the limits of, releases of the following radionuclides
in your reactor
a)
b)
c)
Tritium in air route

Iodine in air route
Gross beta activity in water route
The limits on release of radioactive effluents are derived based on the following
factors:
a)
b)
Site dispersion factor

Critical path of exposure
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
Critical group for a given path of exposure

Food habits & consumption rate
Transfer coefficients
Relative humidity
Atmospheric stability class
Deposition velocity of Radionuclide
Release limits for RAPS-3&4 (annual average rate of d i s c h a r g e )
a)
Tritium in air route (as oxide)

7.4 TBq/d (200 Ci/d). Ten times maximum discharge from both the units in a single
day can be the average daily discharge limit provided annual average is not
exceeded.
b.
Iodine in air route

0.74 GBq/d (20 Ci/d). Ten times in a day provided annual average is not
exceeded.
c)
Gross beta activity in water route

Total release not to exceed 1.48 GBq/d for R-1 to 4 (total 40 mCi/d, 20 mCi/d,
Each for RAPS-1&2 & RAPS-3&4) and concentration in water shall not exceed 7.4 x
-4
10 MBq/ml. Ten times in a day provided annual average is not exceeded.
41.
What are the factors that determine the radioactive releases to the
environment? What are specifications of these releases for your station? Your
answer
should
include
both
air
and
water
routes?
The factors that determine the radioactive releases to the environment are:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
Site dispersion factor

Critical path of exposure
Critical group for a given path of exposure
Food habits & consumption rate
Atmospheric stability
Radio nuclides released
Deposition velocity of radio nuclides
Transfer coefficient of radioactivity from Grass to Animals etc.,
Relative humidity of atmosphere
Liquid Effluents
Tritium
Release
limit
Concentration
water
Gross Beta-gamma activity
35 Ci/d (for RAPS-3&4)

in
30
20 mCi/d (for RAPS-3&4)
PCi/ml
2.0 x 10
Gaseous Effluents
Radionuclide
Release limit
Tritium (as oxide)
7.4 TBq/d (200 Ci/d)
FPNG
23.68 TBq (640 Ci/d)
-8
Ci/ml
Ar-41
2.96 TBq (80 Ci/d)
I-131
0.74 TBq/d (20 mCi/d)
Particulate
0.56 TBq/d (15 mCi/d)
The releases can be ten times in a day provided the annual average is not
exceeded.
42.
a)
What do you mean by target dose, manrem budgeting and manpower

control?
Target Dose:
Target dose in the limit of collective dose approved by SARCOP derived from
source control techniques at design, construction and operation of nuclear power
plants a n d e x p e r i e n c e .This dose limit should not be crossed by adopting
appropriate ALARA practices.
Manrem Budgeting:
A manrem budget is a plan expressed in quantitative terms of dose for a
particular group/job. It includes;
a)
Quantification of tasks to be performed
b)
Quantification of manpower required and
c)
Scheduling the works in active areas

The manrem budget provides a set of guidelines for use in controlling the
operation and maintenance activities in the organization.
Manpower control:
Manpower control means the availability of manpower and man-hours for
executing the planned jobs during the years. The employment of temporary
workers may increase the collective dose due to less efficiency while working in
radioactive areas.
43.
How can source control technique help in reducing the total manrem
consumption?
The above can be achieved by reducing the inventory or eliminating the following.
Activation products
The major activation products observed in PHT and moderator system are Co-60
and Fe -59. The selection of components shall be such that the impurities of these
will be minimum so that source control can be achieved.
Examples: Selection of colomony for adjuster rod ball bearings.
System inventories of radionuclides
The major radionuclides observed in PHT and Moderator system are: Zr-95, Zr- 97,
Mn -56, Co -60, Cu-64, Fe-59 and Mn -65.
The equilibrium system activity of various radionuclides is available in design manual

on shielding for RAPS-3&4. These inventories can be minimized by increasing the
current time and reducing the corrosion rate by maintaining good system chemistry.
44.
Which are the important factors, important role in the achieving of low annual
occupational exposure at NPPs?
The important factors to achieve low annual occupational exposures at NPPs are:
a)
Manrem Budgeting
A manrem budget is a plan expressed in quantitative terms of dose for a particular
lar group/job. It includes;
Quantification of tasks to be performed

Quantification of manpower required and
Scheduling the works in active areas
The manrem budget provides a set of guidelines for use in controlling the
operation and maintenance activities in the o r g a n i z a t i o n .
b)
Monitoring of working conditions

RP group monitors the radiological conditions in the work area routinely and/or
before carrying out any special jobs. A database of radiological conditions is
created by HPU in specific areas to study any increase/change in such conditions
and necessary action will be taken by the management to reduce the doserates/contamination levels in the work environment. The radiological survey in
general includes:
Assessment of radiation levels

Identification of hot spots
Assessment of air borne contamination levels
Assessment of surface contamination levels
c)
Work process steering and control

Work process steering and control can be achieved by adopting the following
procedures:
Radiological work permit for all radioactive jobs for dose a c c o u n t i n g .

Work area supervision by a Green qualified person
Dose follow -up and review for jobs with radiation exposure
Job co -ordination by supervisors and Engineers in the work area to avoid r e w o r k .
d)
Training on ALARA Principles and
practices:
Education and Training are one of the pre-requisites for worker's involvement to
achieve ALARA exposures. To implement and follow an ALARA approach, all
personnel shall be trained and ALARA principles & practices. An Operating Manual
is prepared on "ALARA Principles and Practices" to train all personnel and
it is
necessary to write examination on this topic to be Green qualified. The training
programme will be repeated as a refresher course before outages to inform
workers of the important aspects of radiation protection and special aspects of
dose reduction in work.
45.
a)
b)
a.
i)
ii)
iii)
iv)
Proper dose management system helps to take correct actions and

enforce radiation protection standards
What is the dose management system followed at your station?
Give five important examples of administrative factor achieve ALARA doses.
Individual and collective dose control is a requirement in nuclear power plants.
Atomic Energy Regulatory Board in tune with the recommendations of
International Commission on Radiological Protection stipulates individual dose
limits. Several inputs such as Training of personnel in radiation safety aspects,
work-planning methodology, assessment of radiological conditions in plant areas
and techniques to achieve ALARA measures form part of overall dose
management in the power station.
Organization on Radiation Safety
Training on Radiation Safety
ALARA Committee
Job planning and ALARA Techniques
a)
b)
c)
d)
v)
Use of computers in Dose Management

a)
b)
c)
46.
Manrem Budget
Manhours of working conditions
Work process status and control
Training on ALARA principles and practices
Computerization of dose records

On-line dosimeter issue
Display of radiation levels in charts
vi)
Quality circle
b)
Administrative factors to achieve ALARA doses are:
Access Gates to shutdown Accessible areas

No entry to Zone-2 onwards without TLD
No exit to Zone-1 without monitoring at Exit Portal Monitor
No work is allowed in radioactive area without Radiological work permit
No entry to radioactive areas without Direct Reading Dosimeter.
What is ALARA? Why no numerical value is given for ALARA?

ALARA is an abbreviation for As Low as Reasonably Achievable. This principle is
used for optimization of radiation protection and is defined as follows:
"In relation to any particular source within a practice, the magnitude of individual
doses, the number of people exposed, and the likelihood of incurring exposures
where these are not certain to be received should all be kept as low as reasonably
achievable (ALARA), economic and social factors being taken into account. This
procedure should be constrained by restrictions on the dose s to individuals (Dose
Constraints) or the risks to individuals in the case of potential exposures (Risk
Constraints), so as to limit the inequity likely to result from the inherent economic
and social judgments (The optimization of Protection)".
No nume rical value is given for ALARA, as it is a qualitative term used to indicate
the reduction in dose by various optimization processes.
47.
What are the different characteristics of the stack release needed for
evaluation of dose due to gaseous discharge from NPPs?
Four general elements necessary for performing dose assessments a r e :
Characterization of the radionuclide or the radiation source including the
chemical form and the type of radiation emitted.
Determination of radionuclide distributions in cluding where and how the
radionuclides are being released (e.g. stacks, water discharges, etc.)
Determination of radiation incident on the population and / or its radionuclide
accumulation.
Determination of the subsequent radiation dose to the p o p u l a t i o n .
48. a. What are the data Meteorological Laboratory attached to NPP are collecting?
b.
What is X/Q? On what does it depend?
c.
How does X/Q value influence release limit for a given apportioned dose
at fence post? Is a lower or higher value of X/Q desirable?
a.
Wind
The data collected by meteorological laboratory and the application of data is

given below:
Description of data
direction
2. Wind speed
3. Rain f a l l
4. Atmospheric stability class
5. Horizontal
and
vertical
dispersion coefficients
Application
To know the affected section
To know the extent up to which the sector is
affected
To take into accent wash down factors etc.
To make decision for release of gaseous effluents
During accidental conditions
To identify suitable atmospheric conditions for
effluent releases during accidental conditions.
b.
X/Q is the ratio of ground concentration to the release rate of gaseous effluents
through the stack. It is called Site dispersion factor. The site dispersion factor
depends on atmo spheric stability class, terrain and height of the stack, etc.,
c.
For a given apportioned dose at fence post, the release limit decreases with
increase in X/Q value. The lower X/Q is desirable to increase release l i m i t s .
49.
What are the basic meteorological parameters needed in evaluation of

the dose due to gaseous releases?
The basic meteorological parameters needed for evaluation of the dose due to
gaseous releases are:
Wind direction
Wind speed
Affected sector
Stability class
Site dispersion faction
Maximum temperature
Relative Humidity
Rainfall etc.,
50.
Explain the following terms:

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
Inversion
Fumigation
wake effect
deposition velocity
critical pathway
Fanning
Lofting
Coning
Looping
Inversion:
The
reversal
of
the
usual
variation
of
an
atmospheric
property
(Temperature) with height is called Inversion and the layer through which the
reversal takes place is called Inversion layer.
Fumigation:
The transport to the ground of radioactive effluent plume when there is an
adiabatic lapse rate in the lower layer topped by an inversion. Downward mixing
goes on readily but the inversion limits the upward mixing. This configuration
arises when there is an inversion at the ground at sunrise, which arises above the
stack plume level due to heating from solar radiation. After this level is reached,
the effluents mix downward rapidly fumigating the ground, which has until this
time been protected from the plume by the inversion. This process may result in
an abrupt increase of the effluent concentration at the ground to a high l e v e l .
Wake effect:
Radioactive materials released through leaks in the buildings or from short stacks
will be mixed in the turbulent wake created by the ambient air flow around these
buildings. This effect creates a volume source, called Wake effect.
Deposition velocity:
Deposition velocity is a parameter used to apply correction for impaction or
adsorption on surfaces along the Plume downwind direction. The Deposition
velocity is defined as:
Rate of deposition (Bq cm- sec
Vg ( m sec -1 ) =
-1
Concentration near the surface (Bq cm
-3
For Iodine -131, Vg =

For Particulate, Vg =
Critical pathway:
Radionuclides released into the environment can irradiate the population through
many pathways. But some pathway may result in substantially higher dose to
public than others. Such pathways which cause maximum dose to public for a
given release / concentration are called critical pathways.
For e g .
I-131
released into the environment, the air-grass-cow-milk pathway is the critical
pathway of exposure.
Fanning:
When the radioactive effluents are emitted into an inversion layer, the stability
prevents diffusion up and down, so that the only spreading of the effluents is
sideways. Since the plume is thin in the vertical and is V -shaped in the horizontal,
the phenomena are fanning.
Lofting:
The spreading in upward arcs of a radioactive plume emitted into air with an
inversion below the stack exit and an unstable lapse rate at and above it. The
radioactive effluents are emitted at the top of an inversion layer, where it is kept
from mixing downward but spreads upward. This tendency to be carried aloft but
to the ground has been termed as lofting.
Coning:
The radioactive effluents released from a stack into a deep adiabatic layer allow
spreading of plume uniformly in all cross wind directions. viz., lateral & vertical) The
turbulent motions that are induced by irregularities of the ground and shearing of
the wind are not amplified by instability. The vertical spreading and lateral
spreading are about equal and the effluent plume resembles a cone
Looping:
When there is a super adiabatic lapse rate through a deep layer the radioactive
effluents are carried up -and -down by convection currents forming a looping
pattern and are rapidly diluted by the intense vertical mixing.
51.
Explain the following terms:

a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
Lapse rate
Adiabatic Lapse rate
Sub Adiabatic Lapse rate
Super Adiabatic Lapse rate
Stable conditio n
Unstable condition
Neutral condition
Lapse rate:
The rate of decrease of temperature with height is known as lapse rate.
Adiabatic Lapse rate
A process in which no heat exchange between an air parcel and its surroundings
occur is called adiabatic process. The motions of the air are approximately adiabatic
near the ground.
The rate of decrease of temperature with height as one goes upward in air
column is different from the adiabatic rate of cooling.
T
h
=
observed
T
h
=
Adiabatic process
If the lapse rate in an air column ( ) is equal to the rate of adiabatic cooling ,
the air column is said to have an adiabatic lapse rate.

Sub Adiabatic Lapse rate:
If the lapse rate in an air column () is less than the rate of adiabatic cooling ,
the air column is said to have super adiabatic lapse rate.

Super Adiabatic Lapse rate:
If the lapse rate in an air column ( ) is greater than the rate of adiabatic
, the air column is said to have super adiabatic lapse rate.

cooling
Stable condition:
If the displacement of the object gives rise to forces that tend to bring it back to
its original equilibrium position is said to be stable.
The lapse rate (sub adiabatic) is less than the adiabatic rate of cooling , the
system is said to be under stable equilibrium.
Unstable condition:
If the displacement of the object leads to forces that tend to increase the
displacement from the equilibrium position, the equilibrium is called
Unstable.
The lapse rate (super adiabatic lapse rate) is greater than the adiabatic rate of
cooling . The system is said to be under unstable equilibrium
Neutral condition:
If no forces arise from the displacement of the object, the equilibrium is neutral.
The lapse rate is equal to the adiabatic rate of cooling . The system is said to
be under Neutral equilibrium
52.
Explain the classification of Pasquill atmospheric stability.

Classification of Pasquill atmospheric stability:
Class
Class
Class
Class
Class
Class
A
B
C
D
E
F-
Strongly unstable
Moderately unstable
Slightly unstable
Neutral
Slightly stable
Moderately stable
The above classification depends on wind speed, horizontal and vertical dispersion
coefficients in the atmosphere.
53.
What do you understand by:

(a)
Windrose
Wind rose is the graphical display of wind speed and wind direction by magnitude.
Wind rose indicates the predominant wind direction and magnitudes of wind
direction in percentage at different elevations.
55.
54.
What are the limits in the following cases:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
Monthly dose to a radiation worker

Annual dose to a casual radiation worker
Annual dose to skin
Annual dose to eye lens
Emergency planned dose
Monthly dose to a radiation worker : 10 mSv

Annual dose to casual radiation worker : 15 mSv
Annual dose to skin : 500 mSv
Annual dose to eye lens
: 150 mSv
Emergency planned dose : 250 mSv
Why are the ALI values of different radioisotopes different?

The committed effective dose due to unit uptake of a radionuclide is different for
different radionuclides. ALI is derived from annual effective dose of 20 mSv.
Hence, ALI values are different for different radionuclides.
56.
What is the maximum unplanned dose for one month? What action is
required if it is planned to exceed this limit?
The maximum unplanned monthly dose limit is 5 mSv for department persons
and 2.5 mSv for contractor persons.
Notification of planned exposure (NOPE) is required for the persons who planned
to exceed the l i m i t s . NOPE shall be authorized by section Head in case of
department personnel and CS in case of contractors.
57.
a.
Outline the procedure for disposal of the following types of radioactive

wastes
Ion exchange Resin (field is less than 10 R/h)
Wet filter cartridge (field: 50 R/h)
Organic liquid wastes
Ion exchange Resin (field is less than 10 R/h)

Ion-exchange resin ejected from SS hopper of PHT/Mod system at Waste
Management Centralized Facility (WMCF) into MS hoppers for disposal purposes.
If the field is less than 50 R/h, these MS hoppers are disposed into RCC trenches
or RCC vaults.
b.
Wet filter cartridge (field: 50 R/h)

The wet filter cartridges removed from various systems are
shielded
after
removal and transported to Waste Management Centralized Facility for treatment
and disposal. The systems, which generate wet filters as a waste, are PHT Gland
Filters, SFSB, Filters, PHT Filters, Resin transfer system filters, liquid effluent
treatment process filters etc.
The wet filters are fixed with cement and vermiculate soil in a 200 l drum and
allowed for curing.
The wet filter fixed in a drum will be disposed of at Solid Waste Management
Facility (SWMF) based on the radiation l e v e l s .
c.
Organic liquid wastes

Procedure for disposal of organic liquid waste: The organic liquid waste is collected
in carboys at the source mainly from tritium counting laboratory and chemical
control laboratories. Then, the organic waste is transferred to Waste Management
Centralized Facility (WMCF) for treatment and disposal purpose. At WMCF, the
organic waste is transferred to a 200 l drum and vermiculate powder is sprinkled
to soak in organic waste. The solidified organic waste is disposed of into RCC
trenches in respective of radiation levels.
58.
What are the basic principles of waste management? How are high active
liquid wastes disposed of?
Basic principles of waste management:
Dilute and Disperse (Low active Liquid effluents)

Concentration and contain (High active liquid effluents)
Delay and Decay (Short live radio nuclides)
Disposal of high active Liquid wastes:
High active liquid waste is fixed in vermiculate glass matrix. The disposal of
conditional high active liquid waste is depends on the nature of radionuclides and
disposed into suitable various engineered safety disposal facility based on the
radiation levels.
What is over-exposure? How can it be avoided? How and why it is
investigated?
Over exposure: Dose limits are specified for occupational and temporary workers
for a block period of 5 years. In house limits are provided by the station, to ensure
that these dose limits are not exceeded. These limits are specified for monthly,
quarterly, yearly and internal uptake of tritium & iodine. Any person exceeding
these in house limits are said to be received over exposure.
Over exposure shall be investigated to know the genuineness of the dose
received by an individual.
Over exposure cases shall be investigated within 72 hours of the report of the
exposure, if the quarterly or annual limits are exceeded. In other cases,
investigation shall be carried out within 15 days of the report.
Investigation
Report shall be issued with 48 hours of investigation. A copy of the report shall be
sent to SARCOP.
Over exposure can be avoided by following radiation protection procedures,
ALARA practices during normal operation of the plant and by following radiation
emergency procedures during emergency conditions. These procedures mainly
includes the following:
Adhering to Radiation protection procedures.

Use of Alarming dosimeters
Monitoring individual doses during the job
What are the objectives of stack monitoring (sampling)? What are the
technical specifications for releases through stack at your station?
-
To estimate the amount of radionuclides released through the stalk to the

environment
To ensure that the effluents released to the environment are within technical
specifications of the station approved by Atomic Energy Regulatory Board
To control the consequences which lead to release of effluents in excess of
Technical specifications.
Technical Specifications for Gaseous e f f l u e n t s :
H-3 (as oxide)
Ar-41
FPNG
Radioactive Particulate
Iodine-131
7.4 TBq/d
2.96 TBq/d
23.68 TBq/d
0.56 GBq/d
0.74 GBq/d
200Ci/d
80Ci/d
640 Ci/d
15 m Ci/d
20 mCi/d
ALI values are different for different radioisotopes

ALI values are different for different radioisotopes. The committed effective dose
due to each radionuclide is different. This is due to type of radiations emitted
from a radionuclide, its energies and fields are different. Hence, the dose
received by one Bq of different radionuclides is different and thus ALI values are
different.
Tritium :
Iodine -131:
3 10 Bq
6
1 10 Bq
Tritiated water is more hazardous than tritium

Tritiated water is more hazardous than tritium. Human body consists of water
60% weight. Hence, tritiated water is easily miscible with body water and thus
gives exposure to whole body. Whereas tritium can only replace hydrogen atoms
present in body water and gives dose locally. Hence tritiated water is more
hazardous than tritium.
What hazards do neutrons and X-ray present to the eye?
Neutron possess high Linear Energy Transfer (LET) per a given distance traveled. Hence,
exposure of neutrons to eye may cause cataract of the lens. Similarly, X- rays are
monoenergetic in nature, may lead to cataract of the e y e .
Name two changes that occur to atom / molecule when radiation passes through
matter
The radiation effects the atom/molecule in two different ways:
-
Excitation
Ionization
In excitation, the irradiated atom/ molecule goes to high energy level and comes to ground
level by emitting excess release in the form of energy. For this process, the atom/molecules
rearranges its e l e c t r o n s .
In Ionization, the irradiated atom/molecules divided into positive and negative and which
further react with other biological chemical molecules thus changing
the chemistry of the
body.
How internal exposure of your plant is is measured and how it can be minimized?
Internal Exposure: The internal exposure of plant personnel is estimated by urine analysis.
All plant personnel are advised to submit urine samples two hours after completion of the
job. The frequency of submission of urine samples shall be once in a week or as and when
tritium uptake is suspected.
The internal dose is estimated using the formula:
D (mSv)
= 0.0583 Q T (for weekly sample submission)

= 0.5 Q (Committed dose assuming Tb= 6 d)
Where Q=(Q1+Q2)/2
- average tritium uptake in the body in MBq/l.
Q1
- tritium uptake on date t1 in MBq/l
Q2
- tritium uptake on date t2 in MBq/l
T
- The time period between two sample submission in days.
Control of internal dose: Internal exposure due to tritium can be minimized by the following
methods:
a)
b)
c)
d)
Use of appropriate respiratory protection

Avoiding skin wetting
Providing local ventilation in high tritiated atmospheres.
Use of remotely operating vacuum mopping systems for recovery of heavy
water.
Tritium dose contributes a significant % of the collective dose. Give a comprehensive

recommendation and an action p l a n for minimizing tritium exposure in the
operating units.
Tritium dose contributes to about 20% of the collective dose in Pressurized Heavy Water
Reactors (PHWRs). The tritium dose can be minimized in PHWRs by the following:
a)
Minimizing leaks from PHT System in all areas of reactor
building
b)
Ensuring the availability of all dryers for heavy water collection and with high
efficiency.
c)
Ensure proper ventilation balance in all reactor-building areas.
d)
Provide remotely operable vacuum mopping systems like vacuum for heavy water
recovery.
e)
Use of appropriate respiratory protection
f)
Avoiding Skin wetting during heavy water recovery
g)
Proper isolation of the system, which has high potential for heavy water spillage
prior to taking up the maintenance jobs.
59.
What is the importance of Radiation Work Permit (RWP)? How is it issued?

RWP issue procedures:
RWP Shall be applied by a Green qualified person for all radioactive jobs
Person applying RWP shall fill up all the columns like Reactor Status, Job details,
Job code; persons involved in the job with TLD Nos. and planned doses.
The Shift Health Physicist shall fill up the current month, annual dose details,
Uptake details and category details in the permit
He also mention the radiological conditions
He also shall recommend appropriate protective wear and respiratory protective
equipment depending on the radiological conditions.
He also should mention any special precautions to be taken in the work area.
The permit shall be signed by Shift Health Physicist and permit holder
The Radiological Work Permit is valid for a shift, a day depending on the nature of
the job
60.
Name three dosimetry devices and explain when they are used to maximum
advantage.
a)
Thermo luminescent dosimeter (TLD):

Used for assessment of gamma and beta dose of station personnel on monthly
basis. It is mandatory to use this dosimeter regularly and treated as official
dosimeter.
b)
Direct Reading Dosimeter (DRD):

Used for assessment of gamma dose on day to day basis for accounting of dose
to ensure that monthly, quarterly or yearly doses are not exceeded. It is
mandatory to use this dosimeter regularly along with TLD during worker in a
radioactive area.
c)
Fast Neutron Foils (Cr-39)

Used for assessment of fast neutron dose during on power entry to moderator
room or pump room where neutron fields exist fast. It is mandatory to use this
dosimeter during on power entry for neutron dose assessment.
State the factors on which the tritium concentration in PHT & Moderator System
depends?
The tritium concentration in PHT and Moderator System depends on the following factors:
?
?
?
?
?
?
Average thermal neutron flux in the system

Activate cross section of deuteron.
Disintegrate constant/half-life of tritium
Total circuit time
Core transit or influx time
Total time of reactor operation (full power days)
What are the isotopes monitored during whole body counting. What is the type of
detector?
The isotopes monitored during while body counting are I
131
, Co
60
, Cs137.
Gamma detector is used for measuring the activity due to the above isotopes during the
whole body counting.

Question Bank On Radiation Protection

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QUESTION BANK ON RADIATION

Define - Atomic mass number

Define - Atomic number,

Define - Isobars nuclides

Define - Decay constant

What does N represent?

Define half life, short lived and long lived radionuclides.

What is radioactive decay equilibrium?

Secular equilibrium T1 1/2 >> T2 1/2 or 1 << 2

What is the unit of radioactivity?

What is artificial and natural radioactivity?

What are the various sources of natural radiation?

What is the dose delivered by these sources?

What is fission product? Name some fission product

What are the different types of radiation?

What is particle? Explain decay.

What are rays? Explain decay.

What is the unit used for expressing the energy of radiation?

How radiation interacts with matter?

How the Gamma radiation interacts with matter?

iii) Pair production

How does a charged particle interact with matter? What is excitation?

What is ionization? What is specific ionization? Which radiation can cause

Explain attenuation of gamma rays in matter? Explain each term?

What is relaxation length?

What are tenth and half valve layers?

What is the relation between TVL/ HVL?

I=I0 e- x : I0/10=I0 e- TVL : e- TVL=1/10 : e TVL=10 : TVL=loge 10= TVL :

How neutrons are produced?

How neutrons are classified?

100 KeV - 20 MeV

What are the different interactions of neutrons with matter?

What is nuclear fission? What is fissile and fertile

How much energy is released in fission reaction?

What is cross section? What is its unit?

Explain radiological significance of ,, and neutron radiation.

Tissue weighting factor

Committed equivalent dose (H50,T)

What is collective dose?

How does radiation interact with cell?

What is stochastic effect?

What is deterministic effect?

What is radiation sickness?

Explain acute and chronic effects

What is the aim of radiation protection?

What is the objective of radiation protection?

To prevent deterministic effects, and

What are the dose limits for occupational radiation workers?

What are the dose limits for temporary workers?

What is emergency exposure?

What do you understand by over exposure?

What is the procedure followed for handling exposure exceeding

Who are the members of the exposure investigation committee?

Apex committee constituted by SARCOP

Who investigates the exposure cases exceeding 10 rem (in 5 years)?

What is the difference between contamination and radiation?

What are external and internal exposures?

What are the different ways by which internal contamination is caused?

What are the different methods used for controlling internal

What are the methods of external exposure control?

How is exposure control implemented in KAPS?

Who are the members of the committee?