Waves Solutions PDF

Solutions Manual for
The Physics of Vibrations and Waves

6th Edition
Compiled by
Dr Youfang Hu
Optoelectronics Research Centre (ORC), University of Southampton, UK
In association with the author

H. J. Pain
Formerly of Department of Physics, Imperial College of Science and Technology, London, UK
2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd
SOLUTIONS TO CHAPTER 1
1.1
In Figure 1.1(a), the restoring force is given by:
F = mg sin
By substitution of relation sin = x l into the above equation, we have:
F = mg x l
so the stiffness is given by:
s = F x = mg l
so we have the frequency given by:
2 = s m = g l
Since
is a very small angle, i.e. = sin = x l , or x = l , we have the restoring force
given by:
F = mg
Now, the equation of motion using angular displacement
second law:
can by derived from Newtons
F = m&x&
i.e.
mg = ml&&
i.e.
&& + = 0
g
l
which shows the frequency is given by:
2 = g l
In Figure 1.1(b), restoring couple is given by C , which has relation to moment of inertia I
given by:
C = I&&
i.e.
&& +
C
=0
I
2 = C I
In Figure 1.1(d), the restoring force is given by:
F = 2T x l
so Newtons second law gives:
F = m&x& = 2Tx l
&x& + 2Tx lm = 0
i.e.
2 =
2T
lm
In Figure 1.1(e), the displacement for liquid with a height of x has a displacement of x 2 and
a mass of Ax , so the stiffness is given by:
s=
G
2 Axg
=
= 2 Ag
x2
x
Newtons second law gives:
G = m&x&
2 Axg = Al&x&
i.e.
&x& +
i.e.
2g
x=0
l
which show the frequency is given by:
2 = 2g l
In Figure 1.1(f), by taking logarithms of equation pV = constant , we have:
ln p + ln V = constant
so we have:
i.e.
dp
dV
+
=0
p
V
dp = p
dV
V
The change of volume is given by dV = Ax , so we have:
dp = p
Ax
V
The gas in the flask neck has a mass of Al , so Newtons second law gives:
Adp = m&x&
i.e.
A2 x
= Al&x&
V
&x& +
i.e.
pA
x=0
lV
which show the frequency is given by:
2 =
pA
lV
In Figure 1.1 (g), the volume of liquid displaced is Ax , so the restoring force is gAx . Then,
F = gAx = m&x&
&x& +
i.e.
gA
x=0
m
2 = gA m
1.2
Write solution x = a cos(t + ) in form: x = a cos cos t a sin sin t and

compare with equation (1.2) we find: A = a cos and B = a sin . We can also
find, with the same analysis, that the values of A and B for solution
x = a sin(t ) are given by: A = a sin and B = a cos , and for solution
x = a cos(t ) are given by: A = a cos and B = a sin .
Try solution x = a cos(t + ) in expression &x& + 2 x , we have:
&x& + 2 x = a 2 cos(t + ) + 2 a cos(t + ) = 0
Try solution x = a sin(t ) in expression &x& + 2 x , we have:

&x& + 2 x = a 2 sin(t ) + 2 a sin(t ) = 0
Try solution x = a cos(t ) in expression &x& + 2 x , we have:

&x& + 2 x = a 2 cos(t ) + 2 a cos(t ) = 0
1.3
(a) If the solution x = a sin(t + ) satisfies x = a at t = 0 , then, x = a sin = a

i.e. = 2 . When the pendulum swings to the position x = + a
2 for the first
time after release, the value of t is the minimum solution of equation

a sin(t + 2) = + a
2 , i.e. t = 4 . Similarly, we can find: for x = a 2 ,
t = 3 and for x = 0 , t = 2 .
If the solution x = a cos(t + ) satisfies x = a at t = 0 , then, x = a cos = a
i.e. = 0 . When the pendulum swings to the position x = + a
2 for the first
time after release, the value of t is the minimum solution of equation

a cos t = + a
2 , i.e. t = 4 . Similarly, we can find: for x = a 2 , t = 3
and for x = 0 , t = 2 .
If
the
solution
x = a sin(t )
satisfies
x=a
at
t=0 ,
then,
x = a sin( ) = a i.e. = 2 . When the pendulum swings to the position

x = +a
2 for the first time after release, the value of t is the minimum
solution of equation a sin(t + 2) = + a
2 , i.e. t = 4 . Similarly, we can
find: for x = a 2 , t = 3 and for x = 0 , t = 2 .

If
the
solution
x = a cos(t )
satisfies
x=a
at
t=0 ,
then,
x = a cos( ) = a i.e. = 0 . When the pendulum swings to the position

x = +a
solution of equation a cos t = + a
2 , i.e. t = 4 . Similarly, we can find: for
x = a 2 , t = 3 and for x = 0 , t = 2 .
(b) If
the
solution
x = a sin(t + )
satisfies
x = a
at
t=0 ,
then,
x = a sin = a i.e. = 2 . When the pendulum swings to the position
x = +a
solution of equation a sin(t 2) = + a
2 , i.e. t = 3 4 . Similarly, we can
find: for x = a 2 , t = 2 3 and for x = 0 , t = 2 .

If
the
solution
x = a cos(t + )
satisfies
x = a
at
t=0 ,
then,
x = a cos = a i.e. = . When the pendulum swings to the position

x = +a
solution of equation a cos(t + ) = + a

If
the
solution
x = a sin(t )
satisfies
x = a
at
t=0 ,
then,
x = a sin( ) = a i.e. = 2 . When the pendulum swings to the position

x = +a
solution of equation a sin(t 2) = + a

If
the
solution
x = a cos(t )
satisfies
x = a
at
t=0 ,
then,
x = a cos( ) = a i.e. = . When the pendulum swings to the position

x = +a
solution of equation a cos(t ) = + a

1.4
The frequency of such a simple harmonic motion is given by:
0 =
s
=
me
e2
=
4 0 r 3me
(1.6 10 19 ) 2
4.5 1016 [rad s 1 ]
12
9 3
31
4 8.85 10 (0.05 10 ) 9.110
Its radiation generates an electromagnetic wave with a wavelength given by:
2c
2 3 108
4.2 10 8 [m] = 42[nm]
4.5 1016
Therefore such a radiation is found in X-ray region of electromagnetic spectrum.

1.5
(a) If the mass m is displaced a distance of x from its equilibrium position, either
the upper or the lower string has an extension of x 2 . So, the restoring force of
the mass is given by: F = sx 2 and the stiffness of the system is given by:
s = F x = s 2 . Hence the frequency is given by a2 = s m = s 2m .
(b) The frequency of the system is given by: b2 = s m

(c) If the mass m is displaced a distance of x from its equilibrium position, the
restoring force of the mass is given by: F = sx sx = 2 sx and the stiffness of
the system is given by: s = F x = 2 s . Hence the frequency is given by
c2 = s m = 2s m .
Therefore, we have the relation: a2 : b2 : c2 = s 2m : s m : 2s m = 1 : 2 : 4
1.6
At time t = 0 , x = x0 gives:
a sin = x0
(1.6.1)
a cos = v0
(1.6.2)
x& = v0 gives:
From (1.6.1) and (1.6.2), we have

tan = x0 v0 and a = ( x02 + v02 2 )1 2
1.7
The equation of this simple harmonic motion can be written as: x = a sin(t + ) .
The time spent in moving from x to x + dx is given by: dt = dx vt , where vt is
the velocity of the particle at time t and is given by: vt = x& = a cos(t + ) .
Noting that the particle will appear twice between x and x + dx within one period
of oscillation. We have the probability of finding it between x to x + dx given
by: =
2
2dt
, so we have:
where the period is given by: T =
T
2dt
2dx
dx
dx
dx
=
=
=
=
2
T
2a cos(t + ) a cos(t + ) a 1 sin (t + ) a 2 x 2
1.8
Since the displacements of the equally spaced oscillators in y direction is a sine

curve, the phase difference between two oscillators a distance x apart given is
proportional to the phase difference 2 between two oscillators a distance apart
by: 2 = x , i.e. = 2x .
1.9
The mass loses contact with the platform when the system is moving downwards and
the acceleration of the platform equals the acceleration of gravity. The acceleration of
a simple harmonic vibration can be written as: a = A 2 sin(t + ) , where A is the

amplitude, is the angular frequency and is the initial phase. So we have:
A 2 sin(t + ) = g
A=
i.e.
g
sin(t + )
2
Therefore, the minimum amplitude, which makes the mass lose contact with the
platform, is given by:
Amin =
4 f
2
9.8
0.01[m]
4 2 52
1.10
The mass of the element dy is given by: m = mdy l . The velocity of an element
dy of its length is proportional to its distance y from the fixed end of the spring, and
is given by: v = yv l . where v is the velocity of the element at the other end of the
spring, i.e. the velocity of the suspended mass M . Hence we have the kinetic energy
of this element given by:

KEdy =
1
1 m y
mv2 = dy v
2
2 l
l
The total kinetic energy of the spring is given by:

KEspring
mv 2
1 m y
= KEdy dy = dy v = 3
0
0 2
2l
l
l
l
y dy = 6 mv
2
The total kinetic energy of the system is the sum of kinetic energies of the spring and
the suspended mass, and is given by:
1
1
1
KEtot = mv 2 + Mv 2 = (M + m 3)v 2
6
2
2
which shows the system is equivalent to a spring with zero mass with a mass of
M + m 3 suspended at the end. Therefore, the frequency of the oscillation system is
given by:
2 =
s
M +m 3
1.11
In Figure 1.1(a), the restoring force of the simple pendulum is mg sin , then, the
stiffness is given by: s = mg sin x = mg l . So the energy is given by:
E=
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 mg 2
mv + sx = mx& +
x
2
2
2
2 l
The equation of motion is by setting dE dt = 0 , i.e.:

d 1 2 1 mg 2
x =0
mx& +
dt 2
2 l
i.e.
&x& +
g
x=0
l
In Figure 1.1(b), the displacement is the rotation angle , the mass is replaced by the
moment of inertia I of the disc and the stiffness by the restoring couple C of the
wire. So the energy is given by:
1
1
E = I& 2 + C 2
2
2
d 1 &2 1
2
I + C = 0
dt 2
2
&& +
i.e.
C
=0
I
In Figure 1.1(c), the energy is directly given by:

1
1
E = mv 2 + sx 2
2
2
d 1 2 1 2
mx& + sx = 0
dt 2
2
&x& +
i.e.
s
x=0
m
In Figure 1.1(c), the restoring force is given by: 2 Tx l , then the stiffness is given
by: s = 2T l . So the energy is given by:
E=
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2T 2 1 2 T 2
mv + sx = mx& +
x = mx& + x
2
2
2
2 l
2
l

d 1 2 T 2
mx& + x = 0
l
dt 2
&x& +
i.e.
2T
x=0
lm
In Figure 1.1(e), the liquid of a volume of Al is displaced from equilibrium

position by a distance of l 2 , so the stiffness of the system is given by
s = 2 gAl l = 2 gA . So the energy is given by:
E=
1 2 1 2 1
1
1
mv + sx = Alx& 2 + 2 gAx 2 = Alx& 2 + gAx 2
2
2
2
2
2

d 1
2
2
Alx& + gAx = 0
dt 2
i.e.
&x& +
2g
x=0
l
In Figure 1.1(f), the gas of a mass of Al is displaced from equilibrium position by

a distance of x and causes a pressure change of dp = pAx V , then, the stiffness
of the system is given by s = Adp x = pA2 V . So the energy is given by:
E=
1 2 1 2 1
1 pA2 x 2
mv + sx = Alx& 2 +
2
2
2
2 V

d 1
1 pA2 x 2
Alx& 2 +
=0
dt 2
2 V
&x& +
i.e.
pA
x=0
lV
In Figure 1.1(g), the restoring force of the hydrometer is gAx , then the stiffness
of the system is given by s = gAx x = gA . So the energy is given by:
E=
1 2 1 2 1 2 1
mv + sx = mx& + gAx 2
2
2
2
2

d 1 2 1
2
mx& + gAx = 0
dt 2
2
i.e.
&x& +
Ag
x=0
m
1.12
The displacement of the simple harmonic oscillator is given by:
x = a sin t
so the velocity is given by:
x& = a cos t
From (1.12.1) and (1.12.2), we can eliminate t and get:
x2
x& 2
+ 2 2 = sin 2 t + cos 2 t = 1
2
a
a
which is an ellipse equation of points ( x, x& ) .
The energy of the simple harmonic oscillator is given by:
(1.12.1)
(1.12.2)
(1.12.3)
E=
1 2 1 2
mx& + sx
2
2
(1.12.4)
Write (1.12.3) in form x& 2 = 2 (a 2 x 2 ) and substitute into (1.12.4), then we have:
E=
1 2 1 2 1
1
mx& + sx = m 2 (a 2 x 2 ) + sx 2
2
2
2
2
Noting that the frequency is given by: 2 = s m , we have:

E=
1
1
1
s (a 2 x 2 ) + sx 2 = sa 2
2
2
2
which is a constant value.

1.13
The equations of the two simple harmonic oscillations can be written as:
y1 = a sin(t + )
and
y2 = a sin(t + + )
The resulting superposition amplitude is given by:

R = y1 + y2 = a[sin(t + ) + sin(t + + )] = 2a sin(t + + 2) cos( 2)
and the intensity is given by:

I = R 2 = 4a 2 cos 2 ( 2) sin 2 (t + + 2)
I 4a 2 cos 2 ( 2)
i.e.
Noting that sin 2 (t + + 2) varies between 0 and 1, we have:

0 I 4a 2 cos 2 ( 2)
1.14
2
x
y
y
x
sin 2 sin 1 + cos 1 cos 2
a2
a1
a1
a2
2 xy
2 xy
x2
y2
y2
x2
= 2 sin 2 2 + 2 sin 2 1
sin 1 sin 2 + 2 cos 2 1 + 2 cos 2 2
cos 1 cos 2
a1
a2
a1a2
a2
a1
a1a2
=
2 xy
x2
y2
2
2
(sin
+
cos
)
+
(sin 2 1 + cos 2 1 )
(sin 1 sin 2 + cos 1 cos 2 )
2
2
2
2
a1
a2
a1a2
x 2 y 2 2 xy
+
cos(1 2 )
a12 a22 a1a2
On the other hand, by substitution of :

x
= sin t cos 1 + cos t sin 1
a1
y
= sin t cos 2 + cos t sin 2
a2
2
x
y
y
x
into expression sin 2 sin 1 + cos 1 cos 2 , we have:
a2
a1
a1
a2
x
y
y
x
sin 2 sin 1 + cos 1 cos 2
a2
a1
a1
a2
2
2
2
= sin t (sin 2 cos 1 sin 1 cos 2 ) + cos t (cos 1 sin 2 cos 2 sin 1 ) 2
= (sin 2 t + cos 2 t ) sin 2 (2 1 )
= sin 2 (2 1 )
From the above derivation, we have:
x 2 y 2 2 xy
+ 2
cos(1 2 ) = sin 2 (2 1 )
2
a1 a2 a1a2
1.15
By elimination of t from equation x = a sin t and y = b cos t , we have:

x2 y 2
+
=1
a 2 b2
which shows the particle follows an elliptical path. The energy at any position of x ,
y on the ellipse is given by:
1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
mx& + sx + my& + sy
2
2
2
2
1 2 2
1
1
1
= ma cos 2 t + ma 2 2 sin 2 t + mb 2 2 sin 2 t + mb 2 2 cos 2 t
2
2
2
2
1 2 2 1 2 2
= ma + mb
2
2
1
= m 2 (a 2 + b 2 )
2
E=
The value of the energy shows it is a constant and equal to the sum of the separate
1
energies of the simple harmonic vibrations in x direction given by m 2 a 2 and in
2
1
y direction given by m 2b 2 .
2
At any position of x , y on the ellipse, the expression of m( xy& yx& ) can be
written as:
m( xy& yx& ) = m(ab sin 2 t ab cos 2 t ) = abm (sin 2 t + cos 2 t ) = abm

which is a constant. The quantity abm is the angular momentum of the particle.
1.16
All possible paths described by equation 1.3 fall within a rectangle of 2a1 wide and
2a2 high, where a1 = xmax and a2 = ymax , see Figure 1.8.
When x = 0 in equation (1.3) the positive value of y = a2 sin(2 1 ) . The value of

ymax = a2 . So y x=0 ymax = sin(2 1 ) which defines 2 1 .
1.17
In the range 0 , the values of cos i are 1 cos i +1 . For n random

values of i , statistically there will be n 2 values 1 cos i 0 and n 2 values
0 cos i 1 . The positive and negative values will tend to cancel each other and the
n
sum of the n values:
cos i 0 , similarly
cos
j =1
i =1
i j
cos cos
i =1
i j
j =1
0 . i.e.
1.18
The exponential form of the expression:
a sin t + a sin(t + ) + a sin(t + 2 ) + L + a sin[t + ( n 1) ]
is given by:
ae it + ae i (t + ) + ae i (t + 2 ) + L + ae i[t +( n1) ]
From the analysis in page 28, the above expression can be rearranged as:
ae
n1
i t +

2
sin n 2
sin 2
with the imaginary part:
n 1 sin n 2
a sin t +

2 sin 2
which is the value of the original expression in sine term.

1.19
From the analysis in page 28, the expression of z can be rearranged as:
z = aeit (1 + ei + ei 2 + L ei ( n1) ) = aeit
sin n 2
sin 2
The conjugate of z is given by:
z * = ae it
sin n 2
sin 2
so we have:
zz * = aeit
sin n 2
sin n 2
sin 2 n 2
ae it
= a2
sin 2
sin 2
sin 2 2
2.1
The system is released from rest, so we know its initial velocity is zero, i.e.
dx
=0
dt t =0
(2.1.1)
Now, rearrange the expression for the displacement in the form:
x=
F + G ( p + q ) t F G ( p q ) t
e
+
e
2
2
(2.1.2)
Then, substitute (2.1.2) into (2.1.1), we have
dx
F + G ( p+q ) t
F G ( p q ) t
= ( p + q )
+ ( p q )
e
e
= 0
dt t =0
2
2
t =0
i.e.
qG = pF
(2.1.3)
By substitution of the expressions of q and p into equation (2.1.3), we have the ratio given by:
G
r
=
12
F
r 2 4ms
2.2
The first and second derivatives of x are given by:
( A + Bt )e rt 2m
x& = B
2m
rB r 2
&x& =
( A + Bt )e rt 2m
+
2
m 4m
We can verify the solution by substitution of x , x& and &x& into equation:
m&x& + rx& + sx = 0
then we have equation:
r2
s
( A + Bt ) = 0
4m
which is true for all t, provided the first bracketed term of the above equation is zero, i.e.
r2
=0
4m
r 2 4m 2 = s m
i.e.
2.3
The initial displacement of the system is given by:
x = e rt 2 m C1eit + C2e it = A cos at t = 0

So:
C1 + C2 = A cos
(2.3.1)
Now let the initial velocity of the system to be:
+ i C1e (r 2 m+i )t +
i C2e(r 2 mi )t = A sin at t = 0
x& =
2m
2m
i.e.
r
A cos + i (C1 C2 ) = A sin
2m
If r m is very small or 2 , the first term of the above equation approximately equals zero,
so we have:
C1 C2 = iA sin
(2.3.2)
From (2.3.1) and (2.3.2), C1 and C2 are given by:
A(cos + i sin )
=
2
A(cos i sin )
C2 =
=
2
C1 =
A i
e
2
A i
e
2
2.4
Use the relation between current and charge, I = q& , and the voltage equation:
q C + IR = 0
we have the equation:
Rq& + q C = 0
solve the above equation, we get:
q = C1e t RC
where C1 is arbitrary in value. Use initial condition, we get C1 = q0 ,
q = q0e t RC
i.e.
which shows the relaxation time of the process is RC s.

2.5
02 - 2 = 10-6 02 = r 2 4m 2 => 0 m r = 500
(a)
The condition also shows
0 , so:
Q = m r 0 m r = 500
Use
2
, we have:
r
=
= =
2m
m Q 500
(b) The stiffness of the system is given by:
s = 02 m = 1012 1010 = 100[ Nm 1 ]

and the resistive constant is given by:
r=
0 m
Q
106 1010
= 2 10 7 [ N sm 1 ]
500
(c) At t = 0 and maximum displacement, x& = 0 , energy is given by:
E=
1 2 1 2 1 2
1
mx& + sx = sxmax = 100 10 4 = 5 10 3[ J ]
2
2
2
2
1
Time for energy to decay to e of initial value is given by:
t=
m
1010
=
= 0.5[ms]
r 2 10 7
(d) Use definition of Q factor:
E
E
where, E is energy stored in system, and E is energy lost per cycle, so energy loss in the
Q = 2
first cycle, E1 , is given by:
E1 = E = 2
2.6
E
5 103
= 2
= 2 10 5[ J ]
Q
500
The frequency of a damped simple harmonic oscillation is given by:
2 = 02
Use
r2
r2
r2
2
2
=
=>
=
=>
0
0
4m 2
4m 2
4m 2 ( + 0 )
and Q =
0 m
r
we find fractional change in the resonant frequency is given by:
1
0
r2
= (8Q 2 )
2 2
0
8m 0
2.7
See page 71 of text. Analysis is the same as that in the text for the mechanical case except that
inductance L replaces mass m , resistance R replaces r and stiffness s is replaced by
1 C , where C is the capacitance. A large Q value requires a small R .

2.8
Electrons per unit area of the plasma slab is given by:
q = nle
When all the electrons are displaced a distance x , giving a restoring electric field:
E = nex / 0 the restoring force per unit area is given by:

F = qE =
xn 2e 2l
restoring force per unit area = electrons mass per unit area electrons acceleration
i.e.
F =
xn 2e 2l
= nlme &x&
&x& +
i.e.
ne 2
x=0
m 0
From the above equation, we can see the displacement distance of electrons, x , oscillates with
angular frequency:
e2 =
ne 2
me 0
2.9
As the string is shortened work is done against: (a) gravity (mg cos ) and (b) the centrifugal
force ( mv r = ml& ) along the time of shortening. Assume that during shortening there are
2
many swings of constant amplitude so work done is:
A = (mg cos + ml& 2 )l

where the bar denotes the average value. For small
, cos = 1 2 2 so:
A = mgl + (mg 2 2 ml& 2 )

The term mgl is the elevation of the equilibrium position and does not affect the energy of
motion so the energy change is:
E = (mg 2 2 ml& 2 )l
Now the pendulum motion has energy:
E=
m 2 &2
l + mgl (1 cos ) ,
2
that is, kinetic energy plus the potential energy related to the rest position, for small
becomes:
E=
this
ml 2& 2 mgl 2
+
2
2
which is that of a simple harmonic oscillation with linear amplitude l 0 .

Taking the solution
= 0 cos t which gives 2 = 02 2 and & 2 = 2 02 2 with
= g l we may write:
E=
ml 2 2 02 mgl 02
=
2
2
and
ml 2 02 ml 2 02
ml 2 02
l =
l
E =
4
2
4
so:
1 l
E
=
E
2 l
Now
= 2 = g l so the frequency varies with l 1 2 and
1 l E
=
2 l
E
so:
= constant
3.1
The solution of the vector form of the equation of motion for the forced oscillator:
m&x& + rx& + sx = F0eit

is given by:
x=
iF0ei (t )
iF
F
=
cos(t ) +
sin(t )
Z m
Z m
Z m
Since F0eit represents its imaginary part: F0 sin t , the value of x is given by the
imaginary part of the solution, i.e.:
x=
F
cos(t )
Z m
The velocity is given by:
v = x& =
F
sin(t )
Zm
3.2
The transient term of a forced oscillator decay with e rt 2 m to e- k at time t , i.e.:
rt 2m = k
so, we have the resistance of the system given by:

r = 2mk t
(3.2.1)
0 = s m
(3.2.2)
For small damping, we have
We also have steady state displacement given by:
x = x0 sin(t )
where the maximum displacement is:
x0 =
F0
r + (m s m) 2
2
(3.2.3)
By substitution of (3.2.1) and (3.2.2) into (3.2.3), we can find the average rate of
growth of the oscillations given by:
x0
F0
=
t
2km0
3.3
Write the equation of an undamped simple harmonic oscillator driven by a force of
frequency in the vector form, and use F0eit to represent its imaginary part
F0 sin t , we have:
m&x& + sx = F0eit
(3.3.1)
We try the steady state solution x = Aeit and the velocity is given by:
x& = iAeit = ix
so that:
&x& = i 2 2 x = 2 x
and equation (3.3.1) becomes:
( A 2 m + As )eit = F0eit
which is true for all t when
A 2 m + As = F0
F0
s 2m
F0
i.e.
x=
eit
2
s m
The value of x is the imaginary part of vector x , given by:
F0
x=
sin t
s 2m
A=
i.e.
i.e.
x=
F0 sin t
m(02 2 )
Hence, the amplitude of x is given by:
A=
F0
m( 2 )
2
0
where 02 =
s
m
and its behaviour as a function of frequency is shown in the following graph:
F0
m02
By solving the equation:

m&x& + sx = 0
we can easily find the transient term of the equation of the motion of an undamped
simple harmonic oscillator driven by a force of frequency is given by:
x = C cos 0t + D sin 0t
where, 0 = s m , C and D are constant. Finally, we have the general solution
for the displacement given by the sum of steady term and transient term:
x=
F0 sin t
+ C cos 0t + D sin 0t
m(02 2 )
(3.3.2)
3.4
In equation (3.3.2), x = 0 at t = 0 gives:
F sin t
+ A cos 0t + B sin 0t = A = 0
x t =0 = 0 2
2
m(0 )
t =0
(3.4.1)
In equation (3.3.2), x& = 0 at t = 0 gives:

F0 cos t
dx
F0
=
0 A sin 0t + 0 B cos 0t =
+ 0 B = 0
2
2
2
2
dt t =0 m(0 )
t =0 m(0 )
B=
i.e.
F0
m0 (02 2 )
(3.4.2)
By substitution of (3.4.1) and (3.4.2) into (3.3.2), we have:

x=
F0
sin
sin
t
0
0
m (02 2 )
By substitution of = 0 + into (3.4.3), we have:
(3.4.3)
x=
F0
sin 0t cos t + sin t cos 0t sin 0t
0
m(0 + )
(3.4.4)
Since 0 << 1 and t << 1 , we have:
0 , sin t t , and cos t 1

Then, equation (3.4.4) becomes:
x=
sin 0t + t cos 0t sin 0t

2m0
0
F0
x=
i.e.

sin 0t + t cos 0t
2m0 0
F0
i.e.
x=
F0 sin 0t
t cos 0t
2m0 0
i.e.
x=
F0
(sin 0t 0t cos 0t )
2m02
The behaviour of displacement x as a function of 0t is shown in the following
F0
2m02
3F0
2m02
5F0
2m02
7 F0
2m02
F0t
2m0
0 t
F0
m02
2 F0
m02
F0t
2m0
3F0
m02
graph:
3.5
The general expression of displacement of a simple damped mechanical oscillator
driven by a force F0 cos t is the sum of transient term and steady state term, given
by:
x = Ce
rt
+ ii t
2m
iF0 e i (t )
Z m
where, C is constant, Z m = r 2 + (m s ) 2 , t = s m r 2 4m 2 and
m s
, so the general expression of velocity is given by:
r
= tan 1
r
+iit F0 i (t )
v = x& = C
+ i t e 2 m
+
e
Zm
2m
rt
and the general expression of acceleration is given by:

rt
r2
it r 2 m +iit iF0 i (t )
2
e
v& = C 2 t
+
e
m
Zm
4m
r 2 2ms it r 2rtm +iit iF0 i (t )

e
v& = C
+
e
2
m
m
Z
2
i.e.
(3.5.1)
From (3.5.1), we find the amplitude of acceleration at steady state is given by:
v& =
F0
Zm
F0
r + (m s ) 2
2
At the frequency of maximum acceleration:
dv&
=0
d
d
F0
=0
d r 2 + (m s ) 2
i.e.
r 2ms +
2
i.e.
2 =
i.e.
2s 2
=0
2s 2
2sm r 2
Hence, we find the expression of the frequency of maximum acceleration given by:
2s 2
2sm r 2
The frequency of velocity resonance is given by: = s m , so if r = sm , the

acceleration amplitude at the frequency of velocity resonance is given by:
v& r =
sm
s m F0
F0
F
=
= 0
2
r + (m s )
sm + ( sm sm ) m
2
The limit of the acceleration amplitude at high frequencies is given by:

lim v& = lim
F0
= lim
r 2 + (m s ) 2
F0
s
+ m 2
2

r2
F0
m
So we have:
v& r =
sm
= lim v&

3.6
The displacement amplitude of a driven mechanical oscillator is given by:
x=
x=
i.e.
F0
r 2 + (m s ) 2
F0
2 r 2 + ( 2 m s) 2
(3.6.1)
The displacement resonance frequency is given by:
s
r2
m 2m 2
(3.6.2)
By substitution of (3.6.2) into (3.6.1), we have:

F0
x=
2
r2 r2
2 s
+
r
2
m 2m 2m
x=
i.e.
F0
s
r2
r
m 4m 2
which proves the exact amplitude at the displacement resonance of a driven

mechanical oscillator may be written as:
F
x= 0
r
where,
2 =
s
r2
m 4m 2
3.7
(a) The displacement amplitude is given by:
x=
F0
r 2 + (m s ) 2
At low frequencies, we have:

lim x = lim
0
F0
r + (m s )
2
F0
= lim
r + ( m s)
2 2
F0
s
(b) The velocity amplitude is given by:

F0
v=
r + (m s ) 2
2
At velocity resonance: = s m , so we have:

vr =
F0
r + (m s )
2
F0
r + ( sm sm )
2
= s m
F0
r
(c) From problem 3.5, we have the acceleration amplitude given by:
v& =
F0
r + (m s ) 2
2
At high frequency, we have:

lim v& = lim
F0
r + (m s )
2
F0
= lim
r + (m s )
2
2 2
F0
m
From (a), (b) and (c), we find lim x , vr and lim v& are all constants, i.e. they are all
0
frequency independent.
3.8
The expression of curve (a) in Figure 3.9 is given by:
xa =
where
F0 X m
F0 m(02 2 )
=
Z m2
m 2 (02 2 ) 2 + 2 r 2
(3.8.1)
0 = s m
xa has either maximum or minimum value when
dxa
=0
d
i.e.
d
F0 m(02 2 )
=0
2 2
2 2
2 2
d m (0 ) + r
i.e.
m 2 (02 2 ) 2 02 r 2 = 0
Then, we have two solutions of given by:
1 = 02
0 r
m
(3.8.2)
and
2 = 02 +
0 r
m
(3.8.3)
Since r is very small, rearrange the expressions of 1 and 2 , we have:
0 r
0 r
r
r2
r
1 =
= 0
0

2
m
2m 4m
2m
2
0
r
r2
r
2 = +
0 +
= 0 +

2
m
2m 4m
2m
2
0
The maximum and the minimum values of xa can found by substitution of (3.8.2)
and (3.8.3) into (3.8.1), so we have:
when = 1 :
xa =
F0
F
0
2
20 r 0 r m 20 r
which is the maximum value of xa , and

when = 2 :
xa =
F0
F
0
2
20 r + 0 r m
20 r
which is the minimum value of xa .
3.9
The undamped oscillatory equation for a bound electron is given by:
&x& + 02 x = ( eE0 m) cos t
(3.9.1)
Try solution x = A cos t in equation (3.9.1), we have:

( 2 + 02 ) A cos t = ( eE0 m) cos t
which is true for all t provided:
( 2 + 02 ) A = eE0 m
i.e.
A=
eE0
m(02 2 )
So, we find a solution to equation (3.9.1) given by:

x=
eE0
cos t
m(02 2 )
(3.9.2)
For an electron number density n , the induced polarizability per unit volume of a
medium is given by:
e =
nex
0E
(3.9.3)
By substitution of (3.9.2) and E = E0 cos t into (3.9.3), we have
e =
nex
ne 2
=
0 E 0 m(02 2 )
3.10
The forced mechanical oscillator equation is given by:
m&x& + rx& + sx = F0 cos t
which can be written as:
m&x& + rx& + m02 x = F0 cos t
(3.10.1)
where, 0 = s m . Its solution can be written as:

x=
F0 r
FX
sin t 0 2m cos t
2
Z m
Z m
(3.10.2)
m s
where, X m = m s , Z m = r 2 + (m s ) 2 , = tan 1
By taking the displacement x as the component represented by curve (a) in Figure

3.9, i.e. by taking the second term of equation (3.10.2) as the expression of x , we
have:
x=
F0 X m
F0 m(02 2 )
cos
t
cos t
=
Z m2
m 2 (02 2 ) 2 + 2 r 2
(3.10.3)
The damped oscillatory electron equation can be written as:

m&x& + rx& + m02 x = eE0 cos t
(3.10.4)
Comparing (3.10.1) with (3.10.4), we can immediately find the displacement x for a
damped oscillatory electron by substituting F0 = eE0 into (3.10.3), i.e.:
x=
eE0 m(02 2 )
cos t
m 2 (02 2 ) 2 + 2 r 2
(3.10.5)
By substitution of (3.10.5) into (3.9.3), we can find the expression of for a

damped oscillatory electron is given by:
nex
ne 2 m(02 2 )
=
0 E 0 [m 2 (02 2 ) 2 + 2 r 2 ]
So we have:
ne 2 m(02 2 )
r = 1+ = 1+
cos t
0 [m 2 (02 2 ) 2 + 2 r 2 ]
3.11
The instantaneous power dissipated is equal to the product of frictional force and the
instantaneous velocity, i.e.:
P = (rx& ) x& = r
F02
cos 2 (t )
Z m2
The period for a given frequency is given by:

2
T=
Therefore, the energy dissipated per cycle is given by:

T
E = Pdt =
F02
cos 2 (t )dt
2
Zm
rF02
[1 cos 2(t )]dt
2 Z m2
2 rF02
=
2Z m2
(3.11.1)
rF02
=
Z m2
The displacement is given by:
x=
F0
sin(t )
Z m
so we have:
xmax =
F0
Z m
(3.11.2)

2
E = rxmax
3.12
The low frequency limit of the bandwidth of the resonance absorption curve 1
satisfies the equation:
1m s 1 = r
which defines the phase angle given by:
tan 1 =
1m s 1
r
= 1
The high frequency limit of the bandwidth of the resonance absorption curve 2
2 m s 2 = r
which defines the phase angle given by:
tan 2 =
2 m s 2
r
=1
3.13
For a LCR series circuit, the current through the circuit is given by
I = I 0eit
The voltage across the inductance is given by:
dI
d
L
= L I 0eit = iLI 0 eit = iLI
dt
dt
i.e. the amplitude of voltage across the inductance is:
VL = LI 0
(3.13.1)
The voltage across the condenser is given by:

1
1
q 1
iI
I 0eit =
= Idt = eit dt =
C C
C
iC
C
i.e. the amplitude of the voltage across the condenser is:
I
VC = 0
C
(3.13.2)
When an alternating voltage, amplitude V0 is applied across LCR series circuit,

current amplitude I 0 is given by: I 0 = V0 Z e , where the impedance Z e is given
by:
1
Z m = R + L
At current resonance, I 0 has the maximum value:

I0 =
and the resonant frequency 0 is given by:
V0
R
(3.13.3)
0 L
1
= 0 or 0 =
0 C
LC
(3.13.4)

L
VL = 0 V0
R
VC =
L V0 0 L
=
V0
R
LC R
V0
LC
L V0
=
V0 =
=
0 RC
RC
C R
Noting that the quality factor of an LCR series circuit is given by:
L
Q= 0
R
so we have:
VL = VC = QV0
3.14
In a resonant LCR series circuit, the potential across the condenser is given by:
I
(3.14.1)
VC =
C
where, I is the current through the whole LCR series circuit, and is given by:
I = I 0eit
(3.14.2)
The current amplitude I 0 is given by:

I0 =
V0
Ze
(3.14.3)
where, V0 is the voltage amplitude applied across the whole LCR series circuit and is
a constant. Z e is the impedance of the whole circuit, given by:
1
Z e = R 2 + L
From (3.14.1), (3.14.2), (3.14.3), and (3.14.4) we have:

VC =
V0
1
C R 2 + L
which has the maximum value when
eit = VC 0eit
dVC 0
= 0 , i.e.:
d
(3.14.4)
d
d
V0
1
C R 2 + L
=0
1
1
2 2
R + L
+ L 2 2 = 0
C
C
i.e.
L
=0
C
i.e.
R 2 + 2 2 L2 2
i.e.
1
R2
1
2 = 0 1 Q02
LC 2 L
2
where 02 =
=
L
1
, Q0 = 0
LC
R
3.15
In a resonant LCR series circuit, the potential across the inductance is given by:
VL = LI
(3.15.1)
where, I is the current through the whole LCR series circuit, and is given by:
I = I 0eit
(3.15.2)
The current amplitude I 0 is given by:

I0 =
V0
Ze
(3.15.3)
where, V0 is the voltage amplitude applied across the whole LCR series circuit and is
a constant. Z e is the impedance of the whole circuit, given by:
1
Z e = R + L
From (3.15.1), (3.15.2), (3.15.3), and (3.15.4) we have:

VL =
LV0
1
R 2 + L
which has the maximum value when
eit = VL 0eit
dVL 0
= 0 , i.e.:
d
(3.15.4)
LV0
d
d
R 2 + L
=0
1
1
2 2
R + L
L + 2 2 = 0
C
C
i.e.
R2 +
i.e.
i.e.
where 02 =
1
=
R 2C 2
LC
2
1
LC
2
L
2 = 0
2
C
C
2
1
1
0
= 0
=
2
2
RC
R
1
1
1 2 2
1 Q02
2L
2 L 0
2
L
1
, Q0 = 0
LC
R
3.16
Considering an electron in an atom as a lightly damped simple harmonic oscillator,
we know its resonance absorption bandwidth is given by:
r
(3.16.1)
=
m
On the other hand, the relation between frequency and wavelength of light is given
by:
c
(3.16.2)
f =
where, c is speed of light in vacuum. From (3.16.2) we find at frequency resonance:
f =
20
where 0 is the wavelength at frequency resonance. Then, the relation between

angular frequency bandwidth and the width of spectral line is given by:
= 2 f =
2c
20
From (3.16.1) and (3.16.3) we have:
20 r
r
= 0 = 0
2cm 0 m Q
So the width of the spectral line from such an atom is given by:
0
Q
0.6 10 6
= 1.2 10 14 [m]
7
5 10
(3.16.3)
3.17
According to problem 3.6, the displacement resonance frequency r and the
xmax are given by:
corresponding displacement amplitude
r = 02
r2
2m 2
F0
Z m
xmax =
=r
where, Z m = r 2 + (m s ) 2 , = 02
F0
r
r2
, 0 =
4m 2
s
m
Now, at half maximum displacement:

F0
x
F
= max = 0
2
2 r
Z m
r 2 + (m s ) 2 = 2 r
i.e.
2
2
s
s
r2
r + m = 4 2 r 2
m 4m
i.e.
4 +
i.e.
(r 2 2sm) 2 s 2 4sr 2 r 4
+ 2 3 + 4 =0
m2
m
m
m
2
i.e.
s
r2 2 s
r 2 3r 2 s
r2
2 2 + 2 2 2 = 0
m 2m m m 4m
m 2m
4
i.e.
i.e.
3r 2
( )
= 0
m
2 2
r
2 r2 =
3r 2
(3.17.1)
If 1 and 2 are the two solutions of equation (3.17.1), and 2 > 1 , then:
22 r2 =
12 r2 =
3r 2
m
3r 2
(3.17.2)
(3.17.3)
Since the Q-value is high, we have:

Q=
0 m
r
02 >>
i.e.
>> 1
r2
m2
r 0
i.e.
Then, from (3.17.2) and (3.17.3) we have:

( 2 1 )( 2 + 1 )
2 3r 2
0
m
1 + 2 2 0
and
Therefore, the width of displacement resonance curve is given by:
2 1
3r
m
3.18
In Figure 3.9, curve (b) corresponds to absorption, and is given by:
x=
F0 r
F r
sin t = 2 2 0 2 2
sin t
2
Z m
m (0 ) + 2 r 2
and the velocity component corresponding to absorption is given by:

v = x& =
F0 2 r
cos t
m 2 (02 2 ) 2 + 2 r 2
For Problem 3.10, the velocity component corresponding to absorption can be given
by substituting F0 = eE0 into the above equation, i.e.:
v = x& =
eE0 2 r
cos t
m 2 (02 2 ) 2 + 2 r 2
(3.18.1)
For an electron density of n , the instantaneous power supplied equal to the product
of the instantaneous driving force neE0 cos t and the instantaneous velocity, i.e.:
eE0 2 r
cos
P = (neE0 cos t ) 2 2
t
2 2
2 2
(
)
m
r
0
2 2 2
ne E0 r
= 2 2
cos 2 t
m (0 2 ) 2 + 2 r 2
The average power supplied per unit volume is then given by:
2
Pdt
2 0
2
ne 2 E02 2 r
=
cos 2 t
2
2
2 2
2 2
0
2
m (0 ) + r
Pav =
ne 2 E02
2r
2 m 2 (02 2 ) 2 + 2 r 2
which is also the mean rate of energy absorption per unit volume.
4.1
The kinetic energy of the system is the sum of the separate kinetic energy of the two
masses, i.e.:
Ek =
1 2 1 2 1 1
1
1
1
mx& + my& = m ( x& + y& ) 2 + ( x& y& ) 2 = mX& 2 + mY& 2
2
2
2 2
2
4
4
The potential energy of the system is the sum of the separate potential energy of the
two masses, i.e.:
1 mg 2 1
1 mg 2 1
Ep =
x + s( y x)2 +
y + s( x y)2
2 l
2
2 l
2
1 mg 2
( x + y 2 ) + s( x y)2
=
2 l
1 mg 1
1
2
x
y
(
)
( x y)2 + s( x y)2
=
+
+
2 l 2
2
1 mg 2 1 mg
X +
+ s Y 2
4 l
2 l
Comparing the expression of Ek and E p with the definition of E X and EY given

by (4.3a) and (4.3b), we have:
mg
1
1
mg
, c = m , and d =
a = m, b =
+s
4l
2l
2
4
Noting that:
12
12
12
12
m
m
X q = ( x + y) = X
2
2
m
m
Yq = ( x y ) = Y
2
c
and
m
X =
2
i.e.
1 2
Xq
m
and Y =
2
1 2
Yq
we have the kinetic energy of the system given by:

2
1 2 &
1 2 &
1
1
E k = aX& + cY& = m
X q + m
Yq = X& q2 + Y&q2
4 m
4 m
2
2
2
and
2
mg 2 mg
1 g 2 g 2s 2
2
E p = bX + dY =
+ s
Xq +
Yq =
X q + + Yq
4l m 2l
2 l
m
l m
2
which are the expressions given by (4.4a) and (4.4b)
4.2
The total energy of Problem 4.1 can be written as:
1
1
1 mg 2
E = Ek + E p = mx& 2 + my& 2 +
( x + y 2 ) + s( x y) 2
2
2
2 l
The above equation can be rearranged as the format:
E = ( Ekin + E pot ) x + ( Ekin + E pot ) y + ( E pot ) xy
where, ( Ekin + E pot ) x =
1 2 mg
1
mg
+ s x 2 , ( Ekin + E pot ) y = my& 2 +

+ s y2 ,
mx& +
2
2
l
2
2
l
and E pot = 2 sxy
4.3
x = 2a , y = 0 :
-X
-2a
y=0
-a
-a
-a
x = 0 , y = 2 a :
-X
x=0
-2a
-a
-a
4.4
For mass m1 , Newtons second law gives:
m1&x&1 = sx
For mass m2 , Newtons second law gives:
m2 &x&2 = sx
-a
Provided x is the extension of the spring and l is the natural length of the spring,
we have:
x2 x1 = l + x
By elimination of x1 and x2 , we have:
s
s
x
x = &x&
m2
m1
&x& +
i.e.
m1 + m2
sx = 0
m1m2
which shows the system oscillate at a frequency:
2 =
where,
m1m2
m1 + m2
For a sodium chloride molecule the interatomic force constant s is given by:
s = 2 =
(2 ) 2 mNa mCl 4 2 (1.14 1013 ) 2 (23 35) (1.67 1027 ) 2

=
120[ Nm 1 ]
mNa + mCl
(23 + 35) 1.67 10 27
4.5
If the upper mass oscillate with a displacement of x and the lower mass oscillate
with a displacement of y , the equations of motion of the two masses are given by
Newtons second law as:
m&x& = s ( y x) sx
m&y& = s ( x y )
i.e.
m&x& + s ( x y ) sx = 0
m&y& s ( x y ) = 0
Suppose the system starts from rest and oscillates in only one of its normal modes of
frequency , we may assume the solutions:
x = Aeit
y = Beit
where A and B are the displacement amplitude of x and y at frequency .
Using these solutions, the equations of motion become:
[m 2 A + s( A B) + sA]eit = 0
[m 2 B s( A B)]eit = 0
We may, by dividing through by me it , rewrite the above equations in matrix form
as:
2 s m 2
s m
s m A
= 0
s m 2 B
(4.5.1)
which has a non-zero solution if and only if the determinant of the matrix vanishes;
that is, if
(2s m 2 )( s m 2 ) s 2 m 2 = 0
i.e.
4 (3s m) 2 + s 2 m 2 = 0
2 = (3 5 )
i.e.
s
2m
In the slower mode, 2 = (3 5 ) s 2m . By substitution of the value of frequency

into equation (4.5.1), we have:
A
s
s m 2
5 1
=
=
=
2
B 2 s m
s
2
which is the ratio of the amplitude of the upper mass to that of the lower mass.
Similarly, in the slower mode, 2 = (3 + 5 ) s 2m . By substitution of the value of
frequency into equation (4.5.1), we have:
A
s
s m 2
5 +1
=
=
=
2
B 2 s m
s
2
4.6
The motions of the two pendulums in Figure 4.3 are given by:
( 1 )t
( + 2 )t
x = 2a cos 2
cos 1
= 2a cos mt cos at
2
2
( 1 )t
( + 2 )t
y = 2a sin 2
sin 1
= 2a sin mt sin at
2
2
where, the amplitude of the two masses, 2a cos mt and 2a sin mt , are constants
over one cycle at the frequency a .
Supposing the spring is very weak, the stiffness of the spring is ignorable, i.e. s 0 .
Noting that 12 = g l and 22 = ( g l + 2s m) , we have:

g
+ 2
2
= 12 22 1
= a
l
2
2
Hence, the energies of the masses are given by:

1
1 mg
(2a cos mt )2 = 2ma 2a2 cos 2 mt
s x a x2 =
2
2 l
1
1 mg
(2a sin mt )2 = 2ma 2a2 sin 2 mt
E y = s y a y2 =
2
2 l
Ex =
The total energy is given by:
E = Ex + E y = 2ma 2a2 (cos2 mt + sin 2 mt ) = 2ma 2a2

Noting that m = (2 1 ) 2 , we have:
E
[1 + cos(2 1 )t ]
2
E
E y = 2ma 2a2 sin 2 (2 1 )t = [1 cos(2 1 )t ]
2
which show that the constant energy E is completed exchanged between the two
E x = 2ma 2a2 cos 2 (2 1 )t =
pendulums at the beat frequency (2 1 ) .

4.7
By adding up the two equations of motion, we have:
m1&x& + m2 &y& = (m1 x + m2 y )( g l )

By multiplying the equation by 1 (m1 + m2 ) on both sides, we have:
m1 &x& + m2 &y&
g m1 x + m2 y
=
m1 + m2
l m1 + m2
m1 &x& + m2 &y& g m1 x + m2 y
+
=0
m1 + m2
l m1 + m2
i.e.
X&& + 12 X = 0
(4.7.1)
where,
X =
m1 x + m2 y
and
m1 + m2
12 = g l
On the other hand, the equations of motion can be written as:

&x& =
g
s
x ( x y)
l
m1
&y& =
g
s
y+
( x y)
l
m2
By subtracting the above equations, we have:
s
g
s
&x& &y& = ( x y ) +
( x y )
l
m1 m2
g 1
1
&x& &y& + + s +
( x y ) = 0
m1 m2
l
i.e.
Y&& + 22Y = 0
(4.7.2)
where,
Y = x y
and
22 =
g 1
1
+ s +
l
m1 m2
Equations (4.7.1) and (4.7.2) take the form of linear differential equations with
constant coefficients and each equation contains only one dependant variable,
therefore X and Y are normal coordinates and their normal frequencies are given
by 1 and 2 respectively.
4.8
Since the initial condition gives x& = y& = 0 , we may write, in normal coordinate, the
solutions to the equations of motion of Problem 4.7 as:
X = X 0 cos 1t
Y = Y0 cos 2t
i.e.
m1 x + m2 y
= X 0 cos 1t
m1 + m2
x y = Y0 cos 2t
By substitution of initial conditions: t = 0 , x = A and y = 0 into the above

equations, we have:
X 0 = ( m1 M ) A
Y0 = A
M = m1 + m2
where,
so the equations of motion in original coordinates x , y are given by:

m1 x + m2 y m1
=
A cos 1t
m1 + m2
M
x y = A cos 2t
The solutions to the above equations are given by:

A
x=
(m1 cos 1t + m2 cos 2t )
M
m
y = A 1 (cos 1t cos 2t )
M
Noting that
1 = a m
and
2 = a + m , where m = (2 1 ) 2
and
a = (1 + 2 ) 2 , the above equations can be rearranged as:

A
[m1 cos(a m )t + m2 cos(a + m )t ]
M
A
= [m1 (cos mt cos a t + sin mt sin at ) + m2 (cos mt cos a t sin mt sin at )]
M
A
= [(m1 + m2 ) cos mt cos a t + (m1 m2 ) sin mt sin a t ]
M
A
= A cos mt cos at + (m1 m2 ) sin mt sin at
M
x=
and
m1
[cos(a m )t cos(a + m )t ]
M
m
= 2 A 1 sin mt sin at
M
y=A
4.9
From the analysis in Problem 4.6, we know, at weak coupling conditions, cos mt
and sin mt are constants over one cycle, and the relation: a g l , so the energy
of the mass m1 , E x , and the energy of the mass m2 , E y , are the sums of their
separate kinetic and potential energies, i.e.:
1
1
1
1 mg 2 1
1
m1 x& 2 + s x x 2 = m1 x& 2 +
x = m1 x& 2 + m1a2 x 2
2
2
2
2 l
2
2
1
1
1
1 mg 2 1
1
E y = m21 y& 2 + s y y 2 = m2 y& 2 +
y = m1 y& 2 + m1a2 y 2
2
2
2
2 l
2
2
Ex =
By substitution of the expressions of x and y in terms of cos a t and sin a t

given by Problem 4.8 into the above equations, we have:
2
Ex =
A
1
m1 Aa cos mt sin a t + a (m1 m2 ) sin mt cos a t +

M
2
A
1
m1a2 A cos mt cos a t + (m1 m2 ) sin mt sin a t

M
2
=
=
=
=
2
1
2 A
m1a 2 (m1 + m2 ) 2 cos 2 mt + (m1 m2 ) 2 sin 2 mt
M
2
A2
1
m1a2 2 m12 + m22 + 2m1m2 (cos 2 mt sin 2 mt )
M
2
A2
1
m1a2 2 m12 + m22 + 2m1m2 cos 2mt
M
2
E
m12 + m22 + 2m1m2 cos(2 1 )t
2
M
and
2
1 m
1
m
E y = m2 2 A 1 a sin mt cos at + m1a2 2 A 1 sin mt sin a t

2 M
2
M
A2
sin 2 mt (cos 2 at + sin 2 at )
M2
A2
= 2m12 m2a2 2 sin 2 mt
M
1
2m m
= m1a2 A2 1 2 2 [1 cos 2mt ]
2
M
= 2m12 m2a2
2m m
= E 1 2 2 [1 cos(2 1 )t ]
M
where,
E=
1
m1a2 A2
2
4.10
Add up the two equations and we have:
mg
m( &x& + &y&) +
( x + y ) + r ( x& + y& ) = F0 cos t
l
mg
i.e.
mX&& + rX& +
X = F0 cos t
l
Subtract the two equations and we have:
mg
m( &x& &y&) +
( x y ) + r ( x& y& ) + 2s( x y ) = F0 cos t
l
(4.10.1)
i.e.
mg
mY&& + rY& +
+ 2s Y = F0 cos t
l
(4.10.2)
Equations (4.10.1) and (4.10.2) shows that the normal coordinates X and Y are
those for damped oscillators driven by a force F0 cos t .
By neglecting the effect of r , equation of (4.10.1) and (4.10.2) become:
mg
X F0 cos t
l
mg
mY&& +
+ 2s Y F0 cos t
l
mX&& +
Suppose the above equations have solutions: X = X 0 cos t and Y = Y0 cos t , by

substitution of the solutions to the above equations, we have:
mg
2
m +
X 0 cos t F0 cos t
l
mg
2
+ 2 s Y0 cos t F0 cos t
m +
l
These equations satisfy any t if

mg
2
m +
X 0 F0
l
mg
2
+ 2 s Y0 F0
m +
l
X0
i.e.
Y0
F0
m( g l 2 )
F0
m( g l + 2 s m 2 )
so the expressions of X and Y are given by:

X = x+ y
F0
cos t
m( g l 2 )
Y = x y
F0
cos t
m( g l + 2 s m 2 )
By solving the above equations, the expressions of x and y are given by:
F0
1
1
cos t 2
+ 2
2
2
2m
2
1
F
1
1
y 0 cos t 2
2
2
2
2m
2
1
where,
12 =
g
l
22 =
and
g 2s
+
l m
The ratio of y x is given by:

1
F0
1
1
1
+ 2
cos t 2
+ 2
2
2
2
2
2
y 2m
22 12
1 2 = 1 2 =
1
1
x
22 + 12 2 2
1
F0
1
cos t 2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2m
1 2 1 2
y
x
1
22 + 12

+
2
2
2
2
2
1
2
1
-1
The behaviour of y x as a function of frequency is shown as the figure below:

The figure shows y x is less than 1 if < 1 or > 2 , i.e. outside frequency
range 2 1 the motion of y is attenuated.
4.11
Suppose the displacement of mass M is x , the displacement of mass m is y ,
and the tension of the spring is T . Equations of motion give:
M&x& + kx = F0 cos t + T
m&y& = T
s ( y x) = T
(4.11.1)
(4.11.2)
(4.11.3)
Eliminating T , we have:
M&x& + kx = F0 cos t + s ( y x)
so for x = 0 at all times, we have
F0 cos t + sy = 0
that is
y=
F0
cos t
s
Equation (4.11.2) and (4.11.3) now give:
m&y& + sy = 0
with 2 = s m , so M is stationary at 2 = s m .
This value of
satisfies all equations of motion for
x=0
including
T = F0 cos t
4.12
Noting the relation: V = q C , the voltage equations can be written as:
q1 q2
dI
=L a
C C
dt
q2 q3
dI
=L b
C C
dt
so we have:
q&1 q& 2 = LCI&&a
q& q& = LCI&&
2
i.e.
q&1 q&2 = LCI&&a
q& q& = LCI&&
2
By substitution of q&1 = I a , q& 2 = I a I b and q&3 = I b into the above equations, we

have:
I a I a + I b = LCI&&a
I I I = LCI&&
a
i.e.
LCI&&a + 2 I a I b = 0
LCI&&b I a + 2 I b = 0
By adding up and subtracting the above equations, we have:

LC ( I&& + I&& ) + I + I = 0
a
LC ( I&&a I&&b ) + 3( I a I b ) = 0
Supposing the solutions to the above normal modes equations are given by:
I a + I b = A cos t
I a I b = B cos t
so we have:
( A 2 LC + A) cos t = 0
( B 2 LC + 3B) cos t = 0
which are true for all t when
2 =
1
LC
and
B=0
or
3
and
A=0
LC
which show that the normal modes of oscillation are given by:
1
I a = I b at 12 =
LC
and
3
I a = I b at 22 =
LC
2 =
4.13
From the given equations, we have the relation between I1 and I 2 given by:
I2 =
i M
I1
Z 2 + iLs
so:
2M
I1
E = iL p I1 iMI 2 = iL p +
Z 2 + iLs
i.e.
E
2M 2
= iL p +
I1
Z 2 + iLs
which shows that E I1 , the impedance of the whole system seen by the generator, is
the sum of the primary impedance, iL p , and a reflected impedance from the
secondary circuit of 2 M 2 Z s , where Z s = Z 2 + iLs .
4.14
Problem 4.13 shows the impedance seen by the generator Z is given by:
2M 2
Z = iL p +
Z 2 + iLs
Noting that M = L p Ls and L p Ls = n 2p ns2 , the impedance can be written as:
Z=
iL p Z 2 2 L p Ls + 2 M 2
Z 2 + iLs
i L p Z 2 2 M 2 + 2 M 2
Z 2 + iLs
iL p Z 2
Z 2 + iLs
so we have:
1 Z 2 + iLs
1
1
1
1
=
==
+
=
+ 2
Z
iL p Z 2
iL p L p
iL p n p
Z2
Z2
Ls
ns2
which shows the impedance Z is equivalent to the primary impedance iL p
connected in parallel with an impedance (n p ns ) 2 Z 2 .
4.15
Suppose a generator with the internal impedance of Z1 is connected with a load with
an impedance of Z 2 via an ideal transformer with a primary inductance of L p and
the ratio of the number of primary and secondary transformer coil turns given by
n p ns , and the whole circuit oscillate at a frequency of . From the analysis in
Problem 4.13, the impedance of the load is given by:

1
1
1
=
+ 2
Z L i L p n p
Z2
ns2
At the maximum output power: Z L = Z1 , i.e.:
1
1
1
1
=
+ 2
=
Z L iL p n p
Z1
Z2
2
ns
which is the relation used for matching a load to a generator.
4.16
From the second equation, we have:
I1 =
Z2
I2
ZM
By substitution into the first equation, we have:
Z1Z 2
I2 + ZM I2 = E
ZM
I2 =
i.e.
E
I1
Z1Z 2
Z M
Z M
Noting that Z M = iM and I 2 has the maximum value when X 1 = X 2 = 0 , i.e.

Z1 = R1 and Z 2 = R2 , we have:
I2 =
E
iM
R1 R2
i M
I1 =
M +
R1R2
M
I1
2 M
which shows I 2 has the maximum value of
R1 R2
M
I1 =
E
I1
2 R1R2
RR
E
I1 , when M = 1 2 , i.e.
M
2 R1R2
M = R1 R2
4.17
By substitution of j = 1 and n = 3 into equation (4.15), we have:
2
12 = 202 1 cos = 202 1
= (2 2 )0
4
2
12 = 202 1 cos
2
= 202
12 = 202 1 cos
3
2
2
= 202 1 +
= (2 + 2 )0
4
2
In equation (4.14), we have A0 = A4 = 0 when n = 3 , and noting that 02 = T ma ,

equation (4.14) gives:
2
A0 + 2 2 A1 A2 = 0
0
when r = 1 :
2
2 2 A1 A2 = 0
0
(4.17.1)
2
A1 + 2 2 A2 A3 = 0
0
(4.17.2)
i.e.
when r = 2 :
2
A2 + 2 2 A3 A4 = 0
0
when r = 3 :
A2 + 2 2 A3 = 0
0
i.e.
(4.17.3)
Write the above equations in matrix format, we have:

2 2 02
A1
1
0

1
1
2 2 02
A2 = 0
2
2
1
0
2 0 A3
which has non zero solutions provided the determinant of the matrix is zero, i.e.:
(2 2 02 )3 2(2 2 02 ) = 0
The solutions to the above equations are given by:
12 = (2 2 )02 ,`
22 = 202 , and
12 = (2 + 2 )02
4.18
By substitution of 12 = (2 2 )02 into equation (4.17.1), we have:
2 A1 A2 = 0
i.e.
A1 : A2 = 1 : 2
By substitution of 12 = (2 2 )02 into equation (4.17.3), we have:

A2 + 2 A3 = 0 i.e.
A2 : A3 = 2 : 1
Hence, when 12 = (2 2 )02 , the relative displacements are given by:

A1 : A2 : A3 = 1 : 2 : 1
By substitution of 22 = 202 into equation (4.17.1), we have:

A2 = 0
By substitution of 22 = 202 into equation (4.17.2), we have:

A1 + A3 = 0
i.e.
A1 : A3 = 1 : 1
Hence, when 22 = 202 , the relative displacements are given by:

A1 : A2 : A3 = 1 : 0 : 1
By substitution of 22 = (2 + 2 )02 into equation (4.17.1), we have:

2 A1 A2 = 0 i.e.
A1 : A2 = 1 : 2
By substitution of 12 = (2 + 2 )02 into equation (4.17.3), we have:

A2 2 A3 = 0 i.e.
A2 : A3 = 2 : 1
Hence, when 12 = (2 + 2 )02 , the relative displacements are given by:

A1 : A2 : A3 = 1 : 2 : 1
The relative displacements of the three masses at different normal frequencies are
shown below:
2 = (2 2 )02
2 = 202
2 = (2 + 2 )02
As we can see from the above figures that tighter coupling corresponds to higher
frequency.
4.19
Suppose the displacement of the left mass m is x , and that of the central mass M
is y , and that of the right mass m is z . The equations of motion are given by:
m&x& = s ( y x)
M&y& = s ( y x) + s ( z y )
m&z& = s ( z y )
If the system has a normal frequency of , and the displacements of the three masses
can by written as:
x = 1eit
y = 2eit
z = 3eit
By substitution of the expressions of displacements into the above equations of

motion, we have:
m 21eit = s ( 2 1 )eit
M 2 2eit = s ( 2 1 )eit + s (3 2 )eit
m 23eit = s (3 2 )eit
i.e.
[( s m 2 )1 s 2 ]eit = 0
[ s1 + (2s M 2 ) 2 s3 ]eit = 0
[ s 2 + ( s m 2 )3 ]eit = 0
which is true for all t if
( s m 2 )1 s 2 = 0
s1 + (2s M 2 ) 2 s3 = 0
s 2 + ( s m 2 )3 = 0
The matrix format of these equations is given by:
s m 2
0 1
s

2
2s M
s 2 = 0
s
0
s m 2 3
s
which has non zero solutions if and only if the determinant of the matrix is zero, i.e.:
( s m 2 ) 2 (2s M 2 ) 2s 2 ( s m 2 ) = 0
i.e.
( s m 2 )[(s m 2 )(2s M 2 ) 2s 2 ] = 0
i.e.
( s m 2 )[mM 4 s ( M + 2m) 2 ] = 0
i.e.
2 ( s m 2 )[mM 2 s ( M + 2m)] = 0
The solutions to the above equation, i.e. the frequencies of the normal modes, are
given by:
s
s ( M + 2m)
12 = 0 , 22 =
and 32 =
m
mM
At the normal mode of 2 = 0 , all the atoms are stationary, 1 = 2 = 3 , i.e. all the
masses has the same displacement;
s
At the normal mode of 2 = , 2 = 0 and 1 = 3 , i.e. the mass M is
m
stationary, and the two masses m have the same amplitude but are anti-phase with
respect to each other;
s ( M + 2m)
At the normal mode of 2 =
, 1 : 2 : 3 = M : 2m : M , i.e. the two
mM
mass m have the same amplitude and are in-phase with respect to each other.
They are both anti-phase with respect to the mass M . The ratio of amplitude
between the mass m and M is M 2m .
4.20
In understanding the motion of the masses it is more instructive to consider the range
n 2 j n . For each value of the frequency j the amplitude of the r th mass is
Ar = C sin
rj
where C is a constant. For j = n 2 adjacent masses have a 2
n +1
phase difference, so the ratios: Ar 1 : Ar : Ar +1 = 1 : 0 : 1 , with the r th masses

stationary and the amplitude Ar 1 anti-phase with respect to Ar +1 , so that:
Ar 0
Ar +1
Ar
Ar 1
j=n 2
jn
As n 2 n , Ar begins to move, the coupling between masses tightens and when

j is close to n each mass is anti-phase with respect to its neighbour, the amplitude
of each mass decreases until in the limit j = n no motion is transmitted as the cut off
frequency 2j = 4T ma is reached. The end points are fixed and this restricts the
motion of the masses near the end points at all frequencies except the lowest.
4.21
By expansion of the expression of 2j , we have:
2j =
j 2T ( j n + 1) 2 ( j n + 1) 4 ( j n + 1) 6
2T
+
L
1 cos
=
ma
n + 1 ma
2!
4!
6!
If n >> 1 and j << n , j n + 1 has a very small value, so the high order terms of
the above equation can be neglected, so the above equation become:
2T ( j n + 1) 2 T j
=
= ma n + 1
ma
2!
2
j
j =
i.e.
j
T
n + 1 ma
j =
j
l
where, = m a and l = (n + 1)a
4.22
From the first equation, we have:
LI&&r 1 =
q& r 1 q& r
C
By substitution of q& r = I r 1 I r and q& r 1 = I r 2 I r 1 into the above equation, we

have:
I r 2 2 I r 1 + I r
(4.22.1)
C
If, in the normal mode, the currents oscillate at a frequency , we may write the
displacements as:
LI&&r 1 =
I r 2 = Ar 2eit , I r 1 = Ar 1eit and I r = Ar eit
Using these values of I in equation (4.22.1) gives:

A 2 Ar 1 + Ar it
2 LAr 1eit = r 2
e
C
or
Ar 2 + (2 LC 2 ) Ar 1 Ar = 0
(4.22.2)
By comparison of equation (4.22.2) with equation (4.14) in text book, we may find
the expression of I r is the same as that of yr in the case of mass-loaded string, i.e.
rj it
e
n +1
Where D is constant, and the frequency is given by:
I r = Ar eit = D sin
2j =
1
j
1 cos
LC
n +1
where, j = 1,2,3...n
4.23
By substitution of y into
2 y
, we have:
t 2
2 y 2 it ikx
= 2 (e e ) = 2ei (t + kx )
2
t
t
By substitution of y into
2 y
, we have:
x 2
2 y 2 it ikx
=
(e e ) = k 2ei (t +kx )
x 2 x 2
If = ck , we have:
2 y 2 2 y
c
= ( 2 + c 2 k 2 )ei (t +kx ) = 0
2
2
t
x
i.e.
2
2 y
2 y
=
c
t 2
x 2
5.1
Write u = ct + x , and try
2 y
with y = f 2 (ct + x) , we have:
x 2
y f 2 (u )
2 y 2 f 2 (u )
=
, and
=
x 2
u 2
u
x
Try
1 2 y
with y = f 2 (ct + x) , we have:
c 2 t 2
2
y
f (u )
2 y
2 f 2 (u )
c
=c 2
, and
=
t 2
u 2
t
u
so:
1 2 y 1 2 2 f 2 (u ) 2 f 2 (u )
= c
=
c 2 t 2 c 2
u 2
u 2
Therefore:
2 y 1 2 y
=
x 2 c 2 t 2
5.2
If y = f1 (ct x) , the expression for y at a time t + t and a position x + x , where
t = x c , is given by:
yt +t , x+ x = f1[c(t + t ) ( x + x)]
= f1[c(t + x c) ( x + x)]
= f1[ct + x x x]
= f1[ct x] = yt , x
i.e. the wave profile remains unchanged.
If y = f 2 (ct + x) , the expression for y at a time t + t and a position x + x , where
t = x c , is given by:
yt + t , x + x = f1[c(t + t ) + ( x + x)]
= f1[c(t x c) + ( x + x)]
= f1[ct x + x + x]
= f1[ct + x] = yt , x
i.e. the wave profile also remains unchanged.
5.3
y
y
=c
t
x
x
5.4
The pulse shape before reflection is given by the graph below:
The pulse shapes after of a length of l of the pulse being reflected are shown below:
(a) l = l 4
1
l
2
3
l
4
Z1
Z2 =
(b) l = l 2
Z1
Z2 =
Z1
Z2 =
Z1
Z2 =
(c) l = 3l 4
3
l
4
1
l
2
(d) l = l
5.5
The boundary condition yi + yr = yt gives:
A1ei (t kx ) + B1ei (t +kx ) = A2ei (t kx )

At x = 0 , this equation gives:
A1 + B1 = A2
(5.5.1)
The boundary condition Ma = T
yt T ( yi + yr ) gives:
x
x
Ma = ikTA2 e i (t kx ) + ikTA1e i (t kx ) ikTB1e i (t + kx )

At x = 0 , a = &y&t = &y&i + &y&r , so the above equation becomes:
2 MA2 = i
i
i.e.
T
T
T
A2 + i A1 i B1
c
c
c
T
T
T
A1 i B1 = M + i A2
c
c
c
Noting that T c = c , the above equation becomes:
icA1 icB1 = ( M + ic )A2
(5.5.2)
icA1 icB1 = ( M + ic )( A1 + B1 )
i.e.
iq
B1
=
A1 1 + iq
where q = M 2 c
By substitution of the above equation into (5.5.1), we have:
A1
iq
A1 = A2
1 + iq
i.e.
A2
1
=
A1 1 + iq
5.6
Writing q = tan , we have:
A2
1
1
cos
=
=
=
= cose i
A1 1 + iq 1 + i tan cos + i sin
and
iq
i tan
i sin
B1
=
=
=
= sin e i ( +
A1 1 + iq 1 + i tan cos + i sin
which show that A2 lags A1 by
2)
and that B1 lags A1 by ( 2 + ) for 0 < < 2
The reflected energy coefficients are given by:

2
B1
= sin e i ( +
A1
2) 2
= sin 2
and the transmitted energy coefficients are given by:

2
2
A2
= cos e i = cos 2
A1
5.7
Suppose T is the tension of the string, the average rate of working by the force over one period
of oscillation on one-wavelength-long string is given by:
W =
2 1 k
y y
dxdt
x t
By substitution of y = a sin(t kx) into the above equation, we have:
2 1 k
T [ka sin(t kx)][a sin(t kx)]dxdt
2 0 0
2 k 2 a 2T 2 1 k 2
=
0 0 sin (t kx)dxdt
2
2 k 2 a 2T 2 1 k 1 cos(2t 2kx)
dxdt
=
0 0
2
2
2 k 2 a 2T 1 2 1
=

2
2 k
ka 2T
W=
Noting that k = c and T = c , the above equation becomes

2
W=
2 a 2 c 2
2c
2 a 2 c
2
which equals the rate of energy transfer along the string.

5.8
Suppose the wave equation is given by: y = sin(t kx) . The maximum value of transverse
harmonic force Fmax is given by:
TA
y
Fmax = T = T A sin(t kx) = TAk =

c
x max
max
x
i.e.
0.3
0.3
T Fmax
=
=
=
c
A 0.1 2 5
Noting that
c = T c , the rate of energy transfer along the string is given by:

P=
c 2 A2
2
1 T 2 2 1 0.3
3
(2 5) 2 0.12 =
[W ]
A =
2c
2
20
so the velocity of the wave c is given by:
c=
2P
2 3 20
30
=
= [ms 1 ]
2 2
2
2
0.01 (2 5) 0.1
A
5.9
This problem is not viable in its present form and it will be revised in the next printing. The first
part in the zero reflected amplitude may be solved by replacing Z3 by Z1, which then equates r
with R because each is a reflection at a Z1Z 2 boundary. We then have the total reflected
amplitude as:
R + tTR(1 + R2 + R4 + L) = R +
tTR
1 R 2
Stokes relations show that the incident amplitude may be reconstructed by reversing the paths of
the transmitted and reflected amplitudes.
T is transmitted back along the incident direction as tT in Z1 and is reflected as TR in

Z2 .
R is reflected in Z1 as ( R) R = R 2 back along the incident direction and is refracted as TR

in the TR direction in Z 2 .
We therefore have tT + R = 1 in Z1 , i.e. tT = 1 R
2
and T ( R + R) = 0 in Z 2 giving
R = R , tT = 1 R 2 = 1 R2 giving the total reflected amplitude in Z1 as R + R = 0

with R = R .
1 1
2
R2
tT
TR
T
1 1
2 2
TR
Z1
Z2
Z1
Fig Q.5.9(a)
Fig Q.5.9(b)
Note that for zero total reflection in medium Z1, the first reflection R is cancelled by the sum of all
subsequent reflections.
5.10
The impedance of the anti-reflection coating Z coat should have a relation to the impedance of air
Z air and the impedance of the lens Z lens given by:

Z coat = Z air Z lens =
1
nair nlens
So the reflective index of the coating is given by:
ncoat =
1
Z coat
= nair nlens = 1.5 = 1.22
and the thickness of the coating d should be a quarter of light wavelength in the coating, i.e.
d=
4ncoat
5.5 10 7
= 1.12 10 7 [m]
4 1.22
5.11
By substitution of equation (5.10) into
y
, we have:
x
y n
t
=
( An cos nt + Bn sin nt ) cos n
c
c
x
so:
2 y
n2
nt
n2
=
(
A
cos
t
+
B
sin
t
)
sin
=
n
n
n
n
c2
c
c2
x 2
Noting that k =
n
c
, we have:
2 y
n2
n2
2
+
k
y
=
y
+
y=0
c2
c2
x 2
5.12
2
By substitution of the expression of ( yn ) max into the integral, we have:
l
l
x
1
1
n2 ( yn2 ) max dx = n2 ( An2 + Bn2 ) sin 2 n dx
0
0
2
2
c
l 1 cos( 2 x c )
1
n
dx
= n2 ( An2 + Bn2 )
0
2
2
1
2 l
c
sin n
= n2 ( An2 + Bn2 ) l
4
c
2n
Noting that
n =
nc
2nl
, i.e. sin
= sin 2n = 0 , the above equation becomes:
l
c
l
1
1
n2 ( yn2 ) max dx = ln2 ( An2 + Bn2 )
0
2
4
which gives the expected result.

5.13
Expand the expression of y ( x, t ) , we have:
y ( x, t ) = A cos(t kx) + rA cos(t + kx)

= A cos t cos kx + A sin t sin kx + rA cos t cos kx rA sin t sin kx
= A(1 + r ) cos t cos kx + A(1 r ) sin t sin kx

which is the superposition of standing waves.
5.14
The wave group has a modulation envelope of:
k

A = A0 cos
t
x
2
2
where = 1 2 is the frequency difference and k = k1 k2 is the wave number
difference. At a certain time t , the distance between two successive zeros of the modulation
envelope x satisfies:
k
x =
2
Noting that k = 2
, for a small value of , we have: k (2 2 ) , so the above
equation becomes:
2
x
22
i.e.
x
which shows that the number of wavelengths
modulating envelop is
contained between two successive zeros of the
5.15
The expression for group velocity is given by:
vg =
d d
dv
=
(kv) = v + k
dk dk
dk
By substitution of the expression of v into the above equation, we have:
sin( ka 2)
c ka 2
2
sin( ka 2)
(ka 4) cos(ka 2) (a 2) sin( ka 2)
=c
+ ck
ka 2
(ka 2) 2
vg = c
d
sin( ka 2)
+k
ka 2
dk
ka
sin( ka 2)
sin( ka 2)
+ c cos c
ka 2
ka 2
2
ka
= c cos
2
At long wavelengths, i.e. k 0 , the limiting value of group velocity is the phase velocity c .
=c
5.16
Noting that the group velocity of light in gas is given on page 131 as:
r
Vg = v1 +
2 r
we have:
r
r
r = v r +
Vg r = v1 +
2 r
B
B

2
= v A + 2 D2 +
A + 2 D
B
2B
= v A + 2 D2 + 3 2 D
B
B
= v A + 2 D2 + 2 D2
= v( A 2 D2 )
5.17
c2

The relation r = 2 = 1 e gives:
v
2c 2
v
= 2 e2
By substitution of v = k , the above equation becomes:
2 = e2 + c 2 k 2
As
(5.17.1)
e , we have:
c2

=1 e <1
2
v

2
i.e. v > c , which means the phase velocity exceeds that of light c .
From equation (5.17.1), we have:
d ( 2 ) = d (e2 + c 2 k 2 )
2d = 2kc 2 dk
i.e.
which shows the group velocity v g is given by:
vg =
d
k c2 c
= c2 =
= c<c
dk
v v
i.e. the group velocity is always less than c .

5.18
From equation (5.17.1), we know that only electromagnetic waves of
> e can propagate
through the electron plasma media.

20
For an electron number density ne ~ 10 , the electron plasma frequency is given by:
ne
10 20
19
= 1.6 10
= 5.65 1011[rad s 1 ]
e = e
31
12
me 0
9.1 10 8.8 10
Now consider the wavelength of the wave in the media given by:
v 2v 2v 2c 2 3 108
=
<
<
=
= 3 10 3[m]
e
e
f
5.65 1011
3
which shows the wavelength has an upper limit of 3 10 m .
5.19
The dispersion relation
2 c 2 = k 2 + m 2c 2 h 2 gives
d ( 2 c 2 ) = d (k 2 + m 2c 2 h 2 )
i.e.
2
d = 2kdk
c2
i.e.
= c2
k dk
Noting that the group velocity is d dk and the particle (phase) velocity is
k , the above
equation shows their product is c .
5.20
The series in the problem is that at the bottom of page 132. The frequency components can be
expressed as:
R = na
sin( t 2)
cos t
t 2
which is a symmetric function to the average frequency
0 . It shows that at t =
t = 2
In k space, we may write the series as:
2
, R = 0,
y (k ) = a cos k1 x + a cos(k1 + k ) x + L + a cos[k1 + (n 1)k ]x

As an analogy to the above analysis, we may replace by k and t by x , and R is zero at
x =
2
, i.e. kx = 2
k
5.21
The frequency of infrared absorption of NaCl is given by:
2T 1
1
1
1
= 2 15
+
+
= 3.608 1013[rad s 1 ]
27
27
a mNa mCl
35 1.66 10
23 1.66 10
The corresponding wavelength is given by:
2c
2 3 108
=
=
52[ m]
3.608 1013
which is close to the experimental value: 61m
The frequency of infrared absorption of KCl is given by:
2T 1
1
1
1
= 2 15
+
+
= 3.13 1013[rad s 1 ]
27
27
a mK mCl
35 1.66 10
39 1.66 10
The corresponding wavelength is given by:
2c
2 3 108
=
=
60[ m]
3.13 1013
which is close to the experimental value: 71m
5.22
Before the source passes by the observer, the source has a velocity of u , the frequency noted by
the observer is given by:
1 =
cu
After the source passes by the observer, the source has a velocity of u , the frequency noted by
the observer is given by:
2 =
c+u
So the change of frequency noted by the observer is given by:
c
2cu
c
= 2 1 =
= 2
(c u 2 )
cu c +u
5.23
By superimposing a velocity of v on the system, the observer becomes stationary and the
source has a velocity of u v and the wave has a velocity of c v . So the frequency registered
by the observer is given by:
5.24
The relation between wavelength
So the Doppler Effect
cv
cv
=
c v (u v) c u
and frequency of light is given by:

c
=
c
c u
can be written in the format of wavelength as:
c
c2
=
(c u )
i.e.
c u
> , so we have:
u
= =
c
Noting that wavelength shift is towards red, i.e.
i.e.
u=
3 108 10 11
= 5[ Kms 1 ]
7
6 10
1
which shows the earth and the star are separating at a velocity of 5 Kms .
5.25
Suppose the aircraft is flying at a speed of u , and the signal is being transmitted from the aircraft
at a frequency of and registered at the distant point at a frequency of
Effect gives:
. Then, the Doppler
c
c u
Now, let the distant point be the source, reflecting a frequency of and the flying aircraft be the
receiver, registering a frequency of . By superimposing a velocity of u on the flying
aircraft, the distant point and signal waves, we bring the aircraft to rest; the distant point now has a
velocity of u and signal waves a velocity of c u . Then, the Doppler Effect gives:
c u
c+u
c+u
=
=
c u ( u )
c
c u
which gives:
u=
15 103

c=
c=
3 108 = 750[ms 1 ]
2 +
2 3 109
+
i.e. the aircraft is flying at a speed of 750 m s
5.26
Problem 5.24 shows the Doppler Effect in the format of wavelength is given by:
cu
where u is the velocity of gas atom. So we have:
= =
i.e.
2 10 12
u = =
c=
3 108 = 1 103[ms 1 ]
7
6 10
The thermal energy of sodium gas is given by:
1
3
mNa u 2 = kT
2
2
where k = 1.38 10
23
[ JK 1 ] is Boltzmanns constant, so the gas temperature is given by:
T=
mNau 2 23 1.66 1027 10002

=
900[ K ]
3k
3 1.38 10 23
5.27
A point source radiates spherical waves equally in all directions.
vc
v =
: Observer is at rest with a moving source.
c u
u = u cos
c v
v =
: Source at rest with a moving observer.
c
v
v = v cos
c v
v =
: Source and observer both moving.
c u
u
v
u = u cos
v = v cos
5.28
By substitution of equation (2) into (3) and eliminating x , we can find the expression of t
given by:
t =
1x
k ( x vt )
v k
Now we can eliminate x and t by substituting the above equation and the equation (2) into
equation (1), i.e.
x 2 c 2t 2 = k 2 ( x vt ) 2
c2 x
k ( x vt )
2
v k
i.e.
2
2 2 c2 2 2
c2 1
c2 1
2
2
1 k + 2 k x + 2kv k + 2 k xt + k v 2 1 c t = 0
v k
v k

which is true for all x and t if and only if the coefficients of all terms are zeros, so we have:
1
c2
1 k = 2 k
v
k
2
c2
c2
2 1kk = 2
v
v
k 2 (c 2 v 2 ) = c 2
The solution to the above equations gives:
k = k =
where,
1
1 2
=v c
5.29
Source at rest at x1 in O frame gives signals at intervals measured by O as t = t 2 t1
where t 2 is later than t1 . O moving with velocity v with respect to O measures these
intervals as:
v
x) with x = 0
c2
t = kt
t2 t1 = t = k (t
l = ( x2 x1 ) as seen by O , O sees it as ( x2 x1 ) = k[( x2 x1 ) v(t 2 t1 )] .

Measuring l puts t 2 = t1 or t = 0
v
v
t = k t 2 ( x2 x1 ) = 0 i.e. t = 2 ( x2 x1 ) = t 2 t1
c
c
x x
v2
l = x2 x1 = k[( x2 x1 ) v(t )] = k ( x2 x1 ) 2 ( x2 x1 ) = 2 1
c
k
l = l k
5.30
Two events are simultaneous (t1 = t 2 ) at x1 and x2 in O frame. They are not simultaneous
in O frame because:
v
v
t1 = k t1 2 x1 t2 = k t 2 2 x2 i.e. x1 x2
c
c
5.31
The order of cause followed by effect can never be reversed.
2 events x1 , t1 and x2 , t 2 in O frame with t 2 > t1 i.e. t 2 t1 > 0 ( t 2 is later).
v
v
t2 t1 = k (t2 t1 ) 2 ( x2 x1 ) i.e. t = k t 2 x in O frame.

c
c
v x
v
t real requires k real that is v < c , t is + ve if t > where
is + ve
c c
c
but < 1 and
x
is shortest possible time for signal to traverse x .
c
6.1
Elementary kinetic theory shows that, for particles of mass m in a gas at temperature T , the
energy of each particle is given by:
1 2 3
mv = kT
2
2
where v is the root mean square velocity and k is Boltzmanns constant.
Page 154 of the text shows that the velocity of sound c is a gas at pressure P is given by:
c2 =
P PV RT NkT
=
=
=
M
M
M
where V is the molar volume, M is the molar mass and N is Avogadros number, so:
Mc 2 = NkT = kT
5
kT
3
6.2
The intensity of sound wave can be written as:
I = P 2 0c
where P is acoustic pressure,
0 is air density, and c is sound velocity, so we have:
P = I 0c = 10 1.29 330 65[ Pa]

which is 6.5 10 4 of the pressure of an atmosphere.
6.3
The intensity of sound wave can be written as:
I=
1
0c 2 2
2
where is the displacement amplitude of an air molecule, so we have:
1
2
2I
1
2 10
=
= 6.9 105 [m]

0c 2 500 1.29 330
6.4
The expression of displacement amplitude is given by Problem 6.3, i.e.:
1
2
2 10 10 I 0
1
2 10 10 10 102
=
10 10 [m]
2 500
1.29 330
0c
6.5
The audio output is the product of sound intensity and the cross section area of the room, i.e.:
P = IA = 100 I 0 A = 100 10 2 3 3 10[W ]

6.6
The expression of acoustic pressure amplitude is given by Problem 6.2, so the ratio of the pressure
amplitude in water and in air, at the same sound intensity, are given by:
pwater
=
pair
I ( 0 c) water
I ( 0 c) air
( 0 c) water
1.45 10 6
=
60
( 0 c) air
400
And at the same pressure amplitudes, we have:
I water
( 0 c) air
400
=
=
3 10 4
6
I air
( 0 c) water 1.45 10
6.7
If is the displacement of a section of a stretched spring by a disturbance, which travels along it
in the x direction, the force at that section is given by: F = Y
, where Y is youngs
x
modulus.
The relation between Y and s , the stiffness of the spring, is found by considering the force
required to increase the length L of the spring slowly by a small amount l << L , the force F
being the same at all points of the spring in equilibrium. Thus
l
Y
and F = l
=
x L
L
If l = x in the stretched spring, we have:
Y
F = sx = x and Y = sL .
L
If the spring has mass m per unit length, the equation of motion of a section of length dx is
given by:
2
F
2
dx
dx
Y
dx
=
=
t 2
x
x 2
2 Y 2 sL 2
=
=
t 2 m x 2 m x 2
or
sL
m
a wave equation with a phase velocity
6.8
At x = 0 ,
= B sin kx sin t
At x = L ,
= sL
2
t
x
M 2 sin kL = sLk cos kL
i.e.
(which for k = v ,
= m L and v = sL from problem 7 when l << L )
becomes:
L
v
tan
L
v
For M >> m , v >> L and writing
L m
sL2
=
=
2
Mv
M M
(6.8.1)
L v = where is small, we have:
tan = + 3 3 + ...
and the left hand side of equation 6.8.1 becomes
2 [1 + 2 3 + ...] = (L v) 2 [1 + (L v) 2 3 + ...]
Now v = ( sL
)1 2 = ( sL2 m)1 2 = L( s m)1 2 and L v = m s
So eq. 6.8.1 becomes:
2 m s (1 + 2 m 3s + ...) = m M
or
2 (1 + 2 m 3s) = s M
Using
(6.8.2)
2 = s M as a second approximation in the bracket of eq. 6.8.2, we have:
2 1 +
2 =
i.e.
1 m s
=
3M M
s
1
M+ m
3
6.9
The Poissons ratio
= 0.25 gives:
2( + )
= 0.25
i.e.
So the ratio of the longitudinal wave velocity to the transverse wave velocity is given by:
+ 2
vl
=
=
vt
+ 2
= 3
In the text, the longitudinal wave velocity of the earth is 8kms 1 and the transverse wave
velocity is 4.45kms 1 , so we have:
+ 2
8
=
4.45
= 1.23
i.e.
so the Poissons ratio for the earth is given by:
1.23
=
0.276
2( + ) 2 (1.23 + )
6.10
At a plane steel water interface, the energy ratio of reflected wave is given by:
I r Z steel Z water
=
I i Z steel + Z water
3.9 107 1.43 106

=
86%
7
6
3.9 10 + 1.43 10
At a plane steel water interface, the energy ratio of transmitted wave is given by:
4 Z ice Z water
4 3.49 106 1.43 106
It
=
=
82.3%
I i ( Z ice + Z water ) 2 (3.49 106 + 1.43 106 ) 2
6.11
Solution follow directly from the coefficients at top of page 165.
Closed end is zero displacement with
Open end:
nr
= 1 (antinode, is a max)
ni
Pressure: closed end:
Open end :
nr
= 1 (node).
ni
pr
= 1 . Pressure doubles at antinode
pi
pr
= 1 (out of phase cancels to give zero pressure, i.e. node)
pi
6.12
(a) The boundary condition
= 0 at x = 0 gives:
x
( Ak sin kx + Bk cos kx) sin t x=0 = 0

i.e. B = 0 , so we have: = A cos kx sin t
The boundary condition
= 0 at x = L gives:
x
kA sin kx sin t x=l = 0
kA sin kL sin t = 0
2l
2
which is true for all t if kl = n , i.e.
l = n or =
n
i.e.
The first three harmonics are shown below:
n = 1:
l 2
n = 2:
l 4
3l 4
n = 3:
l 6
(b) The boundary condition
l 2
5l 6
= 0 at x = 0 gives:
x
( Ak sin kx + Bk cos kx) sin t x=0 = 0

i.e. B = 0 , so we have: = A cos kx sin t
The boundary condition = 0 at x = L gives:
A sin kx sin t x=l = 0
A cos kl sin t = 0
i.e.
which is true for all t if kl = n +
1
4l
2
1
l = n + or =
, i.e.
2
2
2n + 1
The first three harmonics are shown below:
n = 0:
n = 1:
l 3
n = 2:
l 5
3l 5
6.13
The boundary condition for pressure continuity at x = 0 gives:
[ A1e i (t k1x ) + B1e i (t k1x ) ] x=0 = [ A2 ei (t k2 x ) + B2 e i (t k2 x ) ]x=0
A1 + B1 = A2 + B2
i.e.
(6.13.1)
In acoustic wave, the pressure is given by: p = Z& , so the continuity of particle velocity & at
x = 0 gives:
A1ei (t k1x ) + B1ei (t k1x )
Z1
i.e.
=
x =0
A2ei (t k2 x ) + B2ei (t k2 x )
Z2
Z 2 ( A1 B1 ) = Z1 ( A2 B2 )
x =0
(6.13.2)
At x = l , the continuity of pressure gives:
[ A2ei (t k2 x ) + B2ei (t k2 x ) ]x=l = A3ei (t k3x )

i.e.
A2 e ik2l + B2 eik2l = A3
The continuity of particle velocity gives:
x =l
(6.13.3)
A2ei (t k2 x ) + B2ei (t k2 x )
Z2
=
x =l
A3ei (t k3 x )
Z3
x =l
Z 3 ( A2 e ik2l B2 e ik2l ) = Z 2 A3
i.e.
(6.13.4)
By comparison of the boundary conditions derived above with the derivation in page 121-124, we
can easily find:
Z1 A32
4r31
=
2
2
2
Z 3 A1 (r31 + 1) cos k 2l + (r21 + r32 ) 2 sin 2 k 2l
where r31 =
Z3
Z
Z
, r21 = 2 , and r32 = 3 .
Z1
Z1
Z2
If we choose l = 2 4 , cos k 2l = 0 and sin k2l = 1 , we have:
Z1 A32
4r31
=
=1
2
Z 3 A1 (r21 + r32 ) 2
when r21 = r32 , i.e.
Z2 Z3
or Z 22 = Z1Z 3 .
=
Z1 Z 2
6.14
The differentiation of the adiabatic condition:
P V0
=
P0 V0 (1 + )
gives:
P p
2
=
= P0 (1 + ) ( +1) 2
x x
x
since
= x .
Since (1 + )(1 + s ) = 1 , we may write:
2
p
= P0 (1 + s ) +1 2
x
x
and from Newtons second law we have:
p
2
= 0 2
x
t
so that
2
P
2
2
2
+1
=
c
(
1
+
s
)
, where c0 = 0
0
2
2
t
x
0
which shows the sound velocity of high amplitude wave is given by c0 (1 + s )
( +1) 2
6.15
The differentiation of equation 2 = e2 + 3aTk 2 gives:
i.e.
k dk
where a represents Boltzmann constant,
d
= 6aTk
dk
= 3aT
k is the phase velocity, d dk is the group
velocity.
6.16
The fluid is incompressible so that during the wave motion there is no change in the volume of the
fluid element of height h , horizontal length x and unit width. The distortion in the
element x is therefore directly translated to a change in its height h and its constant volume
requires that:
hx = (h + )( x + ) = hx + h + x +
Because
<< h and << x , the second order term is ignorable, we then have
= h x = h x , and from now on we replace x by dx .

We see that for
+ ve (or increase in height), we have x ve , that is, a compression.
On page 153 of the text, the horizontal motion of the element is shown to be due to the difference
in forces acting on the opposing faces of the element hx , that is:
F
2
x = h 2 x
x
t
where the force difference, dF is ve when measured in the + ve

compression.
Thus:
F
2
P
dx = h 2 dx = h av dx
x
t
x
x direction for a
(6.16.1)
where the pressure must be averaged over the height of the element because it varies with the
liquid depth. This average value is found from the pressure difference (to unit depth) at the liquid
surface to between the two values of on the opposing faces of the element. This gives:
dPav = gd
dPav
d
dx = g
dx
dx
dx
so
and we have from eq. 6.16.1:
d
F
P
2
2
dx = h av dx = hg
dx = h 2 g 2 dx = h 2 dx
dx
x
x
x
t
The last two terms equate to give the wave equation. For horizontal motion as:
2
2
=
gh
t 2
x 2
with phase velocity v =
gh .
The horizontal motion translates directly to the vertical displacement
to give an equation of
wave motion:
2
2
=
gh
t 2
x 2
with a similar phase velocity v =
gh
6.17
(a) Since h >> , i.e. kh >> 1 , we have: tanh kh 1 , therefore:
g Tk
g Tk
g Tk
gT
v 2 = + tanh kh +
2
=2
k
k
k
i.e. the velocity has a minimum value given by:
v4 =
when
4 gT
g Tk
g
T
=
, i.e. k 2 =
or c = 2
k
T
g
(b) If T is negligible, we have:
v2
and when
g
tanh kh
k
>> c , k 0 , and for a shallow liquid, h 0 . Noting that when hk 0 ,
tanh kh kh , we have:
v=
g
tanh kh
k
g
kh = gh
k
(c) For a deep liquid, h + i.e. tanh kh 1 , the phase velocity is given by:
v 2p =
g
g
i.e. v p =
tanh kh
k
k
g
k
and the group velocity is given by:
vg = v p +
kdv p
1
g
= vp k 3 =
dk
2 k
g 1 g 1 g
=
k 2 k 2 k
(d) For the case of short ripples dominated by surface tension in a deep liquid, i.e.
and h + , we have:
v 2p = lim
h+
Tk
tanh kh =
Tk
i.e. v p =
Tk
and the group velocity is given by:
vg = v p +
kdv p
Tk k
=
+
2
dk
3 Tk 3
T
=
= v
k 2 2 p
g
Tk
<<
k
7.1
The equation
I r 1 I r =
at the limit of dx 0 becomes:
d
d
qr = C0 dx Vr
dt
dt
dI
dV
= C0
dx
dt
(7.1.1)
The equation
L0 dx
at the limit of dx 0 becomes:
d
I r = Vr Vr +1
dt
V
I
= L0
x
t
(7.1.2)
The derivative of equation (7.1.1) on t gives:
2I
2V
= C0 2
xt
t
(7.1.3)
The derivative of equation (7.1.2) on x gives:
2V
2I
=
L
0
x 2
xt
(7.1.4)
Equation (7.1.3) and (7.1.4) give:
2V
2V
=
L
C
0 0
x 2
t 2
The derivative of equation (7.1.1) on x gives:
2I
2V
=
C
0
x 2
xt
(7.1.5)
The derivative of equation (7.1.2) on t gives:
2V
2I
= L0 2
xt
t
(7.1.6)
Equation (7.1.5) and (7.1.6) give:
2I
2I
=
L
C
0 0
x 2
t 2
7.2
l
2a
I
2d
Fig Q.7.2.1
A pair of parallel wires of circular cross section and radius a are separated at a distance 2d
between their centres.
To find the inductance per unit length we close the circuit by joining the sides of a section of
length l .
The self inductance of this circuit is the magnetic flux through the circuit when a current of 1 amp
flows around it.
If the current is 1 amp the field outside the wire at a distance r from the centre is
where
0 I 2r ,
0 is the permeability of free space. For a clockwise current in the circuit (Fig Q.7.2.1)
both wires contribute to the magnetic flux B which points downwards into the page and the total
flux through the circuit is given by:
2l
2 d 2 a
0 Idr 0lI 2d
ln
=
for d >> a
2r
a
Hence the self inductance per unit length is:
L=
0 2d
ln
a
To find the capacitance per unit length of such a pair of wires we first find the electrostatic
potential at a distance r from a single wire and proceed to find the potential from a pair of wires
via the principle of electrostatic images.
If the radius of the wire is a and it carries a charge of
per unit length then the electrostatic
flux E per unit length of the cylindrical surface is: 2rE ( r ) =
0 , where 0 is the
permittivity of free space. Thus E ( r ) = 2 0 r for r > a and we have the potential:
(r ) =
b
ln(r ) + constant =
ln for = 0 at r = b .
2 0
2 0 r
y
Fig Q.7.2.2
The conducting wires are now represented in the image system of Fig Q.7.2.2. The equipotential
surfaces will be seen to be cylindrical but not coaxial with the wires. Neither the electric field nor
the charge density is uniform on the conducting surface.
The surface charge is collapsed onto two line carrying charges per unit length. The y axis
represents an equipotential plane.
The conducting wires, of radius a , are centred a distance d from the origin ( x = y = 0) .
The distances p can be chosen of the line charges so that the conducting surfaces lie on the
equipotentials of the image charge. Choosing the potential to be zero at on the y axis, the
potential at point p in the xy plane is given by:
p =
1
1
r2
ln
ln =
ln 22
2 0 r1 2 0 r2 4 0 r1
In Fig Q.7.2.2:
r22 = 2 +
r12 = 2 +
where = ( d + p ) ; = ( d p ) ; = ( d + r cos ) and
= (r 2 + p 2 d 2 ) .
If the position of the image charge is such that p = ( d a ) , then, at r = a :

2
(a) =
d + p
, independent of , and the right-hand conductor is an equipotential of

ln
4 0 d p
the image charge. Symmetry requires that the potential at the surface of the other conductor is
(a ) and the potential difference between the conductors is:
V=
d + p
ln
2 0 d p
Gausss theorem applied to one of the equipotentials surrounding each conductor proves that the
surface charge on each conductor is equal to the image charge.
The capacitance per unit length is now given by:
C=
2 0
2 0
for d >> a
2d
d + p
ln
ln
a
d p
and
12
0 2d
ln
L a
Z 0 for the parallel wires =
=
C 2 0
ln(2d a )
12

2d
2 0 ln
a
0
7.3
The integral of magnetic energy over the last quarter wavelength is given by:
2
0
0
L0V02+
1
1 2V0+
V02+ 1 + cos 4x
2
=
=
cos
2
L
I
dx
L
kx
dx
L
dx
=
4 2 0
4 2 0 Z 0
4 0 Z 02
2
4 Z 02
The integral of electric energy over the last quarter wavelength is given by:
0
0
C0V02+
1
1
2
2
2 1 cos 4x
(
)
C
V
dx
C
V
kx
dx
C
V
dx
=
=
=
2
sin
2
4 2 0
4 2 0 0+
4 0 0+
2
4
0
Noting that Z 0 =
L0 C0 , we have:
0
L0V02+ C0V02+
1
1
2
L
I
dx
=
=
=
C0V 2 dx
2
4 2 0
4 2
4Z 0
4
0
7.4
The maximum of the magnetic energy is given by:
( Em ) max
2
1 2V

2L V 2
1
2
0+
= L0 I = L0
cos kx = 0 2 0 + = 2C0V02+
Z0
2
max 2 Z 0
max
The maximum of the electric energy is given by:
1
2
( Ee ) max = C0V 2 = C0 (2V0 + sin kx ) = 2C0V02+
2
max 2
max
The instantaneous value of the two energies over the last quarter wavelength is given by:
1
1 2V
( Em + Ee )i = L0 0 + cos kx + C0 (2V02+ sin kx) 2
2 Z0
2
= 2C0V02+ cos 2 kx + 2C0V02+ sin 2 kx
= 2C0V02+
So we have:
( Em ) max = ( Ee ) max = ( Em + Ee )i = 2C0V02+

7.5
For a real transmission line with a propagation constant , the forward current wave I x + at
position x is given by:
I x + = I 0+ e x = Ae x
where I 0+ = A is the forward current wave at position x = 0 . So the forward voltage wave at
position x is given by:
Vx+ = Z 0 I x + = Z 0 Ae x
The backward current wave I x at position x is given by:
I x = I 0 e + x = Be + x
where I 0 = B is the backward current wave at position x = 0 . So the backward voltage wave
at position x is given by:
Vx = Z 0 I x = Z 0 Be + x
Therefore the impedance seen from position x is given by:
Zx =
Vx+ + Vx Z 0 Ae x Z 0 Be + x
Ae x Be + x
=
=
Z
0
I x+ + I x
Ae x + Be +x
Ae x + Be +x
If the line has a length l and is terminated by a load Z L , the value of Z L is given by:
ZL =
VL Vl + + Vl
Ae l Be + l
=
= Z0
I L Il+ + Il
Ae l + Be +l
7.6
The impedance of the line at x = 0 is given by:
Ax Be +x
A B
= Z0
Z i = Z 0 x
+x
A+ B
Ae + Be x=0
Noting that:
Z L = Z0
Ae l Bel
Ae l + Bel
we have:
( Z 0 Z L ) Ae l = ( Z 0 + Z L ) Bel
A ( Z 0 + Z L ) 2l
=
e
B (Z0 Z L )
i.e.
so we have:
Zi = Z0
A B 1
Z (el e l ) + Z L (el + e l )
Z sinh l + Z L cosh l
= Z 0 0 l
= Z0 0
l
l
l
A B +1
Z 0 ( e + e ) + Z L (e e )
Z 0 cosh l + Z L sinh l
7.7
If the transmission line of Problem 7.6 is short-circuited, i.e. Z L = 0 , The expression of input
impedance in Problem 7.6 gives:
Z sc = Z 0
Z 0 sinh l
= Z 0 tanh l
Z 0 cosh l
If the transmission line of Problem 7.6 is open-circuited, i.e. Z L = , The expression of input
impedance in Problem 7.6 gives:
Z oc = Z 0
Z L cosh l
= Z 0 coth l
Z L sinh l
By taking the product of these two impedances we have:
Z sc Z oc = Z 02 , i.e. Z 0 = Z sc Z oc
which shows the characteristic impedance of the line can be obtained by measuring the
impedances of short-circuited line and open-circuited line separately and then taking the square
root of the product of the two values.
7.8
The forward and reflected voltage waves at the end of the line are given by:
Vl + = Vl = V0+ e ikl
where V0+ is the forward voltage at the beginning of the line. So the reflected voltage wave at
the beginning of the line is given by:
V0 = Vl e ikl = V0+ e i 2 kl
The forward and reflected current waves at the end of the line are given by:
I l + = Vl + Z 0 = V0+ e ikl Z 0 = I 0+ e ikl

I l = Vl Z 0 = Vl + Z 0 = I 0+ e ikl
where I 0+ is the forward current at the beginning of the line. So the reflected current wave at the
beginning of the line is given by:
I 0 = I l e ikl = I 0+ e i 2 kl
Therefore the input impedance of the line is given by:
Zi =
V0+ + V0 V0+ (1 e i 2 kl ) V0+ (eikl e ikl )

sin kl
L
2l
=
=
= iZ 0
= i 0 tan
ikl
ikl
i 2 kl
I 0+ + I 0 I 0+ (1 + e ) I 0+ (e + e )
cos kl
C0
The variation of the ratio Z i
L0 C0 with l is shown in the figure below:

Zi
L0 C0
2
3 4
4
4
3 4
7.9
The boundary condition at Z 0 Z m junction gives:
V0+ + V0 = Vm 0+ + Vm 0
I 0+ + I 0 = I m 0+ + I m 0
where V0 + , V0 are the voltages of forward and backward waves on Z 0 side of Z 0 Z m
junction; I 0+ , I 0 are the currents of forward and backward waves on Z 0 side of Z 0 Z m
junction; Vm 0+ , Vm 0 are the voltages of forward and backward waves on Z m side of Z 0 Z m
junction; I m 0 + , I m 0 are the currents of forward and backward waves on Z m side of Z 0 Z m

junction;
The boundary condition at Z m Z L junction gives:
VmL+ + VmL = VL
I mL+ + I mL = I L
where VmL + , VmL are the voltages of forward and backward waves on Z m side of Z m Z L
junction; I mL+ , I mL are the currents of forward and backward waves on Z m side of Z m Z L
junction; VL , I L are the voltage and current across the load.
If the length of the matching line is l , we have:
Vm 0+ = VmL+ e ikl
I m 0+ = I mL + e ikl
Vm 0 = VmL e ikl
I m 0 = I mL e ikl
In addition, we have the relations:
VL
= ZL
IL
V0
= Z0
I0
Vm 0 +
V
V
V
= m 0 = mL + = mL = Z m
I m0+
I m 0 I mL +
I mL
The above conditions yield:
VmL + = Vm 0+ e ikl
I mL+ = I m 0+ e ikl
VmL =
Z L Zm
VmL+
ZL + Zm
I mL =
Zm ZL
I mL+
Zm + ZL
Vm 0 = VmL e ikl =
ZL Zm
Z Z m i 2 kl
VmL+ e ikl = Vm 0+ L
e
Z L + Zm
ZL + Zm
I m 0 = I mL e ikl =
Zm ZL
Z Z L i 2 kl
I mL+ e ikl = I m 0+ m
e
ZL + Zm
ZL + Zm
Impedance mating requires V0 = 0 and I 0 = 0 , i.e.:
V0+ = Vm 0+ + Vm 0
I 0+ = I m 0+ + I m 0
i.e.
Z Z m i 2 kl
V0+ = Vm 0+ 1 + L
e
+
Z
Z
L
m
Z Z L i 2 kl
I 0+ = I m 0+ 1 + m
e
Z L + Zm
By dividing the above equations we have:
Z0 = Zm
( Z L + Z m )eikl + ( Z L Z m )e ikl
Z cos kl + iZ m sin kl
= Zm L
ikl
ikl
( Z L + Z m )e + ( Z m Z L )e
Z L sin kl + iZ m cos kl
which is true if kl = 2 , or l = 4 and yields:
Z m2 = Z 0 Z L
7.10
Analysis in Problem 7.8 shows the impedance of a short-circuited loss-free line has an impedance
given by:
Z i = iZ 0 tan
2l
so, if the length of the line is a quarter of one wavelength, we have:
Z i = iZ 0 tan
= iZ 0 tan =
4
2
If this line is bridged across another transmission line, due to the infinite impedance, the
transmission of fundamental wavelength
harmonic wavelength
will not be affected. However for the second
2 , the impedance of the bridge line is given by:
Z i = iZ 0 tan
2
= iZ 0 tan = 0
24
which shows the bridge line short circuits the second harmonic waves.
7.11
For Z 0 to act as a high pass filter with zero attenuation, the frequency
2 >
1
, where
2 LC
Z0 = L C .
The exact physical length of Z 0 is determined by
. Choosing the frequency 1 determines
k1 = 2 1 .
For a high frequency load Z L and a loss- free line, we have, for the input impedance:
Z cos kl + iZ 0 sin kl
Z in = Z 0 L
Z
kl
iZ
kl
+
cos
sin
L
0
For n even, we have:
cos k1l = cos
2 n1
= cos n = 1
1 2
For n odd, we have:
cos k1l = cos
2 n1
= cos n = 1
1 2
The sine terms are zero.

So Z in = Z L for n odd or even, and the high frequency circuits, input and load, are uniquely
matched at
1 when the circuits are tuned to 1 .
7.12
The phase shift per section should satisfy:
cos = 1 +
i.e.
i.e.
Z1
i L
2 LC
= 1+
= 1
2Z 2
2 iC
2
1 cos =
2 sin 2
2 LC
2
2 LC
2
For a small , sin , so the above equation becomes:
2 LC

2 =
2
2
2
= LC = v = k
i.e.
where the phase velocity is given by v = 1
LC and is independent of the frequency.
7.13
The propagation constant can be expanded as:
= ( R0 + iL0 )(G0 + iC0 )
G
R
= L0C0 0 + i 0 + i
L0 C0
R
G
R G0
= L0C0 i 2 + 0 + 0 i + 0
L0 C0 L0 C0
2
R
G0 R02
G02
R G0
i + 0 +
2 2 +
+ 0
2
2L0 2C0 4 L0 4C0 L0 C0
= L0C0
Since R0
L0 and G0 C0 are both small quantities, the above equation becomes:
= L0C0 i +
where
R0
2
C0 G0
+
L0
2
R0
G
+ 0 = + ik
2L0 2C0
L0
, and k = L0C0 = v
C0
If G = 0 , we have:
L0C0
L0C0
k
L
=
=
= 0
2 R0 C0 L0 + G0 L0 C0 R0 C0 L0
R0
which is the Q value of this transmission line.
7.14
Suppose
R0 G0
=
= K , where K is constant, the characteristic impedance of a lossless line is
L0 C0
given by:
Z0 =
R0 + iL0
=
G0 + iC0
KL0 + iL0
L0
=
KC0 + iC0
C0
which is a real value.

7.15
Try solution = m ex in wave equation:
2 8 2 m
+ 2 ( E V ) = 0
x 2
h
we have:
8 2 m
= 2 (V E )
h
2
For E > V (inside the potential well), the value of is given by:
in = i
2
h
2 m( E V )
So the has a standing wave expression given by:
= Ae
2
m (V E ) x
h
+ Be
2
m (V E ) x
h
where A , B are constants.

For E < V (outside the potential well), the value of is given by:
out =
So the expression of is given by:
2
= Ae h
2
h
2m(V E )
m (V E ) x
+ Be
2
m (V E ) x
h
where A , B are constants. i.e. the x dependence of is e x , where
2
h
2m(V E )
7.16
Form the diffusion equation:
H
1 2H
=
t
x 2
we know the diffusivity is given by: d = 1
. The time of decay of the field is approximately
given by Einsteins diffusivity relation:
t=
where L is the extent of the medium.
L2
L2
=
= L2
d 1
For a copper sphere of radius 1m , the time of decay of the field is approximately given by:
t = L2 = 12 1.26 10 6 5.8 107 73[ s ] < 100[ s ]

7.17
Try solution f ( , t ) =
e ( r ) in
2
f ( , t )
, we have:
t
f ( , t ) r ( r )2
=
e
t
t
=
=
e ( r ) (2r )
2
1 2r 2 2
e ( r )
2r 2 1 ( r )
=
e
4t dt
2
Try solution f ( , t ) =
e ( r ) in
2
1 dr ( r )2
dr
+
e
dt
dt
dr
dt
(A.7.17.1)
f ( , t )
, we have:
x
2r 3 ( r )2
f ( , t )
=
e
x
so:
2 f ( , t )
2r 3 ( r )2 2r 3 ( r )2
=
(2r )r
e
e
x 2
2r 3
(1 2r 2 2 )e ( r )
2r 2 1 ( r )
=
e
4td dt
2
(A.7.17.2)
By comparing the above derivatives, A.7.17.1 and 2, we can find the solution
f ( , t ) =
e ( r )
f
2 f
=d 2
t
x
8.1
Write the expressions of E x and H y as:
E x = E0 sin
(v t z )
E E
2
H y = H 0 sin
(v t z )
H H
where E and H are the wavelengths of electric and magnetic waves respectively,
and vE and vH are the velocities of electric and magnetic waves respectively.
By substitution of the these expressions into equation (8.1a), we have:
vH H 0 cos
i.e.
vH H 0
cos
(v H t z ) =
2
(v H t z ) =
E0 cos
E0
cos
(v E t z )
(v E t z )
which is true for all t and z , provided:

vH = vE =
E0
H 0
H = E
and
so, at any t and z , we have:
E = H =
E0
tz
H 0
Therefore E x and H y have the same wavelength and phase.
8.2
Energy Force Distance Force
=
=
= pressure
Volume
L3
Area
Currents in W into page. Field lines at A cancel. Those at C force wires together.
Reverse current in one wire. Field lines at A in same direction, force wires apart.
Fig Q.8.2.a
Motion
Field lines at C in same direction as those from current in wire

in opposite direction at A . Motion to the right
Fig Q.8.2.b
8.3
The volume of a thin shell of thickness dr is given by: 4r 2 dr , so the electrostatic
energy over the spherical volume from radius
+ 1
by:
0 E 2 (4r 2 )dr , which equals mc 2 , i.e.:
a 2
+ 1
2
2
2
a 2 0 E (4r )dr = mc
to infinity is given
By substitution of E = e 4 0 r 2 into the above equation, we have:
1
e2
0
(4r 2 )dr = mc 2
2 (4 0 r 2 ) 2
e2
i.e.
8 0
1
dr = mc 2
2
r
e2
i.e.
8 0 a
= mc 2
Then, the value of radius a is given by:

a=
e2
(1.6 10 19 ) 2
=
1.41 10 15 [m]
8 0 mc 2 8 8.8 10 12 9.1 1031 (3 108 ) 2
Another approach to the problem yields the value:

a = 2.82 1015 [m]
8.4
The magnitude of Poynting vector on the surface of the wire can be calculated by
deriving the electric and magnetic fields respectively.
The vector of magnetic field on the surface of the cylindrical wire points towards the
azimuthal direction, and its magnitude is given by Amperes Law:
I
H = H e =
e
2r
where r is the radius of the wires cross circular section, and I is the current in the
wire.
Ohms Law, J = E , shows the vector of electric field on the surface of the
cylindrical wire points towards the currents direction, and its magnitude equals the
voltage drop per unit length, i.e.:
V
IR
E = Eze z = e z = e z
l
l
where, l is the length of the wire, and the V is the voltage drop along the whole
length of the wire and is given by Ohms Law: V = IR , where R is the resistance of
the wire.
Hence, the Poynting vector on the surface of the wire points towards the axis of the
wire is given by:
S = E H = E z e z H e = E z H e r
which shows the Poynting vector on the surface of the wire points towards the axis of
the wire, which corresponds to the flow of energy into the wire from surrounding
space. The product of its magnitude and the surface area of the wire is given by:
IR I
S 2rl = E z H 2rl =
2rl = I 2 R
l 2r
which is the rate of generation of heat in the wire.
8.5
By relating Poynting vector to magnetic energy, we first need to derive the magnitude
of Poynting vector in terms of magnetic field.
The electric field on the inner surface of the solenoid can be derived from the integral
format of Faradays Law:
H
Edl = t dS
where S is the area of the solenoids cross section. E is the electric field on the
inner surface of the solenoid, and H is the magnetic field inside the solenoid.
For a long uniformly wound solenoid the electric field uniformly points towards
azimuthal direction, i.e. E = E e , and the magnetic field inside the solenoid
uniformly points along the axis direction, i.e. H = H z e z . So the above equation
becomes
H z 2
r
t
r H z
i.e.
E =
2 t
where r is the radius of the cross section of the solenoid.
Hence, the Poynting vector on the inner surface of the solenoid is given by:
r
H z
E H = E e H z e z = H z
er
2
t
which points towards the axis of the solenoid and corresponds to the inward energy
flow. The product of its magnitude and the surface area of the solenoid is given by:
r
H z
H z
2rl = r 2lH z
S 2rl =
Hz
2
t
t
where l is the length of the solenoid.
On the other hand, the time rate of change of magnetic energy stored in the solenoid
of a length l is given by:
E 2r =
d 1
H z
2
2
2
H r l = r lH z
dt 2
t
which equals S 2rl
8.6
For plane polarized electromagnetic wave ( E x , H y ) in free space, we have the
relation:
Ex
=
Hy
0
0
Its Poynting vector is given by:

S = Ex H y = Ex
where
c =1
Ex
0 0
1
0 2
Ex =
0 E x2 = c 0 E x2
0
0 0
0 0 is the velocity of light.
Noting that:
2
1
1
1
0 E x2 = 0 0 H y = 0 H y2
2
2 0
2
we have:
1
1
S = E x H y = c 0 E x2 + 0 H y2 = c 0 E x2
2
2
Since the intensity in such a wave is given by:

I = S av = c 0 E 2 =
1
2
c 0 Emax
2
we have:
S =
2 12
2
S =
S 1 2 27.45S 1 2 [Vm 1 ]
8
12
c 0
3 10 8.8 10
Emax =
H max =
1
2
2
3 108 8.8 1012 Emax
1.327 10 3 Emax
2
2 12
2
0
Emax =
S =
S 1 2 7.3 10 2 S 1 2 [ Am 1 ]
8
-7
c0
3 10 4 10
0
8.7
The average intensity of the beam and is given by:
I=
Power
Energy
0.3
=
=
= 1.53 108 [Wm 2 ]
3 2
4
area
area pulse duration (2.5 10 ) 10
Using the result in Problem 8.6, the root mean square value of the electric field in
the wave is given by:
E2 =
I
c 0
1.53 108
2.4 105 [Vm 1 ]
8
12
3 10 8.8 10
8.8
Using the result of Problem 8.6, the amplitude of the electric field at the earths
surface is given by:
E0 = 27.45S 1 2 = 27.45 1350 1010[Vm 1 ]
and the amplitude of the associated magnetic field in the wave is given by:
H 0 = 7.3 10 2 1350 2.7[ Am 1 ]
The radiation pressure of the sunlight upon the earth equals the sum of the electric
field energy density and the magnetic field energy density, i.e.
1
1
prad = 0 E02 + 0 H 02 = 0 E02 = 8.8 10 12 10102 = 8.98 10 6 [ Pa]
2
2
8.9
The total radiant energy loss per second of the sun is given by:
Eloss = S 4r 2 = 1350 4 (15 1010 ) 2 = 3.82 1026 [ J ]
which is associated with a mass of:
m = Eloss c 2 =
3.82 10 26
= 4.2 109 [kg ]
(3 108 ) 2
8.10
At a point 10km from the station, the Poynting vector is given by:
S=
P
105
=
= 1.6 10 4 [W m 2 ]
2r 2 2 (10 103 ) 2
Using the result in Problem 8.6, the amplitude of electric field is given by:
E0 = 27.45 S 1 2 = 27.45 1.6 10 4 = 0.346[V m]
The amplitude of magnetic field is given by:
H 0 = 7.3 10 2 S 1 2 = 7.3 10 2 1.6 104 = 9.2 104 [ A m]
8.11
The surface current in the strip is given by:
I = Qv
where Q is surface charge per unit area on the strip and is given by: Q = E x , and
v is the velocity of surface charges along the transmission line.
Since the surface charges change along the transmission line at the same speed as the
electromagnetic wave travels, i.e. v = c =
, the surface current becomes:
I = Qv = E x
E
x
Analysis in page 207 shows, for plane electromagnetic wave,
H y = E x , so the
surface current is now given by:

H = Hy
y
I=
On the other hand, the voltage across the two strips is given by:
V = Ex L = Ex
where L = 1 is the distance between the two strips.
Therefore the characteristic impedance of the transmission line is given by:
Z=
8.12
Write equation (8.6) in form:
V
E
= x =
I Hy
E x = E x + (E x )
2
z
t t
t
which can be dimensionally expressed as:

voltage length inductance displacement current inductance current area
=
length length
length
time area
length
time
Multiplied by a dimension term, length, the above equation has the dimension:
voltage
current
= inductance
area
time area
which is the dimensional form (per unit area) of the equation:
dI
V =L
dt
where V is a voltage, L is a inductance and I is a current.
8.13
Analysis in page 210 and 211 shows, in a conducting medium, the wave number of
electromagnetic wave is given by:
k=
where is angular frequency of the electromagnetic wave, and are the

permeability and conductivity of the conducting medium.
Differentiation of the above equation gives:
dk =
1
2
1
d =
d
2 2
2 2
2
2
d
=2
=2
=2
dk
k
i.e.
which shows, when a group of electromagnetic waves of nearly equal frequencies

propagates in a conducting medium, where the group velocity and the phase velocity
can be treated as fixed values, the group velocity, vg = d dk , is twice the wave
velocity, v p = k .
8.14
(a)
0.1
=
=
36 109 = 720 > 100
2 r 0 2 50 103 50
which shows, at a frequency of 50kHz , the medium is a conductor
(b)
0.1
=
=
36 109 = 3.6 10 3 < 102
4
2 r 0 2 10 106 50
which shows, at a frequency of 104 MHz , the medium is a dielectric.
8.15
The Atlantic Ocean is a conductor when:
=
> 100
2 r 0
i.e.
<
2 100 r 0
4.3
36 109 10[ MHz ]
2 100 81
Therefore the longest wavelength that could propagate under water is given by:
max =
i.e.
max
r max
= 10 106
c
3 108
=
3[m]
r 10 106
81 10 106
8.16
When a plane electromagnetic wave travelling in air with an impedance of Z air is
reflected normally from a plane conducting surface with an impedance of Z c , the
transmission coefficient of magnetic field is given by:
TH =
Ht
Hi
Using the relations: Et = Z c H t , Ei = Z air H i , and
Et
2Z c
=
, the above equation
Ei Z c + Z air
becomes:
TH =
H t Et Z air Z air 2 Z c
2 Z air
=
=
=
Hi
Ei Z c
Z c Z c + Z air Z c + Z air
The impedance of a good conductor tends to zero, i.e. Z c 0 , so we have:

TH
2Z air
= 2 or H t 2 H i
Z air
After reflection from the air-conductor interface, standing waves are formed in the air
with a magnitude of H i + H r in magnetic field and a magnitude of Ei + Er in

electric field.
Using the relations: H i + H r = H t , Ei + Er = Et , the standing wave ratio of magnetic
field to electric field in air is given by:
Hi + Hr Ht
1
=
=
Ei + Er
Et Z c
which is a large quantity due to Z c 0 .
As an analogy, for a short-circuited transmission line, the relation between forward
(incident) and backward (reflected) voltages is given by: V+ + V = 0 or Vi + Vr = 0 ,
the forward (incident) current is given by: I i = I + = V+ Z 0 , and the backward
(reflected) current is given by: I r = I = V Z 0 , so the transmitted current is given
by:
It = Ii + I r =
V+ V V+ V+
V
= 2 + = 2Ii
Z0 Z0 Z0
Z0
Z0
When a plane electromagnetic wave travelling in a conductor with an impedance of

Z c is reflected normally from a plane conductor-air interface, the transmission
coefficient of electric field is given by:
TE =
Et
2 Z air
=
Ei Z c + Z air
The impedance of a good conductor tends to zero, i.e. Z c 0 , so we have:

TE
2Z air
= 2 or Et 2 Ei
Z air
As an analogy, for a open-circuited transmission line, the forward (incident) voltage

equals the backward (reflected) voltages, i.e. Vi = V+ = Vr = V , the transmitted
voltage is given by:
Vt = Vi + Vr = V+ + V+ = 2V+
8.17
Analysis in page 215 and 216 shows, in a conductor, magnetic field H y lags electric
field E x by a phase angle of = 45o , so we can write the electric field and magnetic
field in a conductor as:
E x = E0 cos t and H y = H 0 cos(t )
so the average value of the Poynting vector is the integral of the Poynting vector
E x H y over one time period T divided by the time period, i.e.:
S av =
1 T
Ex H y
T 0
1 T
E0 cos t H 0 cos(t )dt
T 0
EH T1
= 0 0 [cos(2t ) + cos ]dt
T 0 2
1 E0 H 0
1
=
T cos = E0 H 0 cos 45o [Wm 2 ]
2 T
2
=
Noting that the real part of impedance of the conductor is given by:
(real part of Z c ) =
E0 =
i.e.
E0
E
cos = 0 cos 45o
H0
H0
H0
(real part of Z c )
cos 45o
so we have:
1
E0 H 0 cos 45o
2
1 H 02
=
real part of Z c cos 45o
2 cos 45o
1
= H 02 (real part of Z c )[Wm 2 ]
2
S av =
We know from analysis in page 216 that, at a frequency = 3000 MHz , the value of
for copper is 2.9 109 , hence, at of frequency of 1000 MHz , the value of
for copper is given by 2.9 109 3 = 9.7 10 10 , and r r 1 . So, the real
part of impedance of the large copper sheet is given by:
(real part of Z copper ) =
=
r
2
376.6
r
2
2
Z copper
2
2
= 376.6
9.7 10 10 = 8.2 10 3[]
Noting that, at an air-conductor interface, the transmitted magnetic field in copper

H copper doubles the incident magnetic field H 0 , i.e. H copper = 2H 0 , the average
power absorbed by the copper per square metre is the average value of transmitted
Poynting vector, which is given by:
S copper =
1 2
H copper (real part of Z copper )
2
1
(2 H copper ) 2 (real part of Z copper )
2
2
= 2 H copper
(real part of Z copper )
=
E
= 2 0 (real part of Z copper )
376.6
2
1
3
7
= 2
8.2 10 = 1.16 10 [W ]
376
.
6
8.18
Analysis in page 222 and 223 shows that when an electromagnetic wave is reflected
normally from a conducting surface its reflection coefficient I r is given by:
I r = 1 2
2 0
Noting that r = 1 , the fractional loss of energy is given by:
2 0
1 I r = 1 1 2
8 0
8 r
8
=
=
=
8.19
Following the discussion of solution to problem 8.17, we can also find the average
value of Poynting vector in air.
The electric and magnetic field of plane wave in air have the same phase, so the
Poynting vector in air is given by:
S air = E x H y = E0 cos t H 0 cos t = E0 H 0 cos 2 t
and its average value is given by:

S air =
1 T
Ex H y
T 0
1 T
E0 cos t H 0 cos tdt
T 0
E H T1
= 0 0 [1 + cos(2t )]dt
T 0 2
1 E0 H 0
1
1
E02
1
=
T = E0 H 0 =
=
= 1.33 10 3[Wm 1 ]
2 T
2
2 376.6 2 376.6
=
So, the ratio of transmitted Poynting vector in copper to the incident Poynting vector
in air is given by:
S copper
S air
1.16 10 7
= 8.81 10 5
1.33 10 3
which equals the fractional loss of energy I r given by:

Ir =
= 8 9.7 10 10 = 8.81 10 5
8.20
E x and H y are in complex expression, we have:
12
kz i (t kz ) i
1
1
E x H y* = Ae kz ei (t kz ) A
e
e e
2
2

12
1 2 kz i
= A2
e e
2
So, the average value of the Poynting vector in the conductor is given by:
12
1
1 2 kz
S av = real part of E x H y* = A2
e [Wm 2 ]
2
2 2
The mean value of the electric field vector, E x , is a constant value, which contributes
to the same electric energy density at the same amount of time, i.e.:
2
1
1 T1
(average electric energy density) = E x = E x2 dt
T 0 2
2
i.e.
2
2 2 kz
Ex = A e
T 1 + cos 2t
A2e 2 kz
1 T
2
2 2 kz 1
dt =
cos tdt = A e
T 0
T 0
2
2
Ex =
or:
2 kz
Ae
2
Noting that:
12
S av
1 2 kz
= 2k A2
e
z
2 2
12
2 kz
= A
e

2 2
2
A2 2 kz
=
e
= E x
2
12
we find the value of S av z is the product of the conductivity and the square of
the mean value of the electric field vector E x . The negative sign in the above
equation shows the energy is decreasing with distance.
8.21
Noting that the relation between refractive index n of a dielectric and its impedance
Z d is given by: n =
Z0
, where Z 0 is the impedance in free space, so, when light
Zd
travelling in free space is normally incident on the surface of a dielectric, the reflected
intensity is given by:
E
I r = r
Ei
Zd Z0 1 Z0 Zd 1 n
=
=
=
Zd + Z0 1 + Z0 Zd 1 + n
and the transmitted intensity is given by:

2
Z 0 Et2 Z 0 2Z d
Z
2
2
4n
= 0
= n
=
It =
=
2
Z d Ei
Zd Zd + Z0
Z d 1 + Z0 Z d
(1 + n) 2
1+ n
2
8.22
If the dielectric is a glass (nglass = 1.5) , we have:
2
I r _ glass
1 nglass 1 1.5 2
=
= 4%
=
1 + n 1 + 1.5
glass
I t _ glass =
4nglass
(1 + nglass )
4 1.5
= 96%
(1 + 1.5) 2
Problem 8.15 shows water is a conductor up to a frequency of 10MHz, i.e. water is a

dielectric at a frequency of 100MHz and has a refractive index of:
nwater = r = 81 = 9
So, the reflectivity is given by:

2
I r _ water
1 nwater 1 9
=
=
= 64%
1 + nwater 1 + 9
2
and transmittivity given by:

I t _ water =
8.23
4nwater
49
=
= 36%
2
(1 + nwater )
(1 + 9) 2
The loss of intensity is given by:

I loss = 1 I t1I t 2
where I t1 is the transmittivity from air to glass and I t 2 is the transmittivity from
glass to air. Following the discussion in problem 8.21, we have:
Z E 2 Z 2Z 0
I t 2 = i t2 = d
Z t Ei
Z0 Z0 + Zd
2
1 2
4n
Z
= d
=
=
= I t1
(1 + n) 2
Z0 1 + Zd Z0
n 1+1 n
So we have:
I loss = 1 I t21 = 1 0.96 2 = 7.84%
8.24
Noting that c = 1
0 0 = 2 , the radiating power can be written as:

P=
dE q 2 4 x02
=
dt 12 0c 3
2 x02
2q 2
2
12 0c c
4 2 2 x02
0 0 I 02
2 2
12 0
1 2
=
2 3
i.e.
2
R=
3
0 x0 2
I
0 0
2
0 x0
x
= 787 0 []
0
By substitution of given parameters, the wavelength is given by:
3 108
= 600[m] >> x0 = 30[m]
5 105
So the radiation resistance and the radiated power are given by:
2
30
x
R = 787 0 = 787
= 1.97[]
600
P=
1 2 1
RI 0 = 1.97 20 2 400[W ]
2
2
9.1
Substituting the expression of z into
2 z 2 z
+
, we have:
x 2 y 2
2z 2z
+ 2 = (k12 + k22 ) Aei[t ( k1x+k2 y )] = (k12 + k22 ) z
2
x y
Noting that k =
2
c 2 = k12 + k 22 , we have:
2 z 2 z
2
+
=
z
x 2 y 2
c2
Substituting the expression of z into
1 2 z
, we have:
c 2 t 2
1 2 z
2 [t ( k1x+k2 y )]
2
= 2 Ae
= 2 z
c 2 t 2
c
c
So we have:
2 z 2 z 1 2 z
+
=
x 2 y 2 c 2 t 2
9.2
Boundary condition z = 0
at y = 0 gives:
A1ei (t k1x ) + A2ei (t k1x ) = 0 i.e. A1 = A2

so the expression of z can be written as:
z = A1{ei[t ( k1x+k2 y )] ei[t ( k1xk2 y )]} = A1[ei (t k1x ) (e ik2 y eik2 y )] = 2iA1 sin( k 2 y )ei (t k1x )
Therefore, the real part of z is given by:
zreal = +2 A1 sin k 2 y sin(t k1 x)

Using the above expression, boundary condition z = 0
at y = b gives:
z = 2iA1 sin k2bei (t k1x ) = 0

which is true for any t and x , provided: sin k 2b = 0 , i.e. k 2 =
n
.
b
9.3
As an analogy to discussion in text page 242, electric field E z between these two planes is the
superposition of the incident and reflected waves, which can be written as:
E z = E1e
i[( k x x + k y y ) t ]
+ E2 e
i [( k x x + k y y ) t ]
where k x = k cos and k y = k sin

Boundary condition E z = 0 at x = 0 gives:
( E1 + E2 )e
i ( k y y t )
=0
which is true for any t and y if E1 = E2 = E0 , so we have:
Ez = E0e
i[( k x x + k y y )t ]
E0e
i[( k x x + k y y )t ]
= E0 (eikx x e ikx x )e
i ( k y y t )
Using the above equation, boundary condition E z = 0 at x = a gives:
Ez = E0 (eikxa e ikxa )e
sin k x ae
i.e.
i ( k y y t )
i ( k y y t )
=0
=0
which is true for any t and y if sin k x a = 0 , i.e. k x = n a .

By substitution of the expressions for
c and g into
2
c
2g
, we have:
2
2
k x2 + k y2
1
k2

kx k y
=
=
=
+ 2 =
= 2
+
2
2
2
(2 )
(2 )
c g 2 2
0
2c
9.4
Electric field components in x, y , z directions in problem 9.3 are given by:
E x = E y = 0 and Ez = E0 (eikx x e ikx x )e
i ( k y y t )
By substitution of these values into equation 8.1, we have:
i ( k y t )
Hx =
E z = ik y E0 (eikx x e ikx x )e y
t
y
i ( k y t )
H y = E z = ik x E0 (eik x x + e ikx x )e y
t
x
which yields:
Hx =
k y E0
Hy =
(eik x x e ik x x )e
k x E0
i ( k y y t )
(eik x x + e ik x x )e
+C
i ( k y y t )
+D
where C and D are constants, which shows the magnetic fields in both x and y directions
have non-zero values.
9.5
line integral
B dl
Current into
paper
B
Current out of
paper
B dl = I
B = I b
Closed circuit formed by connecting ends of line length l threaded by flux:
B=
Ila
b
a
b
b
capacitance C per unit length =
a
inductance L per unit length =
Z0 =
L a
=
C b
9.6
Text in page 208 shows the time averaged value of Poynting vector for an electromagnetic wave in
a media with permeability of and permittivity of is given by:
I=
1
cE02
2
Noting that, in the waveguide of Problem 9.5, the area of cross section is given by: A = ab , and
the velocity of the electromagnetic wave is given by: c = 1
, the power transmitted by a
single positive travelling wave is given by:
P = IA =
1
1
1
1
E02 = abE02
cE02 ab = ab
2
2
2
9.7
The wave equation of such an electromagnetic wave is given by:
2E =
1 2 E( y , z )
c2
t 2
2E 2E 2E 1 2E
+
+
=
x 2 y 2 z 2 c 2 t 2
i.e.
By substitution of the solution E = E ( y, z )n cos(t k x x) into the above equation, we have:
2
2 2
2 E ( y, z ) 2 E ( y, z )
k
E
(
y
,
z
)
+
+
cos(
k
x
)
=
E ( y, z ) cos(t k x x)
x
x
y 2
z 2
c 2 t 2
which is true for any t and x if:
2 E ( y, z ) 2 E ( y, z ) 2 2
+
= k x 2 E ( y, z )
y 2
z 2
c
2 E ( y, z ) 2 E ( y, z )
+
= k 2 E ( y, z )
2
2
y
z
or:
where k =
2
2
c
k x2
9.8
Using the result of Problem 9.7, the electric field in x direction can be written as:
E x = F ( y, z ) cos(t k x z )
and equation:
2 F ( y, z ) 2 F ( y, z )
+
= k 2 F ( y, z )
2
2
y
z
is satisfied.
Write F ( y, z ) in form: F ( y, z ) = G ( y ) H ( z ) and substitute to the above equation, we have:
1 2G ( y )
1 2 H ( z)
+
= k 2
2
2
G ( y ) y
H ( z ) z
The solution to the above equation is given by:
G ( y ) = C1e
ik y y
+ C2 e
ik y y
and H ( z ) = D1e
2
2
2
where C1 , C2 , D1 , D2 are constants and k y + k z = k
ik z z
+ D2e ik z z
So the electric field in x direction is given by:
E x = F ( y, z ) cos(t k x x) = G ( y ) H ( z ) cos(t k x x)
= (C1e
ik y y
+ C2 e
ik y y
)( D1eik z z + D2e ik z z ) cos(t k x x)
(9.8.1)
Using boundary condition E x = 0 at y = 0 in equation (9.8.1) gives: C1 = C2 .

Using boundary condition E x = 0 at z = 0 in equation (9.8.1) gives: D1 = D2 .
So equation (9.8.1) becomes:
E x = C1 D1 (e
or
ik y y
ik y y
)(eikz z e ik z z ) cos(t k x x)
E x = A sin k y y sin k z z cos(t k x x)
(9.8.2)
where A is constant.
Using boundary condition E x = 0 at y = a in equation (9.8.2) gives: sin k y a = 0 , i.e.
k y = m a , where m = 1,2,3,L .
Using boundary condition E x = 0 at z = b in equation (9.8.2) gives: sin k z b = 0 , i.e.
k z = n b , where n = 1,2,3,L .
Finally, we have:
E x = A sin
my
nz
sin
cos(t k x x)
a
b
where
m2 n2
k 2 = k y2 + k z2 = 2 2 + 2
b
a
9.9
From problem 9.7 and 9.8, we know:
m2 n2
k x2 = 2 c 2 k 2 = 2 c 2 2 2 + 2
b
a
For k x to be real, we have:
m2 n2
k x2 = 2 c 2 2 2 + 2 > 0
b
a
i.e.
Therefore, when m = n = 1 ,
m2 n2
c 2 + 2
a
b
has the lowest possible value (the cut-off frequency) given by:
min = c
1
1
+ 2
2
a b
9.10
The dispersion relation of the waves of Problem 9.7 9.9 is given by:
m2 n2
k x2 = 2 c 2 2 2 + 2
b
a
The differentiation of this equation gives:
2k x dk x =
i.e.
k x dk x
2
d
c2
= c 2 or v p vg = c 2
9.11
Using boundary condition z = 0 at x = 0 in the displacement equation gives:
( A1 + A4 )ei (t k2 y ) + ( A2 + A3 )ei (t +k2 y ) = 0

which is true for any t and y if:
A1 = A4 and A2 = A3
so we have:
z = A1{ei[t ( k1x+k2 y )] ei[t ( k1x+k2 y )]} + A2{ei[t ( k1xk2 y )] ei[t ( k1xk2 y )]

= 2 A1i sin k1 xei (t k2 y ) + 2 A2i sin k1 xei (t +k2 y )
= 2i sin k1 x[ A1e
i ( t k 2 y )
A2e
i ( t + k 2 y )
(9.11.1)
Using boundary condition z = 0 at y = 0 in equation (9.11.1) gives:
2i sin k1 x( A1 A2 )eit = 0
which is true for any t and x if:
A1 = A2
Therefore, equation (9.11.1) becomes:
z = 4 A1 sin k1 x sin k 2 yeit

and the real part of z is given by:
zreal = 4 A1 sin k1 x sin k 2 y cos t

Using boundary condition z = 0 at x = a in equation (9.11.2) gives:
sin k1a = 0 , i.e. k1 =
n1
, where n1 = 1,2,3,L .
a
(9.11.2)
Using boundary condition z = 0 at y = b in equation (9.11.2) gives:
sin k 2b = 0 , i.e. k 2 =
n2
, where n2 = 1,2,3,L .
b
9.12
Multiplying the equation of geometric progression series by e
e h
kT
N = e h
kT
= N 0 [ e h
+ e 2 h
kT
h kT
+ e 3h
kT
kT
on both sides gives:
+ L + e ( n +1) h
kT
so we have:
N e h
kT
N = N 0 [1 lim e ( n+1) h
kT
] = N0
i.e.
N=
N0
1 e h
kT
The total energy over all the n energy states is given by:
E = En = N n nh = h N n n
n
= hN 0 (e
h kT
+ 2e
Multiplying the above equation by e
Ee h
2 h kT
h kT
+ 3e 3h
+ L + ne nh
kT
on both sides gives:
= hN 0 [e 2 h
kT
+ 2e 3h
= hN 0 lim[e h
kT
+ e 2 h
kT
kT
kT
+ 3e 4 h
kT
+ L + ne ( n+1) h
kT
so we have:
E Ee h
kT
= hN 0e h
= hN 0e h
= hN 0e h
kT
lim[1 + e h
n
kT
+ e 2 h
kT
1 e nh kT
n
nh kT
lim
kT
n 1 e
e
1
kT
1 e h kT
kT
E = N0
i.e.
kT
+ e 3h
kT
+ L + e nh
+ L + e ( n1) h
kT
ne nh
kT
ne ( n+1) h
kT
he h kT
(1 e h kT ) 2
Hence, the average energy per oscillator is given by:
E
=
N
N0
he h kT
e h kT
h
(1 e h kT ) 2
= h
= h kT
h kT
N0
1 e
e
1
h kT
1 e
By expanding the denominator of the above equation for h << kT , we have:
kT
h
[1 + h kT + (h kT ) 2 + L] 1
2
h
= kT
h kT
which is the classical expression of Rayleigh-Jeans for an oscillator with two degrees of freedom.
Alternative derivation for E and
E = N = N nh where nh =
(nhe
n =0
nh kT
nh kT
n =0
log
e nh
1
(kT )
n =0
1
=
log
1
(kT )
1 e h kT
nh =
kT
he h kT
1 e h kT
N 0 he h kT
E = N nh =
(1 e h kT ) 2
and
= nh =
h
e
h kT
9.13
One solution of this Schrodingers time-independent equation can be written as:
= X ( x)Y ( y ) Z ( z )
Substituting this expression into the Schrodingers equation and dividing
on both sides of the
equation, we have:
1 2 X ( x)
1 2Y ( y )
1 2Z ( z)
8 2 m
+
+
=
E
X ( x) x 2
Y ( y ) y 2
Z ( z ) z 2
h2
which yields:
2 X ( x)
+ E x X ( x) = 0
x 2
2Y ( y )
+ E yY ( y ) = 0
y 2
2Z ( z)
+ Ez Z ( z) = 0
z 2
where E x , E y , E z are constants and satisfy: E x + E y + E z =
By solving the above three equations, we have:
8 2 m
E
h2
i Ex x
+ Dx e
i Ex x
i Ey y
+ Dy e
i E y y
X ( x) = C x e
Y ( y) = C y e
Z ( z) = Cz e
i Ez z
+ Dz e
i Ez z
and
= (C x ei
Ex x
+ Dx e
i Ex x
)(C y e
i Ey y
+ Dy e
i Ey y
)(C z e
i Ez z
+ Dz e
i Ez z
where C x , Dx , C y , D y , C z , Dz are constants.

Boundary condition
= 0 at x = 0 gives C x = Dx , boundary condition = 0 at
y = 0 gives C y = Dy , boundary condition = 0 at z = 0 gives C z = Dz , so we

have:
= C x C y C z (e i
Ex x
i Ex x
)(e
i Ey y
i Ey y
)(e
i Ez z
i Ez z
= A sin E x x sin E y y sin E z z

2
l
,
Using the above expression , boundary condition = 0 at x = Lx gives: E x =
L
x
boundary condition
= 0 at x = Ly
n
x = Lz gives: E z =
Lz
r
gives: E y =
L
y
, boundary condition = 0 at
, where l , r , n = 0,1,2,L , so we have:
l r n
8 2 m
+ +
=
E

h2
Lx Ly Lz
2
i.e.
E=
When Lx = Ly = Lz = L , E =
h 2 l 2 r 2 n 2
+
+
8m L2x L2y L2z
h2 2 2
(l + r + n 2 ). If E = E0 for l = 1 , r = n = 0 , the
8mL2
next energy levels are given by:
E = 3E0 for l = r = n = 1 .
E = 6E0 for l = r = 1, n = 2 ; l = n = 1, r = 2 and n = r = 1, l = 2 , which is a three-fold
degenerate state.
E = 9E0 for l = r = 2, n = 1 ; l = n = 2, r = 1 and n = r = 2, l = 1 which is a three-fold
degenerate state.
E = 11E0 for l = r = 1, n = 3 ; l = n = 1, r = 3 and n = r = 1, l = 3 which is a three-fold

degenerate state.
E = 12E0 for l = r = n = 2 .
E = 14E0
for
l = 1, r = 2, n = 3
l = 1, n = 3, r = 2
l = 2, n = 1, r = 3
l = 2, n = 3, r = 1 ; l = 3, n = 1, r = 2 and l = 3, n = 2, r = 1 which is a six-fold degenerate

state.
9.14
Plancks Radiation Law is given by:
E d =
8 2 h
d
c 3 e h kT 1
At low energy levels h << kT , by expansion of e
h kT
in series, the above equation
becomes:
E d =
8 2
c3
h 1 h
1+
+
+ L 1
kT 2 kT
8 2 h
8 2 kT
d
d =
3
c3
c h kT
2
which is Rayleigh-Jeans expression

9.15
Using the variable x = ch
kT , energy per unit range of wavelength can be written as:

E =
8ch(kTx)5
8 (kTx)5
=
(ch)5 (e x 1) (ch) 4 (e x 1)
Substitute the expression of E into integral
E d and, we have:
E d =
8 (kTx)5
ch
d
x
4
(ch) (e 1) xkT
8 (kT ) 4 x 3
dx
(ch)3 (e x 1)
8 (kT ) 4 4
=
(ch)3
15
8 5 k 4 4
=
T
15c 3h 3
i.e.
where a =
E d = aT 4
8 5 k 4
15c 3h3
9.16
Using the expression of E in Problem 9.15, the wavelength
m at which E is maximum
should satisfy the equation:
d
E = 0
dx
which yields:
d
x5
=0
dx (e x 1)
5 x 4 (e x 1) e x x 5
=0
(e x 1) 2
i.e.
x x
1 e = 1
5
i.e.
where x =
ch
kT
9.17
The most sensitive wavelength to the human eye can be given by substituting the suns
temperature T = 6000[ K ] into equation ch
m = 5kT , i.e.:
ch
3 108 6.63 10 34
m =
4.7 10 7 [m]
=
23
5kT 5 1.38 10 6000
which is in the green region of the visible spectrum.
9.18
Substituting the tungstens temperature T = 2000[ K ] into equation ch
m =
m = 5kT , i.e.:
ch
3 108 6.63 10 34
14 10 7 [m]
=
5kT 5 1.38 10 23 2000
which is well into infrared.

9.19
As an analogy to the derivation of number of points in
state shown in text page 250, 251, the
number of points in k space between k and k + dk is given by:
1 (volume of spherical shell)

8
volume of cell
4k 2 dk L

8

Noting that for each value of k there are two allowed states, the total number of states in k
space between k and k + dk is given by:
4k 2 dk L

P (k ) = 2
8

From E = (h
2m* )k 2 , we have k = (2m* h 2 ) E . By substitution into the above equation,
we get the number of states S ( E )dE in the energy interval dE given by:
S ( E )dE = 2
=
4 (2m* h 2 )3 2 Ed E L

8

L3 (2m* h 2 )3 2 E
L3 (2m* h 2 )3 2 E
dE
=
dE
2 2
2 2 E
Provided m m and A = L , we have:

*
S (E) =
A 2m
2 2 h 2
32
Since Fermi energy level satisfies the equation:
Ef
S ( E )dE = N
By substitution of the expression of S ( E ) , we have:
Ef
i.e.
A 2m
2 2 h 2
32
E dE = N
A 2m
2 2 h 2
32
E 3f 2
32
=N
which gives:
h 2 3 2 N
Ef =
2m* A
provided m m
23
10.1
The wave form in the upper figure has an average value of zero and is an odd function
of time, so its Fourier series has a constant of zero and only sine terms. Since the
wave form is constant over its half period, the Fourier coefficient bn will be zero if
n is even, i.e. there are only odd harmonics and the harmonics range from 1,3,5 to
infinity.
The wave form in the lower figure has a positive average value and is a even function
of time, so its Fourier series has a constant of positive value and only cosine terms.
Since T 1 2 , there are both odd and even harmonics. The harmonics range from
1,2,3 to infinity.
10.2
Such a periodic waveform should satisfy: f ( x) = f ( x T 2) , where T is the
period of the waveform. Its Fourier coefficient of cosine terms can be written as:
2 T
2nx
f ( x) cos
dx
T 0
T
T
2 T2
2nx
2nx
dx + f ( x) cos
dx
= f ( x) cos
T
0
2
T
T
T
T
2 T2
2nx
2nx
dx + f ( x T 2) cos
d ( x T 2)
= f ( x) cos
T
0
2
T
T
T
an =
If n is even, we have
cos
2n( x T 2)
2nx
2nx
= cos
n = cos
T
T
T
Hence, by substituting into an and using u = x T 2 , we have:

an =
T 2
2 T2
2nx
2nu
(
)
cos
du = 0
dx
f (u ) cos
f
x
0
0
T
T
T
Similarly, the coefficient of sine terms is given by:

2 T
2nx
f ( x) sin
dx
0
T
T
T
2 T2
2nx
2nx
dx + f ( x) sin
dx
= f ( x) sin
T
0
2
T
T
T
T
2 T2
2nx
2nx
dx + f ( x T 2) sin
d ( x T 2)
= f ( x) sin
T
0
2
T
T
T
bn =
If n is even, using u = x T 2 , we have:

bn =
T 2
2 T2
2nx
2nu
du = 0
dx f (u ) sin
f ( x) sin
0
T
T
T0
Therefore, if n is even, the Fourier coefficients of both cosine and sine terms are
zero, i.e. there are no even order frequency components.
10.3
The constant term of the Fourier series is given by:
h
1
1 2
1
a0 =
ydx =
h sin xdx =
2
2 0
2 0
The Fourier coefficient of cosine term is given by:
1 2
h
an = y cos nxdx = sin x cos nxdx
when n = 1 , we have:
when n > 1 , we have:

an =
a1 =
h
2
h
2
sin x cos xdx =
sin 2 xdx = 0
sin x cos nxdx
sin(1 + n) x + sin(1 n) xdx
h 1
1
cos(1 + n) x +
cos(1 n) x
2 1 + n
1 n
0
which gives:
h 2
h 2
h 2
, a3 = 0 , a4 =
, a5 = 0 , a6 =
,
1 3
35
57
The Fourier coefficient of sine term is given by:
1 2
h
bn = y sin nxdx = sin x sin nxdx
a2 =
when n = 1 , we have:
b1 =
bn =
when n > 1 , we have:
h
2
sin x sin xdx =
sin 2 xdx =
h
2
sin x sin nxdx
cos(1 n) x cos(1 + n) xdx
h 1
1
sin(1 n) x +
sin(1 + n) x
=
2 1 n
1+ n
0
=0
Overall, the Fourier series is given by:
1
y = a0 + an cos nx + bn sin nx
2
1
1
2
2
2
cos 6 x L
cos 4 x
cos 2 x
sin x
1 +
1 2
57
35
1 3
10.4
Such a wave form is a even function with a period of . Hence, there are only
constant term and cosine terms.
The constant term is given by:
1
1
2h
a0 = h sin xdx =
2
0
which doubles the constant shown in Problem 10.3

The coefficient of cosine term is given by:
an =
=
4h
2h
4h
sin x cos
2nx
dx
sin x cos 2nxdx

[sin(1 + 2n) x + sin(1 2n) x]dx
2
1
2h 1
=
cos(1 2n) x
cos(1 + 2n) x +
1 + 2n
1 2n
0
which gives:
h 2
h 2
h 2
, a2 =
, a3 =
,
1 3
35
57
Therefore the Fourier series is given by:
a1 =
y=
=
2nx
1
a0 + an cos
2
1
h
2
2
2
cos 6 x L
cos 4 x
cos 2 x
1
1 3
57
35
Compared with Problem 10.3, the modulating ripple of the first harmonic
h
sin x
2
disappears.
10.5
f (x) is even function in the interval , so its Fourier series has a constant term
given by:
1
1
a0 =
2
2
f ( x)dx =
1
2
x 2 dx =
2
3

2nx
dx
2
2
2 2
= x 2 cos nxdx =
x d sin nx
0
n 0
2 2
4
=
x sin nx sin nxdx 2 = 2 xd cos nx
0
0
n 0
n
4
4
4
= 2 x cos nx 0 cos nxdx = 2 cos n = (1) n 2
0
n
n
n
an =
f ( x) cos
Therefore the Fourier series is given by:

f ( x) =
4
2nx 1 2
1
= + (1) n 2 cos nx
a0 + an cos
2
3
2
n
1
1
10.6
The square wave function of unit height f (x) has a constant value of 1 over its first
half period [0, ] , so we have:
f ( 2) = 1
By substitution into its Fourier series, we have:

f ( 2)
5
4 1
3 1
+ sin
sin + sin
=1
2 3
2
2 5
i.e.
1 1 1
1 + =
3 5 7 4
10.7
It is obvious that the pulse train satisfies f (t ) = f (t ) , i.e. it is an even function. The
cosine coefficients of its Fourier series are given by:
2nx
2
2
4
2nx
4 T
an = cos
dx =
=
n
sin
sin
T 0
T
T 2n
T 0 n
T
10.8
2
2
n
n , so we have:
T
T
2
2
2 2
4
an =
n
n =
sin
n
T
n T
T
As becomes very small, sin
We can see as 0 , an 0 , which shows as the energy representation in time

domain 0 , the energy representation in frequency domain 0 as well.
10.9
The constant term of the Fourier series is given by:
1
1 T2 1
1 1
1
a0 =
dt =
dt =
2
T T 2 2
T 2
T
2nt
1
2n
2nt 4 1 T
4 1
an =
=
=
sin
sin
cos
0
T 2
T
T 2 2n
T 0 n
T
As 0 , we have:
2n
1 2n 2
=
n
T
n T
T
Now we have the Fourier series given by:
an =
f (t ) =
sin
2nt 1 2
2nt
1
= + cos
a0 + an cos
T
T T n=1
T
2
n =1
10.10
Following the derivation in the problem, we have:
1 +
F ( )eit d
2
+ 1
iT
it
i (1 e )e d
+ 1
iT
it
i (1 e )e d
+ 1
1 i ( t T )
it
i e i e d
f (t ) =
1
2
1
=
2
1
=
2
=
Using the fact that for T very large:

+ 1
+ 1
iT
i ( t T )
i e d = i e d =
we have:
1 1 + 1 it
f (t ) = +
e d
2 2 i
10.11
Following the derivation in the problem, we have:
F ( ) = f (t )e i 2t dt
+ 2
=
=
f 0e i 2 ( 0 )t dt
+ 2 i 2 ( ) t
f0
0
e
d [i 2 ( 0 )t ]
i 2 ( 0 ) 2
f0
(e i 2 ( 0 ) 2 ei 2 ( 0 ) 2 )
i 2 ( 0 )
= f 0
sin[ ( 0 ) ]
( 0 )
which shows the relative energy distribution in the spectrum given by:
F ( ) = ( f 0 ) 2
2
sin 2 [ ( 0 ) ]
[ ( 0 ) ]2
follows the intensity distribution curve in a single slit diffraction pattern given by:
I = I0
sin 2 (d sin )
(d sin ) 2
10.12
The energy spectrum has a maximum when:
sin 2 [ ( max 0 ) ]
=1
[ ( max 0 ) ]2
i.e.
( min 0 ) = 0 or min = 0
The frequencies for the minima of the energy spectrum are given by:
F ( min ) = ( f 0 ) 2
i.e.
sin 2 [ ( min 0 ) ]
=0
[ ( min 0 ) ]2
n
n
( min
0 ) = n or min
0 =
where n = ,L,3,2,1,1,2,3,L,+
Hence, the total width of the first maximum of the energy spectrum is given by:
2
1
+1
1
or =
min
=
2 = min
Using the differentiation of the relation =

=
we have
or c =
which is the coherence length l of Problem 10.11.
10.13
Use the relation =
20
c
, we have:
(6.936 10 7 ) 2
=
10 4 1.6 1017 [m]
8
3 10
Then, using the result in Problem 10.12, the coherence length is given by:
l=
20 (6.936 10 7 ) 2
=
= 3 10 4 [m]
1.6 10 17
10.14
Referring to pages 46 and 47 of the text, and in particular to the example of the
radiating atom, we see that the energy of the damped simple harmonic motion:
E = E0e 0 t Q = E0 e 1 where Q 0 = t , the period for which the atom radiates
before cut off at e 1 .
The length of the wave train radiated by the atom is l = ct where c is the velocity
of light and l is the coherence length which contains Q radians.
Since the coherence length is finite the radiation cannot be represented by a single
angular frequency 0 but by a bandwidth centred about 0 .
Now Q = 0 so Q 0 = t = 1 . Writing t = t we have t = 1 or
t = 1 2 .
The bandwidth effect on the spectral line is increased in a gas of radiating atoms at
temperature T . Collisions between the atoms shorten the coherence length and the
Doppler effect from atomic thermal velocities adds to .
10.15
The Fourier transform of f (t ) gives:
+
F ( ) = f (t )e i 2t dt = f 0ei 2 0t e t e i 2t dt = f 0e[ i 2 ( 0 )1 ]t dt
Noting that t 0 for f (t ) , we have:

F ( ) =
f 0e[ i 2 ( 0 )1 ]t dt
+
f0
e[ i 2 ( 0 )1 ]t
0
i 2 ( 0 ) 1
f0
f0
=
i 2 ( 0 ) 1 1 + i 2 ( 0 )
Hence, the energy distribution of frequencies in the region 0 is given by:

2
f0
f2
f 02
f 02
F ( ) =
= 02 =
=
1 + i 2 ( 0 )
r
(1 ) 2 + [2 ( 0 )]2 (1 ) 2 + ( 0 ) 2
2
10.16
In the text of Chapter 3, the resonance power curve is given by the expression:
F02
F02 r
F02 r
Pav =
cos =
=
2Z m
2Z m2 2[r 2 + (m s ) 2 ]
In the vicinity of 0 = s m , we have 0 , so the above equation becomes:
Pav
F02 r
F02 r
f 02
2
=
=
= F ( )
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2[r + (m s ) ] 2[r + m ( 0 ) ] (1 ) + ( 0 )
where f 02 =
F02 r
m
and =
2
2m
r
The frequency at half the maximum value of F ( ) is given by:

2
F ( ) =
2
i.e.
f 02
( f o ) 2
=
(1 ) 2 + ( 0 ) 2
2
0 = 1
so the frequency width at half maximum is given by:

= 2 or = 1
In Problem 10.12 the spectrum width is given by:

= 1
so we have the relation between the two respectively defined frequency spectrum
widths given by:

=
Noting that =
20
c
and =
20
c
, we have:
where and are the wavelength spectrum widths defined here and in
Problem 10.12, respectively.
If the spectrum line has a value = 3 109 m in Problem 10.12, the coherence
length is given by:
l=
(5.46 107 ) 2
20
2
= 0 =
32 10 6 [m]
9
3 10

10.17
The double slit function (upper figure) and its self convolution (lower figure) are
shown below:
Fig. A.10.17
10.18
The convolution of the two functions is shown in Fig. A.10.18.1.
Fig. A.10.18.1
The respective Fourier transforms of the two functions are shown in Fig. A.10.18.2.
F(
2d
)
d
1d
2d
F(
d
1d
Fig. A.10.18.2
Hence, the Fourier transform of the convolution of the two functions is the product of
the Fourier transform of the individual function, which is shown in Fig. A.10.18.3
F(
d
)
d
) F(
F(
)
d
2d
=
2d
1d
1d
2d
=
1d
Fig. A.10.18.3
10.19
The area of the overlap is given by:
1
1
A = 2 r 2 2r sin r cos
2
2
2
= r (2 2 sin cos )
where cos =
R
R2
and sin = 1 2
4r
2r
Hence the convolution is given by:

1
2
2 R
R
R
2
1
O( R) = r 2 cos
21 2
2r
4
r
2
r
The convolution O(R ) in the region [0,2r ] is sketched below:

O(R)
2r
Fig. A.10.19
11.1
r2
2R1
A
r2
2R2 A
R2
z
B
O
R1
Fig A.11.1
In a bi-convex lens, as shown in Fig A.11.1, the time taken by the wavefront to travel
through path AB is the same as through path AB , so we have:
r2
r2
r 2 1
nd r 2 1 n
+ z +
+
= d +
2 R2 2 R1 c
2 R1
c 2 R2 c c
which yields:
1
1 r2
z = (n 1)
R1 R2 2
P=
i.e.
1
1
1
= (n 1)
f
R1 R2
11.2
A
z B
r
A
Fig A.11.2
As shown in Fig A.11.2, the time taken by the wavefront to travel through path AB
is the same as through path AB , so we have:

n0 d (n0 r 2 )d z
=
+
c
c
c
which yields:
z = r 2 d
f =
i.e.
1
2d
11.3
Choosing the distance PF = 2 then, for the path difference BF BF , the phase
difference is radians.
Similarly for the path difference AF AF the phase difference is radians.
Thus for the path difference AF BF the phase difference is 2 radians and the
resulting amplitude of the secondary waves is zero.
x
Writing F F = x 2 , we then have in the triangle F FP : sin = , so the width of

2
2
the focal spot is x =
sin
11.4
If a mans near point is 40cm from his eye, his eye has a range of accommodation of:
1
= 2.5[dioptres]
0.4
Noting that a healthy eye has a range of accommodation of 4 dioptres, he needs
spectacles of power:
P = 4 2.5 = 1.5[dioptres]
If anther man is unable to focus at distance greater than 2m, his eyes minimum
accommodation is:
1
= 0.5[dioptres]
2
Therefore, he needs diverging spectacles with a power of -0.5 dioptres for clear image
of infinite distance.
11.5
Noting that
l
y l
= , we have the transverse magnification given by: M T = . The
y l
l
angular magnification is given by: M =
y l
d
=
= 0 . Using the thin lens power
y d0
l
equation: P =
1
1
1
1
, we have = P + , i.e. M = d 0 ( P + 1 l ) = Pd 0 + 1
l
l
l l
11.6
The power of the whole two-lens telescope system is zero, so we have:
P = P1 + P2 LP1P2 = 0
where L is the separation of the two lenses. Noting that P1 =
1
1
and P2 = , we
f0
fe
have:
1 1
1 1
+ L
=0
f0 fe
fo fe
which gives: L = f 0 + f e
Suppose the image height at point I is h , we have:
= d 2 L = h f o and = D 2 L = h f e
which yields:
M =
f
D
= o =
fe
d
11.7
As shown from Figure 11.20, the magnification of objective lens is given by:
Mo =
x
1
. Suppose the objective lens is a thin lens, we have: Po =
i.e.
f o
f o
M o = Po x .
Similarly, the magnification of eye lens is given by: M e =
is a thin lens, we have: Pe =
1
i.e. M o = Pe d o .
f e
So we have the total magnification given by:

M = M o M e = Po Pe d o x
do
. Suppose the eye lens
f e
11.8
P
Air
Glass
Fig.A.11.8(a)
As shown in Fig.A.11.8(a), Snells law gives:
n sin OPC = sin = sin IPC
In triangle OCP , we have:
OC
PC
=
sin OPC sin POC
R
R
=
n sin OPC sin POC
R
R
=
sin IPC sin POC
IPC = POC
s OPC and PIC are similar
i.e.
i.e.
i.e.
i.e.
OC
PC
=
PC
IC
i.e.
IC =
i.e.
PC
R2
=
= nR
OC
Rn
Alternative proof using Fermats Principle:
P
Air
C
Glass
B
n
Fig.A.11.8(b)
Equate optical paths IP = n 2 OP . Let IC = k , CB = l and PB = d , then:
2
R 2
IP = (k + c) + d = n (OP) = n + l + d 2
i.e.
i.e.
k 2 + 2kl + l 2 + d 2 = R 2 + 2nRl + n 2 (l 2 + d 2 )
k 2 + 2kl + R 2 = R 2 + 2nRl + n 2 R 2
k = IC = nR
that is
11.9
(a) The powers of the two spherical surfaces are given by:
n n 1.5 1
n n 1 1.5
P1 =
=
= 0.5 and P2 =
=
=0
R
1
R
Suppose a parallel incident ray (1 = 0) strikes the front surface of the system at a
height of y1 . By using matrix method, we can find the ray angle 2 and height y2
at the back surface of the system given by:
2
1 1 P2 1 0 1 P1 1
y = R2T12 R1 y = 0 1 d 1 0 1 y
1
1
2
1
0 1 0.5 0 0.5 y1
1 0 1
=
=
1 y1 1.15 y1
0 1 0.3 1 0
So the focal length is given by:
f =
y1
y
= 1 = 2[m]
2 0.5 y1
The principal plane is located at a distance d to the left side of the right-end surface
of the system, which is given by:
d=
y2 y1 1.15 y1 y1
=
= 0.3[m]
0.5 y1
2
(b) The powers of the four spherical surfaces are given by:
n n 1.5 1
P1 =
=
=0
R
n n 1 1.5
P2 =
=
=1
R
0.5
n n 1.5 1
P3 =
=
= 0.5
R
1
P4 =
n n 1 1.5
=
=0
R
4
1
=
R
T
R
T
R
T
R
4
34
3
23
2
12
1
y
y
4
1
0 1 P3 1
0 1 P2 1 0 1 P1 1
1 P4 1
=
0 1 d 3 1 0 1 d 2 1 0 1 d1 1 0 1 y1
0 1 0 .5 1
0 1 1 1
0 1 0 0
1 0 1
=
1 0.2 1 0 1 0.15 1 0 1 y1
0 1 0.15 1 0
0.6 y1
=
0.71 y1
f =
y1
y
= 1 = 1.67[m]
4 0.6 y1
d=
y4 y1 0.71y1 y1
=
= 0.48[m]
0.6 y1
4
(c) The powers of the four spherical surfaces are given by:
n n 1.5 1
P1 =
=
=0
R
n n 1 1.5
P2 =
=
=1
R
0.5
n n 1.5 1
P3 =
=
=1
R
0.5
n n 1 1.5
P4 =
=
=0
R
4
1
y = R4T34 R3T23 R2T12 R1 y
4
1
0 1 P3 1
0 1
1 P4 1
=
0 1 d 3 1 0 1 d 2 1 0
0 1 1 1
0 1
1 0 1
=
0 1 0.15 1 0 1 0.6 1 0
1.4 y1
=
0.19 y1
f =
P2 1
1 d1
1 1
1 0.15
0 1 P1 1
1 0 1 y1
0 1 0 0
1 0 1 y1
y1
y
= 1 = 0.71[m]
4 1.4 y1
d=
y4 y1
0.19 y1 y1
=
= 0.58[m]
1.4 y1
4
12.1
R2
R1
t2
t
t1
r
Fig.A.12.1
As shown in Fig.A.12.1, the air gap thickness t is given by:
t = t2 t1 =
r2
r2
2 R2 2 R1
Noting that there is a rad of phase shift upon the reflection at the lower surface of
the air gap, the thickness of air gap at dark rings should satisfy:
2t = n
r2 r2
= n
R2 R1
i.e.
which yields the radius rn of the nth dark ring given by:
rn2 =
R1 R2 n
R1 R2
12.2
The matrix relating reflection coefficient r and transmission coefficient t for the
4 film is given by:

cos
M =
in2 sin
i sin n2 0
=
cos in2
i n2
0
where the phase change = 2 for the 4 film.

Following the analysis in text page 352, we can find the coefficient A and B are
given by:
A = n1 ( M 11 + M 12 n3 ) = in1n3 n2
B = ( M 21 + M 22 n3 ) = in2
A perfect anti-reflector requires:
R=
A B in1n3 n2 in2
=
=0
A + B in1n3 n2 + in2
which gives:
n22 = n1n3
12.3
As shown in page 357 of the text, the intensity distribution of the interference pattern
is given by:
I = 4a 2 cos 2
2
where is the phase difference between the two waves transmitted from the two
radio masts to a point P and is given by:
= kf sin =
f sin =
so we have:
I = 4a 2 cos 2
2
400 sin = 4 sin
3 10 1500 103
8
4 sin
= 2 I 0 [1 + cos(4 sin )]
2
where I 0 = a 2 represents the radiated intensity of each mast.

The intensity distribution is shown in the polar diagram below:
= 90o
I max = 4I 0
= 150o
= 30o
= 180
= 0o
= 330o
= 210o
= 270o
Fig.A.12.3
12.4
(a)
Analysis is the same as Problem 12.3 except:
2
= 0 + kf sin = +
sin = + sin
2
Hence, the intensity distribution is given by:

+ sin
2 sin
I = 4a 2 cos 2 = 4a 2 cos 2
= 4 I s sin
2
2
2
where I s = a 2 is the intensity of each source.
The polar diagram for I versus is shown below:
= 90o
I max = 4 I s
= 180
= 0o
= 270o
Fig.A.12.4(a)
(b)
In this case, the phase difference is given by:
2
+ sin
= 0 + kf sin = +
sin =
2 4
2
Hence, the intensity distribution is given by:
I = 4a 2 cos 2
= 4a 2 cos 2
+ sin
4
= 4 I s cos 2 (1 + sin )
4
where I s = a 2 is the intensity of each source.

The polar diagram for I versus is shown below:
= 90o
I = 2I s
I max = 4 I s
I = 2I s
= 0o
= 180o
I
= 270o
Fig.A.12.4(b)
12.5
(a)
Fig.A.12.5(a)
Fig.A.12.5(a) shows elements of a vertical column and a horizontal row of radiators in
a rectangular lattice with unit square cells of side d . Rays leave each lattice point at
an angle to reach a distant point P . If P is simultaneously the location of the
mth spectral order of interference from the column radiation and the nth spectral
order of interference from the row radiation, we have from pages 364/5 the relations:
d sin = m and d cos = n
Thus
sin
m
= tan =
cos
n
where m and n are integers.
(b)
d sin
B
Fig.A.12.5(b)
Waves scattered elastically (without change of ) by successive planes separated by
a distance d in a crystal reinforce to give maxima on reflection when the path
difference 2d sin = n . In Fig.A.12.5(b), the path difference ABC between the
incident and the reflected rays = 2d sin .
12.6
Using the Principal Maximum condition:
f sin = n
at =
, we have: f = n , which shows the minimum separation of equal
sources is given by: f = .

When N = 4 , the intensity distribution as a function of is given by:
sin 2 (4 sin )
I = Is
sin 2 ( sin )
The N 1 = 3 points of zero intensity occur when:

3
f sin = , ,
4 2 4
1 1 3
i.e.
sin = , ,
4 2 4
The position of the N 2 = 2 points of secondary intensity maxima should occur
between the zero intensity points and should satisfy:
dI
=0
d
i.e.
i.e.
dI
d
=
d d
sin 2 (4 sin )
I s sin 2 ( sin ) = 0
6 cos 2 ( sin ) 1 = 0
which yields: sin =
1
arccos
i.e. secondary intensity maxima occur when = 21.5o and = 39.3o .

The angular distribution of the intensity is shown below:
= 90o
I max = 16 I s
= 150o
= 30o
= 180
= 0o
= 330o
= 210o
= 270o
12.7
The angular width of the central maximum is the angular difference between +1
and -1 order zero intensity position and should satisfy:
sin =
2 2 0.21
=
= 1.875 10 3 or = 6
Nf
32 7
The angular separation between successive principal maxima is given by:

sin =
0.21
= 0.03 or = 1o 42
7
12.8
120
90 o
60
120
30 o
150 o
90 o
60 o
30 o
150 o
0 o 180 o
180 o
d =1
210 o
240 o
120
270
90 o
330 o
240 o
120
30 o
150 o
d =2
210 o
300 o
60
0o
270
90 o
300 o
60 o
30 o
150 o
0 o 180 o
180 o
d =3
210 o
240 o
270
330 o
300 o
330 o
0o
d =4
210 o
240 o
270
330 o
300 o
Fig.A.12.8
The above polar diagrams show the traces of the tip of the intensity of diffracted light
I for monochromatic light normally incident on a single slit when the ratio of slit
width to the wavelength d changes from 1 to 4. It is evidently shown that the
polar diagram becomes concentrated along the direction = 0 as d becomes
larger.
12.9
It is evident that = 0 satisfies the condition: = tan .
By substitution of = 3 2 into the condition: = tan we have:
3 2 = tan(3 2 )
i.e.
3 2 = cot
i.e.
(3 2 ) sin = cos
when is small, we have:

(3 2 ) = 1
2
2
The solution to the above equation is given by: = 0.7 .

Using the similar analysis for = 5 2 and = 7 2 , we can find
= 0.041 and = 0.029 respectively. Therefore the real solutions for are
= 0,1.43 ,2.459 ,3.471 , etc .

12.10
If only interference effects are considered the intensity of this grating is given by:
sin 2 3
I = I0
sin 2
The intensity of the principal maximum is given by: I max = 9I 0 when = 0 .

The for the secondary maximum should satisfy:
d sin 2 3
d sin 2
= 0
sin 2 = 1
i.e.
sec_ max = (2n + 1)
i.e.
, where n is integer
Hence, at the secondary maximum:

I sec_ max = I 0
sin 2 3 sec_ max

sin sec_ max
2
= I0 =
1
I max
9
12.11
Suppose a monochromatic light incident on a grating, the phase change d required
to move the diffracted light from the principal maximum to the first minimum is given
by:
f sin f
=
d = d
d (sin ) =
=
Nf N

Since N is a very large number, we have:

d =
0
N
Then, suppose a non-monochromatic light, i.e. is not constant, incident on the
same grating, the phase change d required to move the diffracted light from the
principal maximum to the first minimum should be the same value as given above, so
we have:
f sin f
1
d = d
d (sin ) + f sin d
=

f
f sin
=
cos d
d = 0
2
N
which gives:
d = (nN cot ) 1
12.12
(a)
The derivative of the equation:
f sin = n
gives:
f cosd = nd
when is a small angle we have:
d n
=
d f
When the diffracted light from the grating is projected by a lens of focal length F
on the screen, the relation between linear spacing on the screen l and the diffraction
angle is given by:
l = F
Its derivative over gives:
dl
d nF
=F
=
d
d
f
(b)
Using the result given above, the change in linear separation per unit increase in
spectral order is given by:
dl Fd 2 (5.2 10 7 5 10 7 )
= 2 10 2 [m]
=
=
n
f
2 10 6
12.13
(a)
Using the resolving power equation:
= nN
d
we have:
(5.89 10 7 + 5.896 10 7 ) 2
N=
328
=
nd 3 (5.896 10 7 5.89 10 7 )
(b)
Using the resolving power equation:
= nN
d
we have:
d =
nN
6.5 107
= 2.4 10 12 [m]
3 9 10 4
12.14
When the objects O and O are just resolved at I and I the principal
maximum of O and the first minimum of O are located at I . Rayleighs criterion
thus defines the path difference:
OBI OAI = OB OA = 1.22 ( BI = AI )
Also OB = OA giving
(OB OB) + (OA OA) = 1.22

Fig.Q.12.14 shows OA parallel to OA and OB parallel to OB , so:
OA OA = OC = OO sin i = s sin i
and
OB OB = OC = OO sin i = s sin i
We therefore write:
1.22
1.22
or s =
if i = 45o
s
2 sin i
2 sin i
A
C
ii
i
O
Fig.A.12.14
13.1
For such an electron, the uncertainty of momentum p roughly equals the magnitude of
momentum p , and the uncertainty of radius r roughly equals the magnitude of radius r . So
we have:
p p =
h
h
r r
By substitution of the above equation into the expression of electron energy, we have:
h2 r 2
p2
e2
e2
E=
2m 4 0 r
2m
4 0 r
(13.1.1)
The minimum energy occurs when dE dr = 0 , i.e.:
d h2 r 2
e2
=0
4 0 r
dr 2m
i.e.
e2
h2
+
=0
mr 3 4 0 r 2
which yields the minimum Bohr radius given by:
r=
4 0h 2 0 h 2
=
me 2
me 2
By substitution into equation 13.1.1, we find the electrons ground state energy given by:
2
h 2 me 2
e 2 me 2 me 4
=
E0 =
2m 0 h 2 4 0 0 h 2 8 02 h 2
13.2
Use the uncertainty relation px h we have:
h
h
p p
Photons energy converted from mass m is given by:
E = pc = mc 2
So, the momentum of these photons is given by:
p = mc
Therefore, these photons spatial uncertainty should satisfy:
h
mc
which shows the short wavelength limit on length measurement, i.e. the Compton wavelength, is
given by:
h
mc
By substitution of electron mass: me = 9.1 10
31
[kg ] into the above equation, we have the
Compton wavelength for an electron given by:
h
6.63 10 34
=
2.42 10 12 [m]
me c 9.1 10 31 3 108
13.3
The energy of a simple harmonic oscillation at frequency
E=
The relation: ( x )(p )

2
should satisfy:
p2 1
p 2 1
+ m 2 x 2
+ m 2 x 2
2m 2
2m 2
h2
h2
2
gives: p
, by substitution into the above equation,
4
4x 2
we have:
p 2 1
h2
h2 1
1
2
2
2
2
+ m 2 x 2 =
+
m
2
m x
2
2
2m 2
2
8mx
8mx 2
1
1
= h = h
2
2
1
i.e. the simple harmonic oscillation has a minimum energy of
h .
2
E
13.4
When an electron passes through a slit of width x , the intensity distribution of diffraction
pattern is given by:
I = I0
sin 2
, where
The first minimum of the intensity pattern occurs when
= ,
i.e.
Noting that
x sin
= h p , we have:
x sin =
xp sin =
xp = h
i.e.
where p = p sin is the change of the electrons momentum in the direction parallel to the
plane of the slit. This relation is in accordance with Heisenbergs uncertainty principle.
13.5
The angular spread due to diffraction can be seen as the half angular width of the principal
maximum of the diffraction pattern. Use the same analysis as Problem 13.4, we have:
d sin d =
i.e.
10 5
= 0.1 5o 44
10 4
13.6
The energy of the electron after acceleration across a potential difference V is given by:
E = eV , so its momentum is given by: p = 2me E = 2me eV , therefore its de Broglie

wavelength is given by:
h
= =
p
h
=
2me eV
6.63 10 34
2 9.1 10
31
19
1.6 10 V
= 1.23 10 9V 1 2 [m]
13.7
From problem 13.6 we have:
12
1.23 10 9
1.23 10 9
=
= 4.1
3 10 10
V = 16.81[V]
13.8
The energy per unit volume of electromagnetic wave is given by: E =
1
0 E02 , where E0 is the
2
electric field amplitude. For photons of zero rest mass, the energy is given by: E = mc = pc ,
2
where p is the average momentum per unit volume associated with this electromagnetic wave.
So we have:
1
0 E02 = pc
2
1
p = 0 E02 c
2
i.e.
The dimension the above equation is given by:
F V 2 m -2 C V m -2 C W m -2 A s kg m 2 m -2
=
=
=
= kg m -1 s -1
m s -1
m s -1
m s -1 A
m s -1 s 3 A
which is the dimension of momentum.
13.9
When the wave is normally incident on a perfect absorber, all the photons velocity changes from
c to 0, the radiation pressure should equal the energy density of the incident wave, i.e.:
1
P = cp 0 = cp = 0 E02
2
When the wave is normally incident on a perfect reflector, all the photons velocity changes to the
opposite directing but keeps the same value, hence, the radiation pressure is given by:
P = cp (cp) = 2cp = 0 E02

13.10
Using the result of Problem 13.9, we have the radiation pressure from the sun incident upon the
perfectly absorbing surface of the earth given by:
1 1
1 I 1 1.4 103
P = 0 E02 = =
= 1.5 10 6 [Pa ] 1011[atm]
8
3 2
3 c 3 3 10
13.11
Using the result of Problem 13.3, we have the minimum energy, i.e. the zero point energy, of such
an oscillation given by:
1
1
h = 6.63 10 34 6.43 1011 = 2.13 10 22 [J ] = 1.33 10 3[eV]
2
2
13.12
The probability of finding the mass in the box is given by the integral:
2
1 2 x2
x
dx
(
)
=
a
a a 1 8a 2 dx
a
1 2 x2 4 x4
1
dx
+
a a
4a 2 64a 4
= 2
2 2 2 4
+
0.96
12 320
The general expression of the wave function is given by:
= Ceikx + De ikx , where A, B are
constants. Using boundary condition at x = a and x = a , we have:
(a) = Ceika + De ika = 0

(a) = Ce ika + Deika = 0
which gives: C = D , so we have:
= Ceikx + Ce ikx = A cos kx

where A = 2C .
Boundary condition:
= 0 at
x = a gives: cos ka = 0 , i.e.:
k = n + , where n = 0,1,2,3,L
2 a
Hence, the ground state equation is given by letting n = 0 , i.e.:
2a
= A cos
By normalization of the wave function, we have:
( x) dx = 1
2
x
A2 cos 2 dx = 1
2a
i.e.
+a
i.e.
A2
1 + cos(x a)
dx = 1
2
A =1
i.e.
Therefore the normalized ground state wave function is:
( x) = (1 a ) cos(x 2a )
which can be expanded as:
1
( x) =
a
1 x 2
1 2 x2
1
1 + L
8a 2
a
2 2a
13.13
At ground state, i.e. at the bottom of the deep potential well, n1 = n2 = n3 = 1 .
By normalization of the wave function at ground state, we have:
( xyz)
dV =
c b
0 0 0
A sin
x
a
sin
y
b
sin
dxdydz
a
a
a
x
y
z
= A2 sin dx sin dy sin dz
0
0
0
c
b
a
a 1
b 1
c 1
2z
2y
1
2x
1
1
= A2 cos
dy cos
dx cos
dz
0 2
0 2
0 2
2
c
2
b
2
a
a b c
= A2 = 1
2 2 2
2
A = 8 abc
i.e.
13.14
Text in page 426 shows number of electrons per unit volume in energy interval dE is given by:
2 4 ( 2 m 3 )1 2 E 1 2
dn =
dE
h3
and the total number of electrons given by:
16 (2me3 )1 2 EF3 2
N=
3h3
so we have the total energy of these electrons given by:
dn
dE
0
dE
3 12 32
E f 2 4 ( 2m )
E
=
dE
3
0
h
16 (2m3 )1 2 EF5 2 3
=
= NEF
5h3
5
Ef
U = Edn = E
13.15
Noting that Copper has one conduction electron per atom and one atom has a mass of
m0 = 1.66 10 27 kg , the number of free electrons per unit volume in Copper is given by:
9 103
n0 =
8 10 28 [m -3 ]
=
27
64m0 64 1.66 10
Using the expression of number of electrons per unit volume in text of page 426, we have the
Fermi energy level of Copper given by:
n 3h 3
EF = 0
16 2m3
e
23
8 10 28 3 (6.63 10 34 )3
=
16 2 (9.1 10 31 )3
23
1.08 10 18 [J] = 7[eV]
13.16
values of x , V E , and m into the expression e
By substitution of
2x
, we have:
For an electron:
e 2x = e
] = e 2
2 m p (V E ) h x
2 me (V E ) h x
29.110311.61019 6.631034 2 21010
= e 2.05 0.1
For a proton:
e 2x = e
=e
2 21.671027 1.61019 6.631034 2 21010
= e 87.4 10 38
13.17
Text in page 432-434 shows the amplitude reflection and transmission coefficients for such a
particle are given by:
r=
C
2k1
B k1 k 2
=
and t =
=
A k1 + k 2
A k1 + k 2
where,
k1 =
2mE
and k2 =
h
2m( E V )
h
If V is a very large negative value at x > 0 , we have the amplitude reflection coefficient given
by:
r = lim
2mE 2m( E V )
= 1
2mE + 2m( E V )
and the amplitude transmission coefficient given by:
t = lim
2 2mE
=0
2mE + 2m( E V )
i.e. the amplitude of reflected wave tends to unity and that of transmitted wave to zero.
13.18
The potential energy of one dimensional simple harmonic oscillator of frequency
V =
is given by:
1
m 2 x 2
2
By substitution into Schrdingers equation, we have:
d 2 2m
1
+ 2 E m 2 x 2 = 0
2
dx
h
2
(13.18.1)
Try
( x) = a
e a x
2 2
in d dx :
d
= a 2 x
dx
a2 x2
2
so:
d 2
= a 2
dx 2
a2 x2
2
+a x
4
a 2 x2
2
= (a x a )
4
a2 x2
2
In order to satisfy the Schrdingers equation (13.18.1), we should have:
m 2 2
2mE
= a4
a = 2 and
2
h
h
2
which yields:
E0 =
( x) = a 2 2axe a x
2 2
Try
a
d
= 2a
e
dx
2
a2 x2
2
h 2a 2 1
= h
2m 2
in d dx :
2a x
3 2
a2 x2
2
= ( 2a 2a x )
3 2
a
2
a2 x2
2
so:
a
d 2
= 4 a 3 x
e
2
dx
2
a2 x2
2
+ ( 2a x 2a x )
5 3
a2 x2
2
= ( 2a x 6a x )
5 3
In order to satisfy the Schrdingers equation (13.18.1), we should have:
3a 2 =
m 2 2
2mE
and
= a4
h2
h2
which yields:
3h 2 a 2 3
= h
E1 =
2m
2
13.19
When n = 0 :
N 0 = (a 1 2 200!)1 2 = a
H 0 (ax) = (1) 0 e a x e a x = 1
2 2
2 2
Hence:
0 = N 0 H 0 (ax)e a x
2 2
= a
e a x
When n = 1 :
N1 = (a 1 2 211!)1 2 = a 2
2 2
a
2
a2 x2
2
H1 (ax) = (1)1 e a x
2 2
2 2
2 2
2 2
d
e a x = e a x e a x (2ax) = 2ax
d (ax)
Hence:
1 = N1H1 (ax)e a x
2 2
= a 2 2axe a x
2 2
When n = 2 :
N 2 = (a 1 2 22 2!)1 2 = a 8 =
H 2 (ax) = (1) 2 e a x
2 2
a 2
2
2 2
d2
e a x = 2 + 4a 2 x 2
2
d (ax)
Hence:
2 = N 2 H 2 (ax)e a x
2 2
= a 2 (2a 2 x 2 1)e a x
2 2
When n = 3 :
N 3 = (a 1 2 233!)1 2 = a 48 =
H 3 (ax) = (1)3 e a x
2 2
a 3
4
2 2
d3
e a x = 8a 3 x 3 12ax
3
d (ax)
Hence:
3 = N 3 H 3 (ax)e a x
2 2
= a 3 (2a 3 x 3 3ax)e a x
2 2
13.20
The reflection angle
r and reflection wavelength d should satisfy Bragg condition:

2a sin r = r
where a is separation of the atomic plane of the nickel crystal. Hence the reflected electron
momentum pr should satisfy:
pr =
Hence, the reflected electron energy is given by:
h
2a sin r
Er =
=
pr2
h2
=
2me 8me a 2 sin 2 r
(6.63 1034 ) 2
8 9.1 10 31 (0.91 1010 ) 2 sin 2 65o
= 8.88 10 19 [J] = 55.5[eV]

The difference between the incident and scattered kinetic energies is given by:
Er Ei 55.5 54
=
100% = 2.8% < 3.9%
54
Ei
13.21
For
= sin ka :
Since
, * ,V are all periodic functions with a period of a , we have:

E =
*
Vdx
dx
*
=
m=1
sin
0
2mx
dx
a
a
2
sin kxdx
kxVm cos
0
1 cos (2nx a )
2mx
dx
cos
0
a
2
= Vm
a 1 cos ( 2nx a )
m =1
dx
0
2
1 a
2nx
2mx
dx
cos
cos
0
a
a
2
= Vm
a2
m =1
1 a
2 (m + n) x
2 (m n) x
cos
+ cos
dx
0
a
a
2
= Vm
a
m=1
The above equation has non-zero term only when m = n , so we have:
a
E = Vn
For
= cos ka :
cos
0
4nx
+ 1dx
a
= V a = 1V
n
n
2a
2a 2
Vdx
*
E =
*
dx
=
m =1
cos
0
2mx
dx
a
a
2
cos kxdx
kxVm cos
0
1 + cos (2nx a)
2mx
dx
cos
a
2
= Vm
a 1 + cos ( 2nx a )
m =1
dx
0
2
1 a
2nx
2mx
dx
cos
cos
0
a
a
= Vm 2
a2
m =1
1 a
2 (m + n) x
2 (m n) x
cos
+ cos
dx
a
a
2 0
= Vm
a
m =1
The above equation has non-zero term only when m = n , so we have:
E = Vn
cos
0
4nx
+ 1dx
a
= V a = 1 V
n
n
2a
2a
2
14.1
For 0 < 30o , we have:
1
30o
= 1.017T0
T < T0 1 + sin 2
2
4
T T0
= 1.7% < 2%
T0
i.e.
For 0 = 90o , we have:
1
90o
= 1.125T0
T = T0 1 + sin 2
2
4
T T0
= 12.5%
T0
i.e.
14.2
Multiplying the equation of motion by 2 dx dt and integrating with respect to t
gives:
2
x
dx
m = A 2 f ( x)dx
0
dt
where A is the constant of integration. The velocity
dx
is zero at the maximum
dt
x0
displacement x = x0 , giving A = 2 f ( x)dx .

0
i.e.
x0
x
dx
m = 2 f ( x)dx 2 f ( x)dx = 2 F ( x0 ) 2 F ( x)
0
0
dt
i.e.
dx
=
dt
2
[ F ( x0 ) F ( x)]
m
Upon integration of the above equation, we have:
t=
m
2
dx
F ( x0 ) F ( x)
If x = 0 at time t = 0 and 0 is the period of oscillation, then x = x0 at t = 0 4 ,

so we have:
0 = 4
m x0
dx
0
2
F ( x0 ) F ( x)
14.3
By substitution of the solution into &x& :
n2
n
n2
n
&x& = an
cos bn
sin
9
3
9
3
n =1
Since s3 << s1 , we have s ( x) s1 x , so:

n2
n
n2
n
&x& + s ( x) = an s1 cos + bn s1 sin = F0 cos t
9
3
9
3
n =1
n2
n
n2
n
sin = F0 cos
a
s
cos
b
s
+
n 1
n 1
9
3
9
3
n =1
i.e.
i.e.
The above equation is true only if bn = 0 and the even numbered cosine terms are
zero. By neglecting the zero terms, we have:
a3 ( s1 1) cos + a9 ( s1 9) cos 3 + L = F0 cos
i.e.
i.e.
a3 ( s1 1) cos + a9 ( s1 9)(4 cos3 3 cos ) + L = F0 cos

[a3 ( s1 1) 3a9 ( s1 9)] cos + 4a9 ( s1 9) cos3 + L = F0 cos
As we can see, only a3 and a9 are the main coefficients in the solution, i.e. the
fundamental frequency term and its third harmonic term are the significant terms in
the solution.
14.4
Since V = V0 at r = r0 , by expanding V at r0 , we have:
d 2V
dV
V = V0 +
(r r0 ) + 2
dr r0
dr
(r r0 ) 2 + L
r0
Noting that:
r 6 r 12
dV
= 12V0 07 013 = 0
dr r0
r0 r0
d 2V
2
dr
13r 12 7r 6
V
= 12V0 140 80 = 72 02
r0
r0
r0
r0
We have:
V = V0 +
72V0
(r r0 ) 2 + L
r02
The expression of potential energy for harmonic oscillation is given by:

1
72V
V = V0 + sx 2 , hence s = 2 0 , and the oscillation frequency is given by:
r0
2
2 =
s 72V0
=
m mr02
14.5
The restoring force of this oscillator is given by:
dV ( x)
F ( x) =
= kx + ax 2
dx
Hence, the equation of motion is given by:
m&x& = F ( x)
&x& +
i.e.
k
a
x x2 = 0
m
m
At 02 = 2 = k m , using = a m , the equation of motion becomes:

&x& + 02 x x 2 = 0
try the solution x = A cos 0t + B sin 20t + x1 in the above equation with x1 =
A2
202
A 2
x
and B = 2 = 1 , we have:
60
3
x& = x&1 0 A sin 0t + 20 B cos 20t
4
&x& = &x&1 02 A cos 0t 402 B sin 20t = &x&1 02 A cos 0t 02 x1 sin 20t
3
(a)
x 2 = x12 + A2 cos 2 0t + B 2 sin 2 20t + 2 AB cos 0t sin 20t + 2( A cos 0t + B sin 20t ) x1
x 2 = x12 A2 cos 2 0t B 2 sin 2 20t 2AB cos 0t sin 20t

2 ( A cos 0t + B sin 20t ) x1
where
A2 cos 2 0t = 202 x1 cos 2 0t
B 2 sin 2 20t =
2
9
x12 sin 2 20t
2AB cos 0t sin 20t = 2 A cos 0t sin 20t x1

3
2Ax1 cos 0t 2Bx1 sin 20t = 2Ax1 cos 0t

2
+ 2 x12 sin 20t
3
(b)
(e)
(c)
(d)
(f)
Using (a)(b)(c)(d) the coefficients of x1 are:

4
3
02 02 sin 20t 202 cos 2 0t 2 2 A cos 0t sin 20t 2A cos 0t

which with << 02 leaves 02 x1 as the only significant term.
Similarly using (e) and (f) the coefficients of x12 are:

2
sin 20t + 2 sin 20t
9
3
with x12 the dominant term. (Note x12
04
).
We therefore have &x&1 + 02 x1 x12 = 0 as a good approximation to the original

equation.
14.6
Extending the chain rule at the bottom of page 472 and noting that the fixed point x0
is the origin of the cycle: x1* x2* x1* x2* which are fixed points for f 2 when
>
3
and also noting that x1* = f ( x2* ) and x2* = f ( x1* ) , we have:
4
f 2 ( x2* ) = f ( x1* ) f ( x2* ) and f 2 ( x1* ) = f ( x2* ) f ( x1* )
'
So the slopes of f 2 at x1* and x2* are equal.

'
14.7
The fractal dimension of the Koch Snowflake is:
d=
log 4
= 1.262
log 3
The HausdorffBesicovitch definition uses a scaling process for both integral and
fractal dimensions to produce the relation:
c = ad
where c is the number of copies(including the original) produced when a shape of
dimensions d has its side length increased by a factor a .
Thus, for a = 2
a line d = 1 has c = 2
(i)
a square d = 2 has c = 4
(ii)
(iii) a cube d = 3 has c = 8
(iv)
an equilateral triangle with a horizontal base produces 3 copies to give
d=
log 3
= 1.5849 (a fractal)
log 2
15.1
In the energy conservation equation the internal energy:
e = cV T =
1 p
1
so the two terms:
e+
In the reservoir there is no flow energy, so its total energy is internal =
p0
1 0
1 2
c ,
1 0
where c0 is the velocity of sound in the reservoir.

When the diaphragm where is flow along the tube of velocity u and energy 1 2 u
so the total
energy of flow along the tube is:
1 2
p* 1 *2
1 *2 1
1 *2
= c +
u +
c = +
c
*
2
1
2
1
2 1
p *
where u = c , u = c = * .
*2
Hence,
1 2 2 + ( 1) *2
+ 1 *2
c0 =
c =
c
1
2( 1)
2( 1)
If the wavefront flows at a velocity u1 with a local velocity of sound c1 , the energy
conservation condition gives:
1 2
1 2
+ 1 *2
u1 +
c1 =
c
2
1
2( 1)
2
i.e.
i.e.
1
1 c1
+ 1 c*

=
+
2 1 u1
2( 1) u1
+1
1
1
+
=
2
2 ( 1) M s 2( 1) M *2
M* =
i.e.
( + 1) M s2
( 1) M s2 + 2
15.2
Energy conservation gives
1 2 1 2
1 2 1 2
+ 1 *2
c1 + u1 =
c2 + u2 =
c
1
2
1
2
2( 1)
from Problem 15.1
So
c12 +
1
2
u12 = c22 +
1
2
u22 =
+1
2
c* 2
(A)
Momentum conservation gives
c12 + u12 =
u
2 2
(c2 + u22 ) = 1 (c22 + u22 )
1
u2
(B)
2
Combine equations A and B to eliminate c1 and c2 and rearrange terms to give
+1
2
c*2
1
2
u12 + u12 =
+1
i.e.
i.e.
u1 + 1 *2 1 2
c
u2 + u22
2
u2 2
(c*2 + u12 ) =
u1 + 1 *2
2
(c + u 2 )
u2 2
(u1 u2 )c*2 = (u2u12 u1u22 ) = u1u2 (u1 u2 )

c*2 = u1u2
i.e.
15.3
The three conservation equations are given by:
1u1 = 2u2
(15.3.1)
p1 + 1u12 = p2 + 2u22
(15.3.2)
1 2
1
p
p
u1 + e1 + 1 = u22 + e2 + 2
2
1 2
2
(15.3.3)
Using equation 15.3.1 and 15.3.2 to eliminate u1 gives:
22 1 2 2
u2 = p2 p1
1
(15.3.4)
Using equation 15.3.1 and 15.3.3 and the relation
e = cV T =
1 p
1
to eliminate u1 gives:
22 12 2
p2 p1

u2 =
2
2 1
1 2 1
(15.3.5)
Then, using equation 15.3.4 and 15.3.5 to eliminate u2 , we have:
2 + 1
2
(1 p2 2 p1 )
2 1 + 1
i.e.
1
p2 p1
p2 p1 2 1
1 p2 p1 1
[(1 + 2 1 )( 1) 2 ] p2 p1 = (1 + 2 1 )( 1) 2
i.e.
[ ( 1) ( + 1)] p2 p1 = ( 1) ( + 1)
i.e.
which yields:
p2
=
p1 1
where
= ( 1) ( + 1) and = 2 1 .
15.4
Using the result of Problems 15.1 and 15.2, we have:
u2
u
( + 1) M s2
u
= 1* = 1 = 1 =
u1u2 u2 ( 1) M s2 + 2
c
2
*2
(15.4.1)
Using equation 15.3.1 and 15.3.2 to eliminate
1 gives:
p1 p2
u
= 1 1
2
u2
2u 2
(15.4.2)
1 gives:
u1
1
1 u12
1 2 =
p1 p2
2
2 u 2 2u 2 1 u 2
(15.4.3)
2 gives:
y
1
u
+ y 1 = +1
u2
(15.4.4)
where y = p2 p1 and
= ( 1) ( + 1) .
Then, using equation 15.4.1 and 15.4.4 to eliminate u1 u2 we have:
Ms =
u1
=
c1
y +
1+
(15.4.5)
Frome equation 15.4.4 and 15.4.5 we have:
u2
1 + y
=
c1
1+ y +
(15.4.6)
Hence, from equations 15.4.5 and 15.4.6 we have the flow velocity behind the shock give by:
u = u1 u2 =
c1 (1 )( y 1)
1(1 + )( y + )
15.5
In the case of reflected shock wave, as shown in Fig.(b), the shock strength is p3 p2 and the
velocity of sound ahead of the shock front is c2 . Hence, using the result of Problem 15.4, we
have the flow velocity ur behind the reflected wave given by:
(1 )( p3 p2 1)
ur
=
c2
(1 + )( p3 p2 + )
(15.5.1)
In Fig.(a) the flow velocity u behind of the incident shock front is given by:
u
(1 )( y 1)
=
c1
(1 + )( y + )
(15.5.2)
Using equation 15.5.1 and 15.5.2 together with the relation u + ur = 0 , c2 c1 = (T1 T2 )
12
and
1 + y
T2
, where y = p2 p1 , we have:
= y
T1
+ y
( y 1) 2 ( p3 p2 + )
= y (1 + y )
( p3 p2 1) 2
which yields:
p3 (2 + 1) y
=
p2
y + 1
15.6
p3 p1 p3 p2 p1 p2 p3 p2 1 y y p3 p2 1
=
=
=
p2 p1
y 1
1 p1 p2
1 1 y
By substitution of y = p2 p1 and
p3 (2 + 1) y
=
into the above equation, we have:
p2
y + 1
(2 + 1) y 2 y
1
p3 p1
(2 + 1) y 2 2y 1
y + 1
=
=
p2 p1
y 1
( y 1)(y + 1)
In the limit of very strong shock, i.e. y >> 1 , we have:
p3 p1 (2 + 1) y 2
1
= 2+
2
p2 p1
y
15.7
ut = (u + tut ) f
ut =
i.e.
From equation 15.9 in the text, we have:
ux =
f
1 + tf
uf
1 + tf
so we have:
ut + uu x =
uf
uf
+
=0
1 + tf 1 + tf
15.8
Using
u = 2 x , we have:
ut = 2
xt t x
2
u x = 2
xx x2
2
3
2 3
u xx = 2 xxx x 2 xx + 3x
By substitution of the above expression into Burgers equation, we have:
3
3 x xx 2 x3
xt t x
2 xxx
2 x xx x
+
+
+ 3 = 0
4
2

2
3
2

xt t x
xxx x xx
=
2
2
i.e.
i.e.
xx
=
x x
which yields:
t = xx
15.9
Using the relation tanh sech2 and sech = sechtanh, where = (x ct), we have the
derivatives:
ut = 43 c sech2 tanh = 2uc tanh
ux = 43 sech2 tanh = 2u tanh
uxx = 84 sech2 tanh2 44 sech4 = 42u tanh2 u2
uxx = 165 sech2 tanh + 485 sech4 tanh = 83u tanh + 12u2 tanh
Then, using the relation c = 4
we have:
ut + 6uu x + u xxx
= 2uc tanh 12u 2 tanh 8 3u tanh + 12u 2 tanh
=0
15.10
At the peak of Figure 15.5(a),
= 2 ( x ct ) = 0 , and near the base of Figure 15.5(a),
= 2 ( x ct ) >> 0 , i.e. e 0 . Hence, the solution of the KdV equation can be written as:
u ( x, t ) = 2
2
2 2 ( xct )
2 ( x ct )
log[
1
+
e
]
2
e
= 8 2e 2 ( xct )
2
2
x
x
Then, we have the derivatives,
ut = 16 3ce 2 ( xct )
u xxx = 64 5e 2 ( xct )
Therefore, if c = 4 ,
2
ut + u xxx = 0
15.11
Using the substitution z = x ct and the relation tanh sech2 and sech sechtanh,
where
= ( z z0 ) , we have the derivatives:
ut = 43c sech2 tanh = 2uc tanh

ux = 43 sech2 tanh = 2u tanh
uxx = 44 sech4 + 42u tanh2 = 42u tanh2 + u2
uxx = 165 sech2 tanh + 485 sech4 tanh = 83u tanh 12u2 tanh
Then, using the relation c = 4 , we have:
2
ut 6uu x + u xxx
= 2uc tanh + 12u 2 tanh + 8 3u tanh 12u 2 tanh
= 8 3u tanh + 8 3u tanh
=0
15.12
If v + v x = u , then:
2
u x = 2vvx + vxx
u xx = 2(vx2 + vvxx ) + vxxx
u xxx = 2(2v x vxx + vvxxx + v x vxx ) + v xxxx = 6vx vxx + 2vvxxx + v xxxx
ut = 2vvt + vxt
The left side terms of equation mark in equation 15.13 give:
2
+ 2v (vt 6v v x + vxxx )
x
= vxt 6(2vvx2 + v 2vxx ) + vxxxx + 2v(vt 6v 2vx + v xxx )

= 2vvt 12v 3vx + vxt 12vvx2 6v 2vxx + 2vvxxx + v xxxx
The right side terms of equation mark in equation 15.13 give:
ut 6uu x + u xxx
= 2vvt + vxt 6(v 2 + vx )(2vvx + vxx ) + 6vx vxx + 2vvxxx + vxxxx
= 2vvt 12v 3v x + vxt 12vvx2 6v 2v xx + 2vvxxx + vxxxx
So we have:
2
+ 2v (vt 6v vx + vxxx ) = ut 6uu x + u xxx
15.13
By substitution of v = x
into u ( x) = vx + v 2 , we have:
xx x2 x2 xx
u ( x) = vx + v =
+ 2 =
2
hence,
xx u ( x) = xx
xx
=0
15.14
x = A sech (x x0) tanh (x x0)

xx = 2A sech(x x0) 22A sech3 (x x0)
Using the soliton solution
u = 22 sech2 (x x0)
we have:
xx + ( u(x))
= 2A sech(x x0) 22A sech3 (x x0) + [2 sech2 (x x0)]A sech (x x0)
=0
15.15
Using transformation u u and x x + 6t , where u
*
and x
are the variables
before transformation, we have: u = u + and x = x 6t , hence:

*
ut = (u * )t = ut*
u x = (u * ) x* xx = u *x*
u xx = u *x*x* x*x = u *x*x*
u xxx = u x*x*x* x*x = u x*x*x*
Using the above relations, equation ut + 6uu x + u xxx = 0 is transformed to its original form:
ut* + 6u *u *x * + u *x * x * x * = 0
15.16
y = a sin x
B
Fig.A.15.16
In Fig.A.15.16, A is the peak and B is the base point of the leading edge of the right going
wave: y = a sin x . The phase velocity of any point on the leading edge is given by:
v = c0 1 + a
x
12
1 y
1
= c0 1 + a = c0 1 + a cos x
2 x
2
cos x = cos = 0
2
and phase velocity at B : vB = c0 1 a (cosx = cos = -1)

2
phase velocity at A : v A = c0
phase velocity of A related to B :

1
1
v A vB = c0 c0 1 a = c0a = du
2
2
The phase distance dx between A and B = 2
Time for A to reach the position vertically above B is :

1
1
dx
=
=
[secs]
du 2 1 2 c0a c0a

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Solutions Manual for

The Physics of Vibrations and Waves

In association with the author

2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

is a very small angle, i.e. = sin = x l , or x = l , we have the restoring force

can by derived from Newtons

which shows the frequency is given by:

which shows the frequency is given by:

2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

In Figure 1.1(d), the restoring force is given by:

Newtons second law gives:

which show the frequency is given by:

In Figure 1.1(f), by taking logarithms of equation pV = constant , we have:

The change of volume is given by dV = Ax , so we have:

which show the frequency is given by:

which shows the frequency is given by:

Write solution x = a cos(t + ) in form: x = a cos cos t a sin sin t and

Try solution x = a sin(t ) in expression &x& + 2 x , we have:

Try solution x = a cos(t ) in expression &x& + 2 x , we have:

2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

(a) If the solution x = a sin(t + ) satisfies x = a at t = 0 , then, x = a sin = a

2 for the first

time after release, the value of t is the minimum solution of equation

2 , i.e. t = 4 . Similarly, we can find: for x = a 2 ,

2 for the first

time after release, the value of t is the minimum solution of equation

2 , i.e. t = 4 . Similarly, we can find: for x = a 2 , t = 3

x = a sin( ) = a i.e. = 2 . When the pendulum swings to the position

solution of equation a sin(t + 2) = + a

2 , i.e. t = 4 . Similarly, we can

find: for x = a 2 , t = 3 and for x = 0 , t = 2 .

x = a cos( ) = a i.e. = 0 . When the pendulum swings to the position

solution of equation a cos t = + a

2 , i.e. t = 4 . Similarly, we can find: for

x = a sin = a i.e. = 2 . When the pendulum swings to the position

2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

solution of equation a sin(t 2) = + a

2 , i.e. t = 3 4 . Similarly, we can

find: for x = a 2 , t = 2 3 and for x = 0 , t = 2 .

x = a cos = a i.e. = . When the pendulum swings to the position

solution of equation a cos(t + ) = + a

2 , i.e. t = 3 4 . Similarly, we can

find: for x = a 2 , t = 2 3 and for x = 0 , t = 2 .

x = a sin( ) = a i.e. = 2 . When the pendulum swings to the position

solution of equation a sin(t 2) = + a

2 , i.e. t = 3 4 . Similarly, we can

find: for x = a 2 , t = 2 3 and for x = 0 , t = 2 .

x = a cos( ) = a i.e. = . When the pendulum swings to the position

solution of equation a cos(t ) = + a

2 , i.e. t = 3 4 . Similarly, we can

find: for x = a 2 , t = 2 3 and for x = 0 , t = 2 .

Its radiation generates an electromagnetic wave with a wavelength given by:

2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

Therefore such a radiation is found in X-ray region of electromagnetic spectrum.

(b) The frequency of the system is given by: b2 = s m

From (1.6.1) and (1.6.2), we have

2008 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

Since the displacements of the equally spaced oscillators in y direction is a sine

a simple harmonic vibration can be written as: a = A 2 sin(t + ) , where A is the

of this element given by:

The total kinetic energy of the spring is given by:

The equation of motion is by setting dE dt = 0 , i.e.: