SUPERVISED INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

STEAM POWER GENERATION & BIOGAS POWER GENERATION

SHAKARGANJ SUGAR MILL PVT LTD, JHANG

BSc ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

SUBMITTED BY
AAMIR SHEHZAD
2011 -GCUF-02028
2878
Training Period
01-02-15 to 30-05-15
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL ENGIEERING
GOVERNMENT COLLEGE UNIVERISITY FAISALABAD

2015
SUPERVISED INDUSTRIAL TRAINING
REPORT
SHAKARGANJ SUGAR MILL
PVT LTD

SUPERVISED INDUSTRIAL TRAINING REPORT

STEAM POWER GENERATION & BIOGAS POWER GENERATION
SHAKARGANJ SHUGAR MILL PVT LTD JHANG

SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE AWARD OF

THE DEGREE OF

BSc ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY

SUBMITTED TO
THE FACULTY OF THE ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT OF
GOVERNMENT COLLEGE UNIVERISITY FAISALABAD

SUBMITTED BY
Name of Student
Aamir Shehzad

Roll No.
2878
Training Period
01-02-15 to 30-05-15

GOVERNMENT COLLEGE UNIVERISIT

FAISALABAD

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr. Aamir Shehzad has completed the Training
in our Industry during the period 01-02-15 to 30-05-15. His overall
performance during the period was
Exellent
Very Good
Good
Poor
Average

Signature & Seal of Training Manager

CERTIFICATE
I hereby certify that I have completed the SIX weeks Training in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
award of BSc ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING TECHNOLOGY. I did my training in Shakarganj Sugar Mill
at Steam Power plant & Biogas power plant pvt ltd. JHANG from 01-02-15 to 30-05-15.

The matter presented in this Report has not been submitted by me for the award of any other degree
elsewhere.

Signature of Student
Aamir Shehzad (2878)

Examined by:
Engr. Rashid Mehmood

INCHARGE/HOD

Electrical Engineering Department

Acknowledgement
To begin with, I wish to convey my heartfelt gratitude to Almighty Allah for his help to
complete the Internship successfully. I also thank to the management of Shakarganj Sugar
Mills Pvt Ltd (SSM) for providing me such opportunity to accomplish my industrial training.
I would specially thank to Engr. Rashid Mehmood , Managing director of SSM who gave me
the permission to do internship work at SSM. I would like to thank Engr. Shafqat , my
advisor for his constant support and many suggestions, but also for his patience and
gentleness in those times, where I had to slug through problems.
I want to thank all those people who helped to complete my internship report successfully. In
this process my special thanks goes to Engr. Anwar (Principal of Trainnig Center, SSM) who
coordinated my internship program and helped me to get acquainted with other engineers. I
am very grateful to Engr. Muhammad Nawaz, manager (PLC), Engr. Md. Naeem, senior
engineer, Engr. Mohammad Shafqat,
Engr. Mustafa Ahmad, Engr. Md. Imran Ahmad,
senior engineer (Generator and switchgear protection),
Engr. Mehdi Hassan, manager
(Operation) for their supportive guidance. They helped me to learn the scheduled topic which
was present in my internship training schedule. I also want to thank each and every employee
of OCL for their continual support. I would also like to mention the name of Dr. Mohammed
Ibrahim, Chairperson and Professor of the Department of Electrical
Engineering&
Technology and Engr. Rehan Liaqat, Adviser and Professor, Department of Electrical
Engineering& Technology, for being so kind during the period of my internship. I am also
grateful to all of my teachers and friends for their cooperation and encouragement throughout
my whole academic life in Government College University Faisalabad.

Signature of Student
Aamir Shehzad

TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER - 1 COMPANY PROFIL..7

CHAPTER - 2 STEAM TURBINE POWER PLANT ................................................................................... 16

2.1 Introduction to steam turbine .................................................................................................................... 16
2.2 Air collection ................................................................................................................................................. 16
2.2.1 Forced draft fan ...................................................................................................................................... 16
2.2.2 Air pre-heater.......................................................................................................................................... 17
2.2.3 Flow transmitter ...................................................................................................................................... 17
2.3 Fuel gas .......................................................................................................................................................... 17
2.3.1 Line gas control valve............................................................................................................................. 17
2.3.2 Gas flow meter ....................................................................................................................................... 17
2.3.3 Gas heater ............................................................................................................................................... 18
2.4 Water collection ..............................................................................................................................................
18
2.4.1 Pump ....................................................................................................................................................... 18
2.4.2 Water purifying basin ............................................................................................................................... 18
2.4.3 Water filter house ................................................................................................................................... 18
2.4.4 De-hydronization process ......................................................................................................................... 19
2.5 Boiler ...............................................................................................................................................................
19
2.5.1 Water tube boiler .................................................................................................................................... 19
2.5.2 Ignition ................................................................................................................................................... 20
2.5.3 Burner ..................................................................................................................................................... 20

2.5.4 Boiler drum ............................................................................................................................................. 21

2.5.5 Safety valve ............................................................................................................................................ 21
2.5.6 Pressure gauge ........................................................................................................................................ 21
2.5.7 Boiler efficiency ..................................................................................................................................... 21
2.5.8 Stack ....................................................................................................................................................... 22
2.6 Turbine............................................................................................................................................................
22
2.6.1 Sections of steam turbine .......................................................................................................................... 22
2.6.2 Operation and maintenance ...................................................................................................................... 23
CHAPTER - 3 BIOGAS POWER GENERATION ....................................................................................... 24
3.1 Introduction of Biogas .................................................................................................................................. 24
3.2 Start up of Reactors..................................................................................................................................... 24
3.3Distillery Spend wash............................................................................................................................................
25
3.4Digester Tank................................................................................................................................ 25
3.5Gas Holder........................................................................................................................................... 26
CHAPTER- 4 CHILLER ............................................................................................................................... 30
4.1 Chiller............................................................................................................................... 30
4.2 Gas Chiller Necessity ............................................................................................................................... 30
4.3 Chiller type...31
CHEPTER. 5 Compresser Station33
5.1
Introduction..33
5.2Main Components.33
5.3 Comprasser Types...34
5.4 Flow Chart34
5.5
Comprasion..35
5.6 Assesment of Comprasser36
5.7Energy Efficiency.37
5.8Gas comprasseor and Gas protection37
CHEPTER-6 Gas Trbien Engion..37
6.1
Introduction...37
62 Gas Turbine Cycle.38
6.3 Engion Station..39
6.4 Effect of Atmospheric....42
6.5 Engion Types;;43
6.6 CHP Module.47
6.7 Enginr Data...49
CHEPTER-7 Colling Tower.53
7.1 Introduction.53
7.2 Performance evolations.56
7.3 Efficient system operation.57
7.4 Performance Assment Colling Tower..57
7.5 Flow Control Stratigec...58
CHEPTER- 8 Power factor Improvement....59
8.1 power factor59
8.2 Power Triangle...59
8.3 Disadvantage of low power factor.59
8.4 Method of Power factor improvement...60

CHEPTER #1
Company Profile
Shakarganj Mills Limited was incorporated in Pakistan in 1967 as a Public Limited Company
and is listed on all three stock exchanges of Pakistan. Shakarganj is a leading manufacturer of
food products, industrial ethanol and particle board as well as textiles. We transform
renewable crops such as sugarcane and cotton into value added products comprising re2ned
sugar, textiles, industrial grade ethanol and building materials in addition to generate
electricity generated from biogas. The company has its principal manufacturing facilities at
Jhang, in addition to two satellite facilities located at Bhone and Dargai Shah. Shakarganj
Mills, through its interest in Shakarganj Food Products Limited, is also active in production
of dairy and fruit products.
Sugar Business:
We have three manufacturing facilities, located at Jhang, Bhone and Dargai Shah. We
produce diOerent types of sugar comprising pharmaceutical, beverage and commercial grades
sugar as well as soft brown sugar, castor and icing sugar, sugar cubes, sachets and retail
packs. Our combined crushing capacity is of 24,000 metric tons of sugarcane per day which
is extendable to 40,000 metric tons per day.
Ethanol Business:
We have distilleries located at Jhang and Bhone where various grades of ethanol are
produced. Our products include recti2ed ethanol for industrial and food grades, anhydrous
ethanol for fuel grade and Extra Neutral Ethanol for pharmaceutical and perfume grades. The
combined capacity of our distilleries is 280,000 - 300,000 liters per day.
Building Materials Business:
Our building materials division is located at Jhang facility, with a capability to produce 12 x 4
feet sheets of particle board of varying thickness. Our daily production capacity is 30 cubic
meters.
Alternate Energy Business:
Biogas power generation facility is located at Jhang,
This facility comprises an ETuent Treatment Plant (ETP) and a Power Generation Facility.
ETP opera- tions involve biological treatment of distillery waste to produce Methane and a
biological de-sulphurization plant to remove sulphur from the methane gas. This gas is then
used in the power house to produce electricity which is sold to a utility company on the
national grid. The present capacity of this plant is 8 megawatts.
Textile Business:
Located at Jhang, this cotton spinning unit produces carded cotton yarns ranging from 10/s to
30/s and doubled cotton yarn ranging from 8 to 15 TPI. The installed capacity is 25,856
spindles for cotton spinning and 2,304 spindles for doubling.
Farming Business:

This comprises over 4500 acres of diOerent parcels of land mainly located at Jhang Division
nearby our manufacturing facilities. Out of which 1600 acres is owned land and rest is leased.
The main crops include Sugarcane, Wheat, Gram, Maize, Fodder and seasonal vegetables. A
dairy farm located at Jhang with a herd of 220 milking cattle a small herd for fattening is
under development.
Business Vision and Strategy:
Shakarganjs vision is to create countrys leading renewable ingredients business. We aim to
achieve this by building a consistent portfolio of distinctive, pro2table, high-value solutions
in products and services for our customers. Shakarganj is committed to provide long-term
value for our shareholders. Our strategy is to build a stronger value added business with a
low-cost commodity base. We focus on 2ve key business objectives to deliver consistent
growth.

1. What is Boiler?
A boiler is a closed vessel in which water or other fluid is heated.

Types of Boilers:
A. Water Tube Boiler:
In water tube Boiler a number of water tubes are arranged in and around the furnace.
Water circulates in the tubes and outside is the fire. This type generally gives
high steam production rates, but less storage capacity. Water
tubeb o i l e r s a r e a l s o c a p a b l e o f h i g h e f f i c i e n c i e s a n d c a n g e n e r a t
e s a t u r a t e d o r superheated steam. The ability of water tube boilers to generate
superheated steam makes these boilers particularly attractive in applications that
require dry, high-pressure, high-energy steam, including steam turbine power generation.
B. Fire Tube Boiler:
In fire Tube Boiler There is a fire in the tubes and water is present outside the tubes in the big
vessel or cylindrical drum. Fire-tube boilers usually have a comparatively low rate of steam
production, but high steam storage capacity
Boiler # 01:
Make Stork Babcock and Wilcox.Fuel Bagass / Sui gas / biogas.Capacity 40 Tons / hr Heatin
g Surface 1348 m
2
Working Pressure 23-24 kg/ g.cm
2
Steam Temperature 325-350 CBagass Pole 1.5Moisture in Bagass 50%
Boiler # 02:
Make FCB FranceFuel Bagass / Sui gas / biogas.Capacity 80 Tons / hr Heating Surface 2071
m2Working Pressure 23-24 kg / cm
2
Temperature 350c
Boiler # 03 and 04:

Make Yushmine Japan / Itefaq Brothers.Fuel Bagass / Sui gas / Biogas.Capacity 80 Tons / hr.
Heating Surface 2220 m
2
Working Pressure 23-24 kg/ cm
2
Steam Temperature 350 c
Main Bagass Carrier # 01:
Length 94 mWidth 02 mLinear Speed 26 Feet/ mintBagass elevator from Tandom # 01 in
boiler #01.
Main Bagass Carrier # 02 :
Length 50 mWidth 02 mLinear Speed 30 Feet / mintBagass elevator from Tandom #02 in
Boiler #02.Return Bagass Carrier is attached to Boiler # 04.Surplus Bagass Carrier is
attached to Boiler #05.
Condensate Storage Tank:
Three condensate storage tanks. One is large size have a capacity of 565m3 and two are small
size have a capacity of 230 m3.
Dearation Station:
This station has also three storage tanks. Two have a capacity of 22 Tons and one has a
capacity of 33 Tons storage availability. Then there is reserve storage tank.
Feed Water Station:
In feed water station there are 08-turbo pumps.04 are small
size.Power 225 hpSpeed 2980 rpmCapacity 96 TonsPressure 35-kg/ cm
2
Temperature 110 c02 pumps are medium
size.Power 215 hpSpeed 2900 rpmCapacity 100 TonsPressure 30 -kg/cm
2
Temperature 110 c02 are large size pumps. Power 300 hp Speed 2900 rpm Capacity 188 Tons
Make up Water Station:
Total pumps in this station are 04 in number. 02 are 40hp and 02 are 30 hp power capacity.
Pump Speed 1470 rpm Capacity 60 m3 / hr
Live Steam Header:
This live steam header is used to store the steam. Header Dia 1524 mm Length 6705 mm
Boiler Fans:
ID Fan (Induced Draught Fan):
Induced draught fan draw gases out of the boiler. The gas has already passed through the air
heaters and precipitators before it has reached these fans.

FD Fan (Forced Draught Fan):

Each unit has forced draught fan. The fan draws warm air from the top of the
boiler house through large air heaters becoming the primary and secondary air
used for the boiler combustion process. The air heater warms the incoming air by
transferring heat energy from the outgoing flue gases.
SD Fan (Secondary Fan):

Secondary Fan is also admitted turbulently to complete the combustion. This fan supplies air
to the furnace from the bottom surface to ensure complete combustion.
Furnace
A furnace is a device used for heating.
Super heater:
A super heater is a device in a boiler that heats the steam generated by the boiler again,
increasing its thermal energy and decreasing the likelihood that it will condense inside the
header.Superheaters increase the efficiency of the boiler, and were widely adopted. Steam
which has been superheated is logically known as super heated steam
Air Pre-heater:
This air pre-heater is used to heat the air inducted to the boiler by the hot flue
gases. Thus raising the temperature of inlet air up to 110 C.
Economizer:
Flue gases from large boilers are typically 450 - 650F.Economizers recover some of this heat
for pre-heating water. The water is most often used for boiler make-up water or
some other need that coincides with boiler operation. Economizers should be considered as
an efficiency measure when large amounts of make-up water are used
Study of power house
Back Pressure Turbine # 01, 02:

Rated power 06MW

Inlet temperature 325 C

Rated Speed 3000 rpm

Inlet Pressure 2.35 Mpa

Outlet Pressure 0.245 Mp

Generator

Rated power 6000 Kw

Rated Voltage 11000 Kv

Rated Current 393.6 A

Rated Speed 3000 rpm

Rated Frequency 50 Hz

Rated Power Factor 0.8

Turbine # 03:

Rated Power 2200 Kw


Rated Speed 1500 / 5269 rpm

Gear Ratio 3.51

Weight 3000kg
3-Phase Generator:

Rated Voltage 440 V

Rated Current 351 A

Power Factor 0.75

Speed 1500 rpm

Condensed Turbine # 04,05 :

Rated Power 6 MW

Rated Temperature 350 C

Rated Speed 3000 rpm

Inlet Pressure 2.40 Mpa

Exhaust Pressure 0.392 Mpa Generator

Rated power 06 MW

Rated Voltage 11000V

Rated Current 393.6 A

Speed 3000 rpm

Frequency 50 HZ

Phase Number 03

Power Factor 0.8

Back Pressure Turbine:
First three Turbines in the powerhouse are backpressure Impulse Turbines. Backpressure
means that the exhaust of these turbines is not also steam of pressure above
than atmospheric pressure. No condensing or backpressure turbines are most
widely used for process steam applications. The exhaust pressure is controlled by
a regulating valve to suit the needs of the process steam pressure. These are
commonly found at refineries, district heating units, pulp and paper plants, and desalination
facilities where large amounts of low pressure process steam are available.
Advantages of Back pressure Turbines:

1-Process Heat For various Operating loads can be provided.

2-Electrical power to meet the own and for Feeding into the Public grid is
available.
3-Balancing of operational Fluctuations between Power and steam requirement.
4 - Avo i d a n c e o f e x c e e d i n g t h e m a x i m u m D e m a n d l i m i t s f o r p o w e r
i m p o r t e d f r o m t h e Public grid.
Condensed Turbines
Condensing turbines are most commonly found in electrical power plants. These
turbines exhaust steam in a partially condensed state, typically of a quality near
90%, at pressure well below atmospheric to a condenser.
Turbine Efficiency:
To maximize turbine efficiency, the steam is expanded, generating work, in a number of
stages. These stages are characterized by how the energy is extracted from them and are
known as impulse or reaction turbines. Most modern steam turbines are a
combination of the reaction

CHAPTER 2
Steam turbine power plant
In this part of my internship training Mr. Bikash Ranjon Roy (Manager of I & C) was my
instructor where I worked 3 days. I visited steam turbine unit, gas distribution, water pump, water
purification process and turbine

2.1 Introduction to steam turbine

Ashuganj Power Station Company Ltd. (APSCL) uses gas as fuel to generate the heat. This heat
is used to heat water and create steam. Then the steam passes through turbine which transfers the
thermal energy of the steam to the mechanical energy. A generator rotor is attached with this
turbine and generator transfer mechanical energy to the electrical energy. There are five steam
turbine power plants in APSCL. Installed capacity of steam turbine power plant in APSCL is
578MW.

2.2 Air collection

To burn gas in the boiler house, oxygen is needed. This oxygen is collected from air.
2.2.1 Forced draft fan
Force Draft (FD) fan is used to collect air from nature. In every steam power plant there are two
FD fan. There are FD fan inlet vane actuators which control air collection. When load is increased
then it also increases air collection from nature.

2.2.2 Air pre-heater

In the air pre heater chamber air is heated to remove moisture from air. There is a drive in the
chamber which uniformly distributes heat all over the chamber. If the motors rpm is less than 2
then it gives a signal to the control room. If this low speed persists for a 3 minutes it trips boiler.
A tachometer is connected with the driver to measure the speed.
2.2.3 Flow transmitter
Flow transmitter measures the flow of air to the boiler. It works by measuring pressure difference
of two points. Formula is used F (P), here F= air flow and P= pressure.

2.3 Fuel gas

In APSCL natural gas is used as a fuel for ignition in combarsion in the boiler and produce heat.
Natural gas supplied by Titas gas transmission and distribution co.ltd, Bangladesh. This gas and
air collected by FD fan from atmosphere are fired in the boiler to produce heat
2.3.1 Line gas control valve

Control gas line valve control the gas flow into the boiler by changing position of valve in pipe. It
can be controlled manually or automatic.
2.3.2 Gas flow meter
Flow counter count flow meter counts the flow of gas into the pipe per hour.

2.3.3 Gas heater

Gas heater is used to dry gas. Gas pipe is taken through the steam chamber so gas is heated by
steam. This heat removes moisture and different particle from gas.

2.4 Water collection

In the steam turbine power plant water is one of the important things. Boiler requires clean and
soft water for longer life and efficiency. The source of boiler water is generally river or lake.
APSCL collects water from Meghna river and treats this water to make demineralized water
which used in boiler to produce steam.
2.4.1 Pump
In APSCL there are three circulating water pumps for collecting water from river. In every place
there are two pumps one is working and another is standby. There is a discharge valve behind the
pump which is driven by oil. This valve works as either 0% close or 100% open. If it takes time
from 0% close to 100% open more than 90 sec then the pump will trip. This water which collects
from river goes to condenser to condensate steam. Rest of the water goes to purify then goes to
river again.
2.4.2 Water purifying basin
Water comes from river in the water purifying basin directly. This water is purified in two stages
in the basin. Different particle and waste are fallen under the basin. Next this purified water goes
to the water filter house.
2.4.3 Water filter house

In the water filter house there are different type tanks and filters which purify
the water. There are four polyelectrolyte tanks where two is used for checking
ph. There are two gravel filters. It works very effectively by pulling water
down through the gravel, where the solid debris is trapped close to the
surface, and the soluble waste is broken down by bacteria that grow on the
gravel surface further down. The clean water is then taken back to the
surface. The lower level of impurities not only reduces corrosion rates in the
boiler but also reduces the erosion of the turbine blades
2.4.4 De-hydronization process
De-hydronization process is about decreasing pressure and increasing temperature. In general
process temperature will increase with decreasing carbon number to maintain conversion at
pressure. When this de hydrate water is fully fit to get the heat then this water is sent to the water
tube.

2.5 Boiler
The basic purpose of a boiler is to turn water into steam, in this case super-heated steam. This
operation sounds relatively simple but is actually more complicated. The boilers utilized on
campus are of the stack drum type, which means there are drums within the boilers and flue gas
through the stack to atmosphere. The upper drum is called a boiler drum and is where saturated
steam leaves the boiler. While the lower drum is called the mud drum and is where liquid feed
water enters. Tubes called rises and down comers are used to connect the two drums. All the
energy required within the boiler is produced by the combustion of a fuel.
2.5.1 Water tube boiler
The tubes contain water and the hot gases produced by combustion of fuel flow outside. A bank
of water tubes is connected with steam-water drum through two sets of headers. The hot flue
gases from the furnace are made to flow around the water tubes a sufficient number of times. The
gases thus give up their heat to an appreciable extent, get cooled and are discharged to the stack.
The steam formed separates from water in the drum and gets accumulated in the steam space. In
APSCL water tube boiler is used. In every steam power plant there are three stage water tube
boilers.
2.5.2 Ignition
The ignition coil is the component that connects directly with electricity line and includes two
transformer windings. The primary winding feeds into the distributor, while the secondary
winding connects to the spark plugs. When enough energy has been created, the spinning cam
opens a breaker, which causes a high-voltage jump in the ignition coil. This voltage surge is
transported to the spark plugs, resulting in the necessary electric spark to begin ignition. At the
beginning of the firing of the burner small amount of natural gas and air is needed. This small
amount of gas is known as ignition gas which is supplied into the burner by ignition pipe or line.
After the burner is on the ignition line is turned off and main line for fuel and air supply is turned
on.
2.5.3 Burner

Burner is the chamber in the boiler where natural gas or coal is burned with
the presence of air for producing heated gas or flue gas. In Ashuganj Power
Station Company Ltd (APSCL) natural gas is burned with the presence of air
for generating heat for making steam. In steam turbine power plant of APSCL
each furnace chamber has nine furnaces. The temperature inside the furnace
chamber is 1200-1500C. The treated water from the feed water tank through
economizer enters into the boiler through tubes and the flue gas produced
inside the furnace passes through the tubes.
2.5.4 Boiler drum
It is the place where the water is reserved which comes through the economizer. Inside the drum
upper and lower level of amount of water is measured by the level transmitters. If the level
crosses the upper limit or goes below the lower limit then the plant will trip. So it is very
important to control the level of the water. This is done by an automatic system. From the boiler
drum the saturated steam is transferred into super heater.
2.5.5 Safety valve
The function of the safety valve is to permit the steam in the boiler to escape to atmosphere when
the pressure in the steam space exceeds a certain specified limit. Thus the safety valve prevents
the building up of excessive pressure in the boiler. The safety valve is located above the steam
space in the boiler. The safety valves operate on the principle that a valve is pressed against its
seat through some agency such as strut, screw or spring by external weights or force. When the
steam force due to boiler pressure acting under the valve exceeds the external force, the valve
gets lifted off its seat and some of the steam rushes out until normal pressure is restored again.
2.5.6 Pressure gauge
Each boiler has to be provided with a pressure transmitter which measures the pressure at which
the steam is being generated in the boiler. The transmitter is usually mounted at the front top of
the boiler shell or drum. The gauge has to be clearly visible to the attendant so that he can easily
record the pressure reading. These gauges are used to measure gas and air pressures.
2.5.7 Boiler efficiency
Boiler efficiency is defined as the ratio of heat energy utilized by feed water in converting it into
steam in the boiler to the heat energy realized by complete combustion of fuel during the same
time.
2.5.8 Stack

Stack or chimney is a passage through which flue gas escape from a fire or furnace. From the
furnace flue gas is produced. This flue gas is used to create the steam for rotating the turbine. The
flue gas passes through several equipments and finally goes into the nature through stack.

2.6 Turbine

A steam turbine is a mechanical device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized and
converts it into rotary motion. The turbine mainly consists of nozzle and rotary and fixed blade
wheel. The steam is expanded from a high pressure to a low pressure either in nozzles or in the
blade where it is transformed into the mechanical work. The steam power plant of APSCL has a
casing around the blades that contains and controls the working fluid.
2.6.1 Sections of steam turbine
The steam turbines used in Ashuganj Power Station Company Ltd (APSCL) are kept in three
different sections or chambers. The size and characteristics of the blades of the turbines in these
sections are different from each other.
i. High Pressure Turbine (HP): From the super heater the high speed steam first enters to the
high pressure turbine. The blades in the high pressure turbine are the smallest of all turbine
blades; this is because the incoming steam has very high energy and occupies a low volume. The
blades are fixed to a shaft and as the steam hits the blades it causes the shaft to rotate.
ii. Intermediate Pressure Turbine (IP): From the boiler re-heater the steam enter into the
intermediate pressure turbine. The steam has expanded and has less energy when it enters this
section, so here the turbine blades are bigger than those in the high pressure turbine. The blades
are fixed to a shaft and as the steam hits the blades it causes the shaft to rotate. From here the
steam goes straight to the next section of turbine set.
iii. Low Pressure Turbine (LP): From the intermediate pressure turbine steam enters into the
low pressure turbine and continues its expansion. The blades of the turbine of this section are
larger than the previous two sections but the energy of steam is lesser than the previous two
sections.
2.6.2 Operation and maintenance
When warming up a steam turbine for use, the main stream stop valves have a bypass line to
allow superheated steam to slowly bypass the valve and proceed to heat up the lines in the system
along with the steam turbine. Any imbalance of the rotor can lead to vibration, which in extreme
cases can lead to a blade breaking away from the rotor at high velocity and being ejected directly
through the casing. To minimize risk it is essential that the turbine be very well balanced and
turned with dry steam - that is, superheated steam with minimal liquid water content. If water gets
into the steam and is blasted onto the blades, rapid impingement and erosion of the blades can

occur to leading imbalance and catastrophic failure. Also, water entering the blades will result in
the destruction of the thrust bearing for the turbine shaft. To prevent this, along with controls and
baffles in the boilers to ensure high quality steam, condensate drains are installed in the steam
piping leading to the turbine.

BIOGAS POWER GENERATION

3.1 Introduction to biogas

Biogas refers to a gas resulting from the anaerobic digestion of organic waste, such as animal waste,
kitchen waste, sewage or slaughter waste. It is a process of natural decomposition (digestion) of any
organic substance of animal or plant origin due to the activity of anaerobic bacteria, that function in a
nonoxygen environment.
Biogas is composed of methane (CH4), carbon dioxide (CO2), water vapour (H2O), and may have
small amounts of other gases like hydrogen sulphide (H2S) and nitrogen (N2). The methane
represents the largest part (typically 5565%) which gives the gas a calorific value of about 20
MJ/m3. This energy allows biogas to be used as a fuel for cooking and lighting; it can also be used for
electricity generation through a gas engine, or cofuelled in diesel generators to reduce diesel
consumption.
Within biogas technology, there are different type of digesters available that can be used for anaerobic
digestion. In the context of developing countries, the following system types are most suited for
small and medium scale biogas production:
Fixed dome model
Floating dome model
Plug flow model
The fixed dome model is a straightforward form of digester, constructed underground of brick or
concrete. Millions are already constructed for household use (scale up to approx. 10m3), especially in
Asia but lately also in Africa. Since extended information is available about fixed dome systems1
(such as the SNV biogas programme), this manual focuses on the plug flow model (chapter 4) and the
floating dome model (chapter 5).

2.2 Advantages biogas

Biogas is a useful energy source that can be produced in any areas with sufficient access
to feedstock and water. Biogas offers a good option for the disposal of organic waste.
Disposal of agroprocessing waste and manure encourage better sanitation on farms.
Biogas technology offers an ideal solution for both consumptive usage on household level as
productive usage on small and medium enterprise or industrial level. It provides an opportunity for
direct use as for cooking and lightning, and after conversion into a secondary form of energy, such as
electricity or mechanical power.

Biogas technology qualifies as renewable energy technology. Plant material and manure is
decomposed in the digester by bacteria into biogas and slurry. As these materials are produced in short
cycles, they are renewable and carbonneutral.
Besides producing the biogas, anaerobic digestion also results in a nutrient rich fertilizer (slurry) as
organic byproduct. Except for the gas, nothing gets lost and nutrients can be brought back to the
field.
1 Such as the SNV domestic biogas programme (www.SNV.org).
3

2.3 Demand for energy

For determining the appropriate biodigester size, it is recommended to estimate the
energy consumption per person per day. The energy demand of any given household,
SME, or village should be the sum of all current and future consumption (i.e. hours of
cooking, lighting, cooling, power generation). Next step is to determine if sufficient
feedstock is available to cover the energy demand. The biomass supply can be determined
on the basis of the an inventory of kitchen waste, livestock, agricultural residues or pest
plants. More detailed information on calculating energy demand is discussed in chapter 3.

2.4 Requirements for biogas production

1. Access to feedstock
In rural areas with access to agricultural residues, farmers that keep zerograzing pigs (>10 heads) or
dairy cattle (>3 heads), or access to large quantities of kitchen waste (>5kg/day) the conditions are in
place for installing household biogas units.

2. Access to water
Water is needed by the anaerobic bacteria to survive, but also to improve the properties
of the material. Feedstock is mixed with water to obtain a low solid content, which is
called slurry. This allows the slurry to easily flow through the system, and the gas to
escape from the digesting mass. Generally, water is added to the mixture until the slurry
consist of 1015% solids.

3. Digester temperature
Digester temperature is an important factor in biogas as it influences the productivity of
the anaerobic bacteria. The bacteria involved in the process are mesophilic bacteria that

are active in the range of 2037C. They are most productive around 3337C; at lower
temperatures, the bacteria become less active which slows down the digestion process.

4. Proper management
Gas production depends upon digester temperature, fermentation or retention time and the feedstock
material. However, a biogas unit will only yield good results if it is properly maintained. Daily supply
of feedstock and water is essential for a good operation of the biogas system.

TREATMENT OF DISTILLERY SPENT WASH BY

ANAEROBIC DIGESTION PROCESS
1. INTRODUCTION
There is a growing interest in alternate energy sources as a result of increased demand for
energy coupled with a rise in the cost of available fuels. Rapid industrialization has resulted
in the generation of a large quantity of effluents with high organic contents, which if treated
suitably, can result in a perpetual source of energy. In spite of the fact that there is a negative
environmental impact associated with industrialization, the effect can be minimized and
energy can be tapped by means of anaerobic digestion of the wastewater. In recent years,
considerable attention has been paid towards the development of reactors for anaerobic
treatment of wastes leading to the conversion of organic molecules into biogas.
The Anaerobic reactors, known as second generation reactors or high rate digesters, can
handle wastes at a high organic loading rate of 24 kg COD/m3 day and high up-flow velocity
of 23 m/h at a low hydraulic retention time [1]. However, the treatment efficiencies of these
reactors are sensitive to parameters like wastewater composition, especially the concentration
of various ions [3] and presence of toxic compounds such as phenol.

Anaerobic Digestion (Stages):

Biogas Production through anaerobic digestion is a biochemical process involving microbial
flora of bacteria adapted to oxygen free environment to convert complex biological and
organic wastes in sequential stages into Methane, the major energy fuel.

Stage 1: The Hydrolytic Bacteria primarily are involved in the

breakdown of complex organic waste streams into simple sugars, fats and oils, and amino
acids. This stage involves splitting of the complex organic biological molecules into simpler
forms, the process is known as Hydrolysis or Liquefaction.

Stage 2: The Fermentative Acidogenic Bacteria convert the hydrolyzed portion

into Organic acid.

Stage 3: The Fermentative Acetogenic Bacteria then convert

The Organic acids into Hydrogen, Acetate and CO2 (g).

Stage 4: Finally, the Methane producing Bacteria, the

Methanogens simultaneously produce Biogas from the Acetate, or from Hydrogen and
Carbon dioxide.

1.2 Sources of Wastewater:

Process waste streams: Spent wash from the analyser column, Fermented sludge, Spent lees
from the rectifier. Non-process waste streams: Cooling water, Waste wash water, Water
treatment plant wastewater, Boiler blow down, Bottling plant wash wastewater, other wastes.

3.2 Start up of Reactor:

During the start-up of the reactor, the reactor was loaded with 7.0 L of cow-dung slurry & 1.0
L of distillery spent wash with a COD concentration of 40,100 mg/L, this mixture gave a
composite COD of 14,800mg/L. Daily the reactor was loaded with wastewater of volume
100mL with a COD concentration of 40,100 mg/L. After 4 days lapse of time the Gas
collection started & by adjusting the reactor pH every-day the reactor was operated for 30
days for achieving stabilization. During various organic loading, 150ml of effluent sample
was collected for analysis of various physico-chemical parameters such as pH, BOD, COD,
alkalinity, total solids, etc. and the analysis were carried out as per the standard methods for
the examination of water and wastewater (AWWA) 20th edition.

Biogas: Biogas is the gas that is the product of the digestion of organic materials under
anaerobic conditions. Substrates such as manure, sewage sludge, municipal solid waste,
biodegradable wastes or feedstock are transformed into methane and carbon dioxide Biogas is
primarily methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) and may have small amounts of
hydrogen sulphide (H2S), moisture and siloxanes. The gases methane, hydrogen, and carbon
monoxide (CO) can be combusted or oxidized with oxygen. This energy release allows
biogas to be used as a fuel; it can be used for any heating purpose, such as cooking. It can
also be used in a gas engine to convert the energy in the gas into electricity and heat.

Typical composition of biogas:

50-75 % Methane, CH4

25-50 % Carbon dioxide, CO2

0-10* % Nitrogen, N2

0-1 % Hydrogen, H2

0-3 % Hydrogen sulphide, H2S

0-2* % Oxygen, O2

Often 5 % of air is introduced for microbiological de sulphursation.

The process of anaerobic digestion is done by methane bacteria. Necessary

milieu conditions are

Anaerobic milieu

Temperatures between 15C and 55C

PH-values between 6.5 and 8.0

A variety of feedstock which is not that big

Avoiding retardants, such as heavy metal salts, antibiotics, disinfectants

Existence of trace minerals such as nickel and molybdenum

Flow Storage Process Diagram of bio gas

Aerobic Digestion:
Aerobic gasification is a process performed by microorganisms under the influence of
oxygen. The following article is a comparison of aerobic and anaerobic digestion. In both
aerobic and anaerobic systems the growing and reproducing microorganisms within them
require a source of elemental oxygen to survive. In an anaerobic system there is an absence of
gaseous oxygen. In an anaerobic digester, gaseous oxygen is prevented from entering the
system through physical containment in sealed tanks. Anaerobes access oxygen from sources
other than the surrounding air. The oxygen source for these microorganisms can be the
organic material itself or alternatively may be supplied by inorganic oxides from within the
input material. When the oxygen source in an anaerobic system is derived from the organic
material itself, then the 'intermediate' end products are primarily alcohols, aldehydes, and
organic acids plus carbon dioxide. In the presence of specialised methanogens, the
intermediates are converted to the 'final' end products of methane, carbon dioxide with trace
levels of hydrogen sulphide.

3.3 Distillery Spend Wash:

Distillery spent wash is the unwanted residual liquid waste generated during alcohol
production and pollution caused by it is one of the most critical environmental issue. Despite

standards imposed on effluent quality, untreated or partially treated effluent very often finds
access to watercourses. The distillery wastewater with its characteristic unpleasant odour
poses a serious threat to the water quality in several regions around the globe. The everincreasing generation of distillery spent wash on the one hand and stringent legislative
regulations of its disposal on the other has stimulated the need for developing new
technologies to process this effluent efficiently and economically. A number of clean up
technologies have been put into practice and novel bioremediation approaches for treatment
of distillery spent wash are being worked out. Potential microbial (anaerobic and aerobic) as
well as physicochemical processes as feasible remediation technologies to combat
environmental pollution are being explored.

3.4 Digester Tanks:

Anaerobic digestion is a biological process that produces a gas principally composed of
methane (CH4) and carbon dioxide (CO2) otherwise known as biogas. These gases are
produced from organic wastes such as livestock manure, food processing waste, etc.
The digesters of fixed-dome plants are usually masonry structures, structures of cement and
Ferro -cement exist. Main parameters for the choice of material are:

Digester stages:
Single stage digester design uses one vessel or container for processing organic material;
multi stage digesters have more than one in series. Single stage is more economical and
simpler, but produces less biogas and may take longer to digest. Multiple stage digester
designs are optimized at each stage to support maximum bacteria activity.

Single verses Multi stage Digestion:

Multi-stage reactors are generally split into 2 stages, the hydrolysis, as the first and the
methanogens as the second, so that better control of digestion kinetics can be maintained and
thus increase the biogas yield.

Components:
Digester Contain these components which are necessary for digestion. Total numbers of
components are seven which are given here.

3.5 Gas Holders:

A gas holder (commonly known as a gasometer, sometimes also gas bell, though that term
applies to the gas holding envelope alone) is a large container in which natural gas and town
gas is stored near atmospheric pressure at ambient temperatures. The volume of the container
follows the quantity of stored gas, with pressure coming from the weight of a movable cap.
Typical volumes for large gasholders are about 50,000 cubic meters, with 60 metre diameter
structures. Gasholders tend to be used nowadays for balancing purposes (making sure gas
pipes can be operated within a safe range of pressures) rather than for actually storing gas for
later use.
Types of Gasholders for Biogas Plants:

There are five basic types of holders

1.
2.
3.
4.

Floating-drum Gasholders
Fixed-dome Gasholders
Plastic Gasholders
Separate Gasholders

Floating-drum Gasholders:
Most floating-drum gas-holders are made of 2-4 mm thick sheet steel, with the sides made of
thicker material than the top in order to compensate for the higher degree of corrosive attack.
Structural stability is provided by L-bar bracing that also serves to break up surface scum
when the drum is rotated. The two equally suitable and most frequently used types are

An internal rod & pipe guide with a fixed (concrete-embedded) cross pole (an
advantageous configuration in connection with an internal gas outlet);
External guide frame supported on three wooden or steel legs.

Fixed-dome Gasholders:
A fixed-dome gas-holder can be either the upper part of a hemispherical digester
(CAMARTEC design) or a conical top of a cylindrical digester (e.g. Chinese fixed-dome
plant). In a fixed-dome plant the gas collecting in the upper part of the dome displaces a
corresponding volume of digested slurry.

Plastic Gasholders:
Gas-holders made of plastic sheeting serve as integrated gas-holders, as separate balloon/bag-type
gas-holders and as integrated gas-transport/storage elements. For plastic (sheet) gas-holders, the
structural details are of less immediate interest than the question of which materials can be used.

Separate Gasholders:

Low-pressure, wet and dry gas-holders (10-50 mbar). Basically, these gas-holders are
identical to integrated and/or plastic (sheet) gas-holders. Separate gas-holders cost
more and are only worthwhile in case of substantial distances (at least 50-100 m) or to
allow repair of a leaky fixed-dome plant. This type of separate gas-holder is also used
to buffer extreme differences between gas-production and gas-use patterns.
Medium- or high-pressure gas-holders (8-10 bars / 200 bars)

Bio Gas treatment:

Biogas contains methane (40-70% by volume) and carbon dioxide. There are also
components, present in low concentrations (below 1 %) such as water vapour, substrate micro
particles and trace gases. Therefore biogas treatment is necessary to preserve equipment for
its storage, transport and utilisation. Solid particles can be filtered out by candle filters,
sludge and foam is separated in cyclones. For removal of trace gases, where hydrogen
sulphide (H2S) is the most disturbing one due to its corrosion properties, processes like
scrubbing, adsorption and absorption are used. In some cases also drying is required (usually
to the relative humidity of less than 80 %). After cleaning, biogas is used to produce energy.

Block heat and power plant:

A block heat and power plant (CHP) is a system consisting of modules for the simultaneous
generation of electricity and heat. CHPs use the principle of cogeneration.
Strictly speaking, block heat and power plants (CHPs) work like large-scale combined
heating and power stations. The thermal energy incidentally and inevitably produced in the
generation of electrical power is recovered and used productively - instead of being released
into the environment, which is a waste of energy. The essential characteristic of a block heat
and power plant is that the secondary energy is produced right where it can be used - both for
heating and for producing hot water. Since the energy does not have to be transported, this
energy usage is highly efficient. For example, CHPs can feed the usable heat into a local
heating network. As a result, a large part of the energy needed locally can be produced in an
environmentally friendly and highly efficient and effective manner.

Effects & Side Effects OF Sulphur:

All living things need sulphur. It is especially important for humans because it is part of the
amino acid methionine, which is an absolute dietary requirement for us. The amino acid
cysteine also contains sulphur. The average person takes in around 900 mg of sulphur per day,
mainly in the form of protein
Globally sulphuric substances can have the following effects on human health:

- Neurological effects and behavioural changes

- Disturbance of blood circulation
- Heart damage
- Effects on eyes and eyesight
- Reproductive failure
- Damage to immune systems
- Stomach and gastrointestinal disorde
- Damage to liver and kidney functions
- Hearing defects

Chapter4: Chillier
4.1 Chillier:
A chillier is a machine that removes heat from a liquid via a vapour-compression or
absorption refrigeration cycle. This liquid can then be circulated through a heat exchanger
to cool air or equipment as required. As a necessary by product, refrigeration creates
waste heat that must be exhausted to ambient or, for greater efficiency, recovered for
heating purposes. Concerns in design and selection of chillier include performance
,efficiency, maintenance, and product life cycle environmental impact

4.2 Gas Chiller Necessity:

The process of conditioning and purifying biogas has become more and more existent.
With an increased initiative to reduce global dependence on energy from fossil fuels, the
quantity of waste energy biogas conversion facilities has been increasing worldwide.
Municipal services, industrial production plants, and agricultural processing plants now

have a method of using all of the biomass waste from their perpetually operating
processes. Whaley Products Incorporated has been supplying glycol systems to these
biogas production facilities for many years, and has a lot of experience with design,
engineering, and fabrication of these types of cooling systems.

4.3 Chiller Types:

Chillers are classified primarily on the basis of cycle on which they work.

1. Vapor compression chillers or compression chillers or electric chillers

2. Vapor absorption chillers or absorption chillers or ammonia chillers or lithium bromide
chillers

1. Vapor compression chillers:

Vapor-compression refrigeration, in which the refrigerant undergoes phase changes, is one of
the many refrigeration cycles and is the most widely used method for air-conditioning of
buildings and automobiles. It is also used in domestic and commercial refrigerators, largescale warehouses for chilled or frozen storage of foods and meats, refrigerated trucks and
railroad cars, and a host of other commercial and industrial services. Oil refineries,
petrochemical and chemical processing plants, and natural gas processing plants are among
the many types of industrial plants that often utilize large vapor-compression refrigeration
systems.

2. Vapor absorption chillers:

An Absorption Chiller is a machine uses a heat source to generate chilled water rather than
electrical source that is used in vapor compression cycle. Vapor compression systems use a
high grade of energy input to drive a compressor, so it consumes a lot of electricity. This also
leads to more releasing of CO2 emissions. While the absorption chillers use a low grade of
energy to generate a cooling effect. So we dont have to use electricity but we can use any
other heat source. Absorption chillers also have other advantages like silent operation which
is not compared with other systems.

Comparison between Vapour Compression & Absorption

Chapter 5: Compressor Station

5.1 Introduction
Industrial plants use compressed air throughout their production operations, which is
produced by compressed air units ranging from 5 horsepower (hp) to over 50,000 hp.
The US Department of Energy reports that 70 to 90 per cent of compressed air is lost in the
form of unusable heat, friction, misuse and noise. For this reason, compressors and
compressed air systems are important areas to improve energy efficiency at industrial plants
5.2 Main Components in Compressed Air Systems
Compressed air systems consist of following major components are

Intake air filters

Inter-stage coolers
After coolers
Air dryers
Moisture drain traps
Receivers

Intake Air Filters:

That prevents dust from entering a compressor. Dust causes sticking valves, scoured
cylinders, excessive wear etc.
Inter-stage Coolers:
That reduces the temperature of the air before it enters the next stage to reduce the work of
compression and increase efficiency. They are normally water-cooled
After-Coolers:
With the objective is to remove the moisture in the air by reducing the temperature in a
water-cooled heat exchanger.
Air-dryers:
That removes the remaining traces of moisture after after-cooler as equipment has to be
relatively free of any moisture.
Moisture drain traps:
That is used for removal of moisture in the compressed air. These traps resemble steam traps.
Various types of traps used are manual drain cocks, timer based / automatic drain valves etc.

5.3 Compressor Types:

There are two basic compressor types

Positive-displacement Compressor
Dynamic Compressor

Positive-displacement Compressor:
In the positive-displacement type, a given quantity of air or gas is trapped in a compression
chamber and the volume it occupies is mechanically reduced, causing a corresponding rise in
pressure prior to discharge. At constant speed, the air flow remains essentially constant with
variations in discharge pressure.

Dynamic compressors:
Impart velocity energy to continuously flowing air or gas by means of impellers rotating at
very high speeds. The velocity energy is changed into pressure energy both by the impellers
and the discharge volutes or diffusers. In the centrifugal-type dynamic compressors, the shape
of the impeller blades determines the relationship between air flows and the pressure (or
head) generate.
5.4 Compressors Types flow chart:

5.5 Comparison of Compressors:

The factors are important when selecting a compressor. The chapter includes a table of
comparing different compressors on these factors

5.6Assessments OF Compressors and compressed air

systems:
There are many methods and factors which are used to assess the compressor types and value
etc. which are as follows.

Simple Capacity Assessment Method

Compressor Efficiency Method
Leaks Quantification Method

Simple Capacity Assessment Method:

P2 = Final pressure after filling (kg/cm2a)

P1 = Initial pressure (kg/cm2a) after bleeding)
P0 = Atmospheric pressure (kg/cm2a)
V = Storage volume in m3 which includes receiver, after cooler and delivery piping
T = Time take to build up pressure to P2 in minutes

Compressor Efficiency Method:

Isothermal Efficiency:

Isothermal power /Actual measure power input

Isothermal Power (KW):

P1*Q1*loge r/36.7

P1:

Absolute intake pressure kg/cm^2

P2:

Absolute delivery Pressure kg/cm^2

Q1:

Free air delivery m^3/hr.

r:

Pressure Ratio P2/P1

Leaks Quantification Method:

Total Leakage Calculation:
Leakage (%):

[(T*100) / T+t)]

On- load Time (minutes)

Off-load time (minutes)

5.7Energy efficiency opportunities:

There are many effects which are effect on compressors life and efficiency. Which are as
follows?
1. Location of air compressors
2. Elevation
3. Air Intake
4. Pressure Drops in Air Filter
5. Use Inter and After Coolers
6. Pressure Settings
7. Minimizing Leakage
8. Condensate Removal
9. Controlled usage
10. Compressor controls
11. . Maintenance Practices

5.8 Gas Compressors and Gas Plant Protection:

1. When a gas compressor plant discharges gas into a line to which other sources of gas
supply are connected, except when discharging into a public utility distributing system, there
shall be a valve installed in the plant's discharge line, or lines, for the purpose of preventing
the return flow of gas.
2. Gas compressor discharge lines shall have a pressure relief device. There shall be no
intervening valves or fittings between the compressor and its pressure relief device nor
between the pressure relief device and its point of discharge, which would render the pressure
relief device ineffective.
3. Where a gas compressor pressure relief device discharges into the atmosphere, the
discharge outlet shall be located outside of the compressor building; and if it discharges
adjacent to the building, the discharge outlet shall be located above the compressor building
eaves

Chapter 6: Gas Turbine Engine

6.1 Introduction
The gas turbine is an internal combustion engine that uses air as the working fluid. The
engine extracts chemical energy from fuel and converts it to mechanical energy Using the
gaseous energy of the working fluid (air) to drive the engine and propeller, Which, in turn,
propel the airplane. It is the production of hot gas during fuel combustion, not the fuel itself
that the gives gas turbines the name. Gas turbines can utilize a variety of fuels, including

natural gas, fuel oils, and synthetic fuels. Combustion occurs continuously in gas turbines, as
opposed to reciprocating IC engines, in which combustion occurs intermittently.

6.2 THE GAS TURBINE CYCLE:

The basic principle of the airplane turbine engine is identical to any and all engines that
extract energy from chemical fuel. The basic 4 steps for any internal combustion engine are:

1. Intake of air (and possibly fuel).

2. Compression of the air (and possibly fuel).
3. Combustion, where fuel is injected (if it was not drawn in with the intake air)
And burned to convert the stored energy.
4. Expansion and exhaust, where the converted energy is put to use.
In the case of a piston engine, such as the engine in a car or reciprocating airplane engine, the
intake, compression, combustion, and exhaust steps occur in the same place (cylinder head) at
different times as the piston goes up and down. In the turbine engine, however, these same
four steps occur at the same time but in different places. As a result of this fundamental
difference, the turbine has engine sections called:
1. The inlet section
2. The compressor section
3. The combustion section (the combustor)
4. The turbine (and exhaust) section.
The turbine section of the gas turbine engine has the task of producing usable output shaft
power to drive the propeller. In addition, it must also provide power to drive the compressor
and all engine accessories. It does this by expanding the high temperature, pressure, and
velocity gas and converting the gaseous energy to mechanical energy in the form of shaft
power.
A large mass of air must be supplied to the turbine in order to produce the necessary power.
This mass of air is supplied by the compressor, which draws the air into the engine and
squeezes it to provide high-pressure air to the turbine. The compressor does this by
converting mechanical energy from the turbine to gaseous energy in the form of pressure and
temperature.
If the compressor and the turbine were 100% efficient, the compressor would supply all the
air needed by the turbine. At the same time, the turbine would supply the necessary power to

drive the compressor. In this case, a perpetual motion machine would exist however frictional
losses and mechanical system inefficiencies do not allow a perpetual motion machine to
operate. Additional energy must be added to the air to accommodate for these losses. Power
output is also desired from the engine (beyond simply driving the compressor); thus, even
more energy must be added to the air to produce this excess power. Energy addition to the
system is accomplished in the combustor. Chemical energy from fuel as it is burned is
converted to gaseous energy in the form of high temperatures and high velocity as the air
passes through the combustor. The gaseous energy is converted back to mechanical energy in
the turbine, providing power to drive the compressor and the output shaft.

6.3 Engine Sections:

Inlet
The air inlet duct must provide clean and unrestricted airflow to the engine. Clean and
undisturbed inlet airflow extends engine life by preventing erosion, corrosion, and foreign
object damage (FOD). Consideration of atmospheric conditions such as dust, salt, industrial
pollution, foreign objects (birds, nuts and bolts), and temperature (icing conditions) must be
made when designing the inlet system. Fairings should be installed between the engine air
inlet housing and the inlet duct to ensure minimum airflow losses to the engine at all airflow
conditions.

Compressor
The compressor is responsible for providing the turbine with all the air it needs in an efficient
manner. In addition, it must supply this air at high static pressures. The example of a large
turboprop axial flow compressor will be used. The compressor is assumed to contain fourteen
stages of rotor blades and stator vanes. The overall pressure ratio (pressure at the back of the
compressor compared to pressure at the front of the compressor) is approximately 9.5:1. At
100% (>13,000) RPM, the engine compresses approximately 433 cubic feet of air per second.
In an axial flow compressor, each stage incrementally boosts the pressure from the previous
stage. A single stage of compression consists of a set of rotor blades attached to a rotating
disk, followed by stator vanes attached to a stationary ring. The flow area between the
compressor blades is slightly divergent. Flow area between compressor vanes is also
divergent, but more so than for the blades.
In general terms, the compressor rotor blades convert mechanical energy into gaseous energy.
This energy conversion greatly increases total pressure (Pt.). Most of the increase is in the
form of velocity (Pi), with a small increase in static pressure (Ps) due to the divergence of the
blade flow paths. The stator vanes slow the air by means of their divergent duct shape,
converting 'the accelerated velocity (Pi) to higher static pressure (Ps). The vanes are
positioned at an angle such that the exiting air is directed into the rotor blades of the next
stage at the most efficient angle.

Diffuser

Air leaves the compressor through exit guide vanes, which convert the radial component of
the air flow out of the compressor to straight-line flow. The air then enters the diffuser section
of the engine, which is a very divergent duct. The primary function of the diffuser structure is
aerodynamic. The divergent duct shape converts most of the airs velocity (Pi) into static
pressure (PS). As a result, the highest static pressure and lowest velocity in the entire engine
is at the point of diffuser discharge and combustor inlet. Other aerodynamic design
considerations that are important in the diffuser section arise from the need for a short flow
path, uniform flow distribution, and low drag loss.
In addition to critical aerodynamic functions, the diffuser also provides:

Engine structural support, including engine mounting to the nacelle

Support for the rear compressor bearings and seals
Bleed air ports, which provide pressurized air for:
Airframe "customer" requirements (air conditioning, etc.)
engine inlet anti-icing
control of acceleration bleed air valves
Pressure and scavenge oil passages for the rear compressor and front turbine
Bearings
Mounting for the fuel nozzles

Combustor

Once the air flows through the diffuser, it enters the combustion section, also called the
combustor. The combustion section has the difficult task of controlling the burning of large
amounts of fuel and air. It must release the heat in a manner that the air is expanded and
accelerated to give a smooth and stable stream of uniformly-heated gas at all starting and
operating conditions. This task must be accomplished with minimum pressure loss and
maximum heat release. In addition, the combustion liners must position and control the fire to
prevent flame contact with any metal parts. Maximum combustion section outlet temperature
(turbine inlet temperature) in this engine is about 1070^0C (>1950F). The rear third of the
combustion liners is the transition section. The transition section has a very convergent duct
shape, which begins accelerating the gas stream and reducing the static pressure in
preparation for entrance to the turbine section.

Turbine
The turbine converts the gaseous energy of the air/burned fuel mixture out of the combustor
into mechanical energy to drive the compressor, driven accessories, and, through a reduction
gear, the propeller. The turbine converts gaseous energy into mechanical energy by expanding
the hot, high-pressure gases to a lower temperature and pressure. Each stage of the turbine
consists of a row of stationary vanes followed by a row of rotating blades. This is the reverse
of the order in the compressor. In the compressor energy is added to the gas by the rotor
blades, then converted to static pressure by the stator vanes. In the turbine, the stator vanes
increase gas velocity, and then the rotor blades extract energy. The vanes and blades are
airfoils that provide for a smooth flow of the gases. As the airstream enters the turbine section
from the combustion section, it is accelerated through the first stage stator vanes. As the mass
of the high velocity gas flows across the turbine blades, the gaseous energy is converted to
mechanical energy. Velocity, temperature, and pressure of the gas are sacrificed in order to
rotate the turbine to generate shaft power. The efficiency of the turbine is determined by how
well it extracts mechanical energy from the hot, high-velocity gasses. Since air flows from a

high-pressure zone to a low pressure zone, this task is accomplished fairly easily. The use of
properly positioned airfoils allows a smooth flow and expansion of gases through the blades
and vanes of the turbine.
All the air must flow across
the airfoils to achieve maximum efficiency in the turbine. In order to ensure this, seals are
used at the base of the vanes to minimize gas flow around the vanes instead of through the
intended gas path. In addition, the first three stages of the turbine blades have tip shrouds to
minimize gas flow around the blade tips.

Exhaust
After the gas has passed through the turbine, it is discharged through the exhaust. Though
most of the gaseous energy is converted to mechanical energy by the turbine, a significant
amount of power remains in the exhaust gas. This gas energy is accelerated through the
convergent duct shape of the exhaust to make it more useful as jet thrust - the principle of
equal and opposite reaction means that the force of the exhausted air drives the airplane
forward.

6.4 EFFECTS OF ATMOSPHERIC CONDITIONS:

The performance of the gas turbine engine is dependent on the mass of air entering the
engine. At a constant speed, the compressor pumps a constant volume of air into the engine
with no regard for air mass or density. If the density of the air decreases, the same volume of
air will contain less mass, so less power is produced. If air density increases, power output
also increases as the air mass flow increases for the same volume of air. Atmospheric
conditions affect the performance of the engine since the density of the air will be different
under different conditions. On a cold day, the air density is high, so the mass of the air
entering the compressor is increased. As a result, higher horsepower is produced. In contrast,

on a hot day, or at high altitude, air density is decreased, resulting in a decrease of output
shaft power.

6.5 Engine Types:

Introduction
GE's gas engines are available in the 0.3-9.5MW electrical output range for an individual
unit. Jenbacher gas engines are renowned for robust performance in challenging conditions
and difficult fuel gases. GEs Jenbacher gas engines are manufactured in the town of
Jenbacher , Austria in the Tyrol. The Jenbacher gas engine is designed from to run solely on
different types of gas, and for different types of applications. Jenbacher has led the way in gas
engine innovation over the last 50 years with developments including:

The LEANOX control philosophy

The world's first 20 cylinder gas engine
The world's first 24-cylinder gas engine
The world's first twin-turbocharger gas engine
The high-efficiency 4-series concept

This focus on gaseous fuels leads to the highest levels of generator efficiency and reliability
on the market. The engine has been developed into variants which are suitable for a wide
range of different applications including natural gas, biogas, coal seam gases and associated
petroleum gas. Over five decades of experience in the gas engine business has resulted in
thousands of GE's Jenbacher engines being installed worldwide.
.

Gas Engine Basics:

The image below shows the basics of a stationary gas engine and generator used for the
production of power. It consists of four main components - the engine which is fuelled by
different gases. Once the gas is burnt in the cylinders of the engine, the force turns a crank
shaft within the engine. The crank shaft turns an alternator which results in the generation of
electricity. Heat from the combustion process is released from the cylinders this must be
either recovered and used in a combined heat and power configuration or dissipated via dump
radiators located close to the engine. Finally and importantly there are advanced control
systems to facilitate robust performance of the generator.

Heat Recovery Exchanger:

A heat exchanger is a piece of equipment built for efficient heat transfer from one medium to
another. The media may be separated by a solid wall to prevent mixing or they may be in
direct contact.[1] They are widely used in space heating, refrigeration, air conditioning,
power plants, chemical plants, petrochemical plants, petroleum refineries, natural gas
processing, and sewage treatment. The classic example of a heat exchanger is found in an
internal combustion engine in which a circulating fluid known as engine coolant flows
through radiator coils and air flows past the coils, which cools the coolant and heats the
incoming air

Engine Parts:
Cylinder Head:
he GE Jenbacher Series 3 gas engines and generating sets offer extreme reliability and high
efficiency, and are renowned for their excellent performance in operating on Natural Gas,
Landfill Gas, and Mines and other Waste gases in cogeneration plants in the UK and
worldwide. SIDCO Trading Ltd are pleased to offer a full range of Genuine, OEM and
replacement spare parts for the Jenbacher 3 Series engines.In support our many customers
who offer cylinder head overhaul and reconditioning services for the market leading
Jenbacher 320 gas engines, we provide from stock a full range of spare parts for the overhaul
and rebuild of Jenbacher 320 cylinder heads. Standard and Oversize Exhaust and Inlet Valve .

Inlet & Exhaust Valves

A result of extensive field testing and development on natural gas and corrosive landfill gas
fuels, our top quality EU manufactured inlet and exhaust valves for Jenbacher Type 3 and
Type 6 Gas Engines are made by a specialist valve manufacturer to the highest manufacturing

specifications and quality standards. High quality materials, coupled with close attention and
quality control in manufacturing, combined with heat treatments, superior surface treatment
and finishes result in some of the best valves available for Jenbacher Type 3 and Type 6
engines. These superior quality valves, when fitted with either Genuine valve seats, or our
high specification aftermarket valve seats, provide the right combination of hardness,
toughness, heat transfer, and flexibility to provide excellent seat contact throughout the
combustion cycle and extended component life (both valves and seats), enhanced reliability,
and extended service intervals between cylinder head maintenance.

Spacer Plates
The Jenbacher type 3 engine was developed from the Jenbacher type 2 engine. Whilst the
bore of 135mm remained the same, the stroke was increased from 145mm to 170mm.This
was facilitated by means of 'Spacer Plates' or 'Stroke Extenders' between the engine block and
cylinder head. Susceptible to corrosion and/or erosion, these frequently require refurbishment
or replacement to maintain the integrity of your Jenbacher engine.

Valve Seats
The relationship between the valve seat material, and the valve seating face is crucial to
satisfactory performance, and reliable operation of your gas engine. For the Jenbacher Type 3
engines, we offer a very high quality seat, manufactured from a similar material to the
genuine Jenbacher seats. This, has been demonstrated to give the best performance with the
inlet and exhaust valves which we supply. The combination of a very hard corrosion resistant
material for the valve seat insert material, combined with a hard, corrosion resistant material
on the valve seating face, with superior surface finish treatments, provides a reliable seating
interface, which is demonstrated to be extremely resistant the valve seat recession.

Control panel:
Engine and generator control panel installed at gas engine power plants is designed,
manufactured and test operated. Auxiliary devices and generator are controlled using PLC
and HMI. The product complies with requirements of customers and is supplied through
quick design and production inspection process based on many years of supply to engine
makers
Gas Engine/Generator Control Panel
- Redundant Touch viewer & PLC System

Composition
- PLC System.
- Separated Safety & Control System.
- Redundant Communication System.
- Generator Parallel Controller.
- Electric Protection System.
- GPS Master Clock System.
- SCADA System.
- Touch viewer.
- Data Storage System.

6.6 CHP Module Data: JMS320 GS-N.L

This type of engine is working on bio gas plant in shakarganj sugar mills

6.7 Engine Data:

Synchronisation will be finished upon receipt of the power switches response. This status is
displayed using a green disc. In this way, it is possible to check whether the control system is
trying to activate the switch.

Chapter: 7 Cooling Tower

7.1Introduction
Cooling tower is basically heat rejection equipment. It is a device where heat and mass
transfer take place. Water gets cooled to atmospheric temperature , that is 2 to 5 oC above
wet bulb temperature of air.

Factors affecting cooling rate

Cooling rate (and temperature) depends upon evaporation rate.

Factors Affecting Evaporation Rate

Water surface area
Water air ratio
Contact time

Analysis of existing Cooling Towers:

Types of cooling tower
Cooling towers are classified on the basis of,
Method of exposing water surface to air and,
Air circulation inside the cooling tower

Cooling towers fall into two main categories:

Natural draft
Mechanical draft

1. Natural Draught Tower

In natural draught cooling tower no mechanical device is used to create air flow. Natural
draft towers use very large concrete chimneys to introduce air through the media. Due to the
large size of these towers, they are generally used for water flow rates above 45,000 m3/hr.
These types of towers are used only by utility power stations.
Natural Draught Tower is classified into these categories;

Spray Pond
Hyperbolic Natural Draught

Spray Filled
Air flow is derived from
Natural wind currents.
USAGE:
Spray Filled Cooling
Towers are mainly used
for small refrigeration
and jacket water cooling applications

2) Mechanical Draught Tower

In Mechanical draught Cooling Tower energy in the form of Fan / Mechanical device is used
to create air flow.
Induced Draught Counter / Cross Flow
Here Fan is normally located at top of the tower and air is drawn through. Water surface is
increased by fills of wood or plastic material. Water is distributed over fills either by spray
(relatively smaller capacity tower) or through perforated basin at top of the tower.

Merits

These are most popular towers and can be designed up to any capacity and any
approach.

Space required is less than natural draught tower.

Demerits
As fan is mounted at top a proper balancing of fan assembly is required.

Fan is always in contact with hot and humid air. So proper MOC for fan becomes
essential.
They are noisy. Continuous humming noise of Fan will be there.
Vibrations due to Fan.

2. Forced Draught Counter / Cross Flow

Here Fan is mounted at the base and air is forced in at the bottom and discharged at top.
Water surface is increased by fills of wood or plastic material.
USAGE:
Normally this type is used for special applications like

cooling of corrosive liquids

Indoor application with duct work

Merits

Vibration is kept down, since mechanical assembly is near the ground and on a solid
foundation.
Slightly more efficient than Induced draught.
The location of mechanical assembly is comparatively in dry air stream. So less
corrosion in gear assembly.
Possible to install indoor.

Demerits

As air is forced in, it is met with extra resistance against gravity so more power is
required.
Possibility of recirculation is more.
Limited fan size (12 feet or less).
They are noisy. Continuous humming noise of Fan will be there.
Vibrations due to Fan.

Jet Tower
In Jet tower air current is produced by Jet Effect. Jet nozzles are placed at the top of the
tower. When water comes out of nozzles, it pushes surrounding air downwards by Jet effect.
This air is drawn out of tower from the bottom, through side eliminators (louvers).

Working principle
Jet Cooling Towers work on Water Jet principle. So when water comes out of Jet nozzles, it
pushes the air below it, creating a low pressure zone; hence surrounding air tries to rush in
and air current from top to bottom is established.

Merits

No special mechanical device like fan / blower is required for air circulation.
As water is sprayed, tower becomes spray filled, hence nothing like pack or fills is
required.
Construction is modular so expansion is very easy.
Single tower can be used for multi-application.
100 % fan power is saved.
Practically zero maintenance.

Demerits

Air is discharged from side.

Looks like natural draught tower

7.2 Performance evaluation:

The important parameters, from the point of determining the performance
of cooling towers, are:
i) "Range" is the difference between the cooling tower water inlet and
outlet temperature.
.
ii) "Approach" is the difference between the cooling tower outlet cold
water temperatures
And ambient wet bulb temperature. Although, both range and approach
should be monitored,
The 'Approach' is a better indicator of cooling tower performance.
iii) Cooling tower effectiveness (in percentage) is the ratio of range, to the
ideal range, i.e.,
Difference between cooling water inlet temperature and ambient wet bulb
temperature,
Or in other words it is = Range / (Range + Approach).

iv) Cooling capacity is the heat rejected in kCal/hr or TR, given as product
of mass flow
Rate of water, specific heat and temperature difference.
v) Evaporation loss is the water quantity evaporated for cooling duty and,
theoretically, for
Every 10, 00, 000 kCal heat rejected, evaporation quantity works out to
1.8 m3. An empirical
Relation used often is:

Evaporation Loss (m3/hr) = 0.00085 x 1.8 x circulation rate (m3/hr) x (T1-T2)

T1-T2 = Temp. Difference between inlet and outlet water.

Thermodynamics also dictate that the heat removed from the water must be equal to the
Heat absorbed by the surrounding air
L (T1 T2) = G (h2 h1)
L G /=

h2 h1/ T1 T2 where:

L/G = liquid to gas mass flow ratio (kg/kg)

T1 = hot water temperature (C)
T2 = cold water temperature (C)
h2 = enthalpy of air-water vapor mixture at exhaust wet-bulb temperature
(Same units as above)
h1 = enthalpy of air-water vapor mixture at inlet wet-bulb temperature (same
Units as above)

7.3 Efficient System Operation

Cooling Water Treatment

Cooling water treatment is mandatory for any cooling tower whether with splash fill or with
film type fill for controlling suspended solids, algae growth, etc. With increasing costs of
water, efforts to increase Cycles of Concentration (COC), by Cooling Water Treatment would
help to reduce make up water requirements significantly. In large industries, power plants,
COC improvement is often considered as a key area for water conservation.

Drift Loss in the Cooling Towers

It is very difficult to ignore drift problem in cooling towers. Now-a-days most of the end user
specification calls for 0.02% drift loss. With technological development and processing of
PVC, manufacturers have brought large change in the drift eliminator shapes and the
possibility of making efficient designs of drift eliminators that enable end user to specify the
drift loss requirement to as low as 0.003 0.001%.

Cooling Tower Fans

The purpose of a cooling tower fan is to move a specified quantity of air through the system,
overcoming the system resistance which is defined as the pressure loss. The product of air
flow and the pressure loss is air power developed/work done by the fan; this may be also
termed as fan output and input kW depends on fan efficiency. The fan efficiency in turn is
greatly dependent on the profile of the blade. An aerodynamic profile with optimum twist,
taper and higher coefficient of lift to coefficient of drop ratio can provide the fan total
efficiency as high as 8592 %. However, this efficiency is drastically affected by the factors
such as tip clearance, obstacles to airflow and inlet shape, etc.
Also, due to lightweight, FRP fans need low starting torque resulting in use of lower HP
motors. The lightweight of the fans also increases the life of the gear box, motor and bearing
is and allows for easy handling and maintenance.

7.4 Performance Assessment of Cooling Towers

In operational performance assessment, the typical measurements and observations involved
are cooling tower design data and curves to be referred to as the basis.
Intake air WBT and DBT at each cell at ground level using a whirling pyschrometer.
Exhaust air WBT and DBT at each cell using a whirling psychrometer.
CW inlet temperature at risers or top of tower, using accurate mercury in glass or a digital
thermometer.
CW outlet temperature at full bottom, using accurate mercury in glass or a digital
thermometer.
Process data on heat exchangers, loads on line or power plant control room readings, as
relevant.
CW flow measurements either direct or inferred from pump motor kW and pump head and
flow characteristics.
CT fan motor amps, volts, kW and blade angle settings
TDS of cooling water.

 Rated cycles of concentration at the site conditions.

Observations on nozzle flows drift eliminators, condition of fills, splash bars,
Etc.

7.5 Flow Control Strategies

Control of tower air flow can be done by varying methods: starting and stopping (On-off) of
fans, use of two- or three-speed fan motors, use of automatically adjustable pitch fans, use of
variable speed fans. On-off fan operation of single speed fans provides the least effective
control. Two-speed fans provide better control with further improvement shown with three
speed fans. Automatic adjustable pitch fans and variable-speed fans can provide even closer
control of tower cold- water temperature. In multi-cell towers, fans in adjacent cells may be
running at different speeds or some may be on and others off depending upon the tower load
and required water temperature. Depending upon the method of air volume control selected,
control strategies can be determined to minimise fan energy while achieving the desired
control of the Cold water temperature.

10.7 Energy saving opportunities in cooling Towers

Follow manufacturer's recommended clearances around cooling towers and relocate

or modify structures that interfere with the air intake or exhaust.
Optimise cooling tower fan blade angle on a seasonal and/or load basis.
Correct excessive and/or uneven fan blade tip clearance and poor fan balance.
On old counter-flow cooling towers, replace old spray type nozzles with new square
spray ABS practically non-clogging nozzles.
Replace splash bars with self-extinguishing PVC cellular film fill y Saving

Chapter 8: Power Factor Improvements

8.1Power factor
Is the ratio between the kW and the kVA drawn by an electrical load where the kW is the
actual load power and the kVA is the apparent load power. he power factor of an AC
electrical power system is defined as the ratio of the real power flowing to the load, to the

apparent power in the circuit, and is a dimensionless number in the closed interval of -1 to 1,
meaning that the voltage & current waveforms are not in phase, reducing the instantaneous
product of the two waveforms (V x I). Real power is the capacity of the circuit for performing
work in a particular time. Apparent power is the product of the current and voltage of the
circuit. Due to energy stored in the load and returned to the source, or due to a non-linear load
that distorts the wave shape of the current drawn from the source, the apparent power will be
greater than the real power. A negative power factor occurs when the device (which is
normally the load) generates power, which then flows back towards the source, which is
normally considered the generator.

8.2 Power Factor Triangle:

Power Factor Formulas and the Power Factor Triangle, now that you understand the
terminology, are easily within your grasp. The key to the Power Factor Triangle is
understanding vectors. I'll make vectors easy and in a few minutes you'll have it.

8.3Disadvantages of low power factor:

Power factor plays an important role in a.c circuits since power consumed depends upon this
factor.
p=VLILCos

(1) for single phase supply

Large kVA rating of equipment,

Greater conductor size
Larger copper losses
Poor voltage regulation
Reduced handling capacity of system

The main cause of low Power factor is Inductive Load. As in pure inductive circuit, Current
lags 90 from Voltage, this large difference of phase angle between current and voltage
causes zero power factor. Basically, all those circuit having Capacitance and inductance
(except resonance circuit (or Tune Circuit) where inductive reactance = capacitive reactance
(XL = Xc), so the circuit becomes a resistive circuit), power factor would be exist over there
because Capacitance and inductance causes in difference of phase angle () between current
and voltage. there are a lot of disadvantages of low Pf and we must improve Pf.
Single phase and three phase induction Motors (Usually, Induction motor works
At poor power factor i.e. at:
Full load, Pf = 0.8 -0.9
Small load, Pf = 0.2 -0.3

No Load, Pf may come to Zero (0).

2. Varying Load in Power System (As we know that load on power system is varying.
During low load period, supply voltage is increased which increase the magnetizing current
which cause the decreased power factor)
3. Industrial heating furnaces
4. Electrical discharge lamps (High intensity discharge lighting) Arc lamps (operate A very
low power factor)
5. Transformers
6. Harmonic Currents

8.4 Methods for Power Factor Improvement

The following devices and equipments are used for Power Factor Improvement.
1. Static Capacitor
2. Synchronous Condenser
3. Phase Advance

1. Static Capacitor
For Power factor improvement purpose, Static capacitors are connected in parallel with those
devices which work on low power factor. These static capacitors provide leading current
which neutralize (totally or approximately) the lagging inductive component of load current
(i.e. leading component neutralize or eliminate the lagging component of load current) thus
power factor of the load circuit is improved. These capacitors are installed in Vicinity of large
inductive load e.g. Induction motors and transformers etc., and improve the load circuit
power factor to improve the system or devises efficiency

Advantages:

Capacitor bank offers several advantages over other methods of power factor
improvement.
Losses are low in static capacitors
There is no moving part, therefore need low maintenance
It can work in normal air conditions (i.e. ordinary atmospheric conditions)
Do not require a foundation for installation
They are lightweight so it is can be easy to installed

Disadvantages:

The age of static capacitor bank is less (8 10 years)

With changing load, we have to ON or OFF the capacitor bank, which causes
switching surges on the system
If the rated voltage increases, then it causes damage it
Once the capacitors spoiled, then repairing is costly

2. Synchronous Condenser
When a Synchronous motor operates at No-Load and over-exited then its called a
synchronous Condenser. Whenever a Synchronous motor is over-exited then it provides
leading current and works like a capacitor. When a synchronous condenser is connected
across supply voltage (in parallel) then it draws leading current and partially eliminates the
re-active component and this way, power factor is improved. Generally, synchronous
condenser is used to improve the power factor in large industries.
Advantages:

Long life (almost 25 years)

High Reliability
Step-less adjustment of power factor.
No generation of harmonics of maintenance
The faults can be removed easily
Its not affected by harmonics.
Require Low maintenance (only periodic bearing greasing is necessary)

Disadvantages:

It is expensive (maintenance cost is also high) and therefore mostly used by large
power users.
An auxiliary device has to be used for this operation because synchronous motor has
no self-starting torque
It produces noise

3. Phase Advancer

Phase advancer is a simple AC exciter which is connected on the main shaft of the motor and
operates with the motors rotor circuit for power factor improvement. Phase advancer is used
to improve the power factor of induction motor in industries. As the stator windings of
induction motor takes lagging current 90 out of phase with Voltage, therefore the power
factor of induction motor is low. If the exciting ampere-turns are excited by external AC
source, then there would be no effect of exciting current on stator windings. Therefore the
power factor of induction motor will be improved. This process is done by Phase advancer.
Advantages:

Lagging kVAR (Reactive component of Power or reactive power) drawn by the motor
is sufficiently reduced because the exciting ampere turns are supplied at slip
frequency (fs).
The phase advancer can be easily used where the use of synchronous motors is
Unacceptable

Disadvantage:
Using Phase advancer is not economical for motors below 200 H.P. (about 150kW)