Date: March 23, 2005

Narmada Chematur Petrochemical Limited

(An ISO 9001, ISO 14001 & OHSAS 18001 COMPANY)

NCPL
Different types of
Material used in
N.C.P.L.

Prepared by:
Vimal D. Makadia
E.C. No: 2343

Dept: Phase-I Mechanical

maintenance
Nucleus for Commitment, Productivity and Leadership
DIFFERENT TYPES OF MATERIAL USED IN N.C.P.L.
Material is something that consists of matter. Material is the stuff of which something
is made. The understanding of the properties of materials is highly essential because
without this information and knowledge, the manufacturing process may be an
expensive and complex task which negates the profit and utility of the end product. In
the modern complex society of today, which is producing more technically qualified
people, complex challenge is being posed by the ever-increasing demands for
materials of greater strength, lightness, safety, reliability, electrical conductivity,
electromagnetism, hardness, hardnability, cutting power, softness, cheapness,
resistance to corrosion and radiation and resistance to heat.

Factors Considered In Selection of Material:- Corrosion resistance.

- Resistance to oxidation and sulfidation.
- Strength and ductility at ambient and service temperature.
- Suitability for intended fabrication techniques.
- Suitability for intended cleaning procedures.
- Stability of properties in service.
- Toughness.
- Resistance to abrasion and erosion.
- Resistance to galling and seizing.
- Surface finish and/or reflectivity.
- Magnetic properties.
- Thermal conductivities.
- Electrical resistivity.
- Sharpness means retention of cutting edge.
- Rigidity.
- Dimensional stability.

Corrosion:
Corrosion of metals can be a major problem, especially for long-term structural
applications like cars, bridges, and ships. Most corrosion is electrochemical
(galvanic) in nature. To have corrosion, an anode (a more easily oxidized region) and
a cathode (a less easily oxidized region) must be present. These may be different
types of metals or simply different regions on the same metal. Some sort of
electrolyte that can allow the transport of electrons must also be present. Corrosion
involves the release of electrons at the anode due to the high oxidation potential of the
atoms at the anode. As the electrons are released, metal cations are formed and the

metal disintegrates. Simultaneously, the cathode, which has a greater reduction

potential, accepts the electrons by either forming negative ions or neutralizing positive
ions.
In the case of the activity or electromotive force series, a metal such as zinc reacts
with hydrogen and serves as both the anode and the cathode. The equation for this
reaction is:
2 Zn + 2 H+ 2 Zn2+ + H2
Hydrogen bubbles at the cathode while the anode is destroyed. Surface imperfections,
the presence of impurities, orientation of the grains, localized stresses, and variations
in the environment are some of the factors determining why a single piece of metal
may serve as both electrodes. For example, the head and point of a nail have been
cold worked and can serve as the anode while the body serves as the cathode.
Although oxidation at the anode and reduction at the cathode are simultaneous
processes, corrosion usually occurs at the anode. The cathode is almost never
destroyed. In 1824, Davy developed a method of protecting the hulls of ships from
corrosion by using zinc that can be periodically replaced. Zinc is more active than the
steel in the hull and will serve as the anode and be corroded; it is sacrificed to protect
the steel structure. The steel that would have been both the anode and cathode
normally serves as the cathode. This is called cathodic protection. Pipe lines are
similarly protected by the more active metal magnesium. Sometimes electric currents
are maintained in short sections of pipe lines with a length of similar metal wired to
serve as the sacrificial anode.
Corrosion is a major problem that must be solved in order to effectively utilize metals.
Iron combines with oxygen in the air forming iron oxide (rust), eventually destroying
the usefulness of the metal. Fortunately, some metals, such as aluminum and
chromium, form a protective oxide coating that prevents further oxidation (corrosion).
Similarly, copper combines with sulfur and oxygen forming the familiar green patina.
Understanding the chemistry of metals leads to the development of methods to reduce
and prevent corrosion. Chromium atoms are about the same size as iron atoms and
can substitute for them in iron crystals. Chromium forms an oxide layer that allows
stainless steel to resist corrosion. Metals can be painted or they can be coated with
other metals; galvanized (zinc coated) steel is an example. When these two metals are
used together, the more active zinc corrodes, sacrificing itself to save the steel.

Cast Iron:If the percentage of carbon in iron is more than 2% (Generally It possesses from 1.8
to 4.2 % carbon), it is known as cast iron. It is brittle and cannot withstand suddenly
applied loads. Iron is not an alloy; it is the purest form of element Fe. It is soft,
malleable and ductile having BCC structure at room temperature. Basically, cast iron
is an alloy of iron and carbon. Its carbon and silicon content is much higher than that
of steel. Due to the high, Percentage of carbon, silicon and impurities, cast iron lacks
plasticity, i.e. it cannot be forged, rolled, drawn, extruded or pressed. It is only shaped
by melting, casting and machining to the final shape. Since, casting is the only
process of producing cast iron components, thus this material is known as cast iron.

However, cast iron is brittle and strength is inferior to steel. In an industry cast iron is
used extensively due to the following reasons.
It is the cheapest available material.
It can be easily cast to different shapes.
It is easily machinable.
It possesses good compressive strength.
As such it is used for making frames, tables and beds of machine tools. It is abrasion
resistant, possess good damping ability.
The two common forms of cast iron are Grey cast iron and white cast iron.
Grey Cast Iron:On fracture it gives Grey colour. Thus it is known as Grey cast iron. Grey fracture in
Grey iron is produced due to the presence of free carbon in the form of graphite. Gray
iron basically is an alloy of carbon and silicon with iron. It contains 2.5-3.8 % C, 1.12.8 % Si, 0.4-1 % Mn, 0.15 % P and 0.10 % S. Gray cast iron possesses lowest
melting point of the ferrous alloys (1130 0 - 12500 C). It also possesses high fluidity
and hence it can be cast into complex shapes and thin sections. It possesses better
machinability than steel.
White Cast Iron (Mottled Iron):White cast iron derives its name from the fact that its freshly broken surface shows a
bright white fracture. Unlike gray iron, white cast iron has almost all its carbon
chemically bonded with the iron-as iron carbide, Fe 3C. Iron carbide is very hard and
brittle constituent. White cast iron under normal circumstances is brittle and not
machinable. Thus, it possesses excellent abrasive wear resistance. The white cast iron
contains 1.8-3.6 % C, 0.5-2.0 % Si, 0.2-0.8 % Mn, 0.18 % P and 0.10 % S. The
solidification range of white iron is 2550-2065 0F.

Carbon Steel (CS): It is an alloy of iron and carbon, containing less than 1.7% of carbon. (Generally it
possesses form 0.10-1.5% C.). It also contains substantial amounts of silicon and
manganese on the basis of chemical composition.
It is the most widely used engineering material. It has relatively limited corrosion
resistance. Its a very useful material in chemical, petrochemical industries. Its
content has very limited alloy content, usually less than 2 percentage of the total
additions. These levels of alloying additions do not produce any remarkable changes
in general corrosion behavior. Boron may be added to improve hardenability.
Composition of a typical Carbon Steel:C%
Cr %
Ni %
Mo %
1.0 max 0.4 max 0.5 max

0.25 max

Cu %

Si %

Mn %

Fe %

0.50 max

0.06 max

1.0 max

Bal.

Carbon steels corrosion resistance is less than the other steel due to small percentage
of corrosion resistant element chromium and nickel. Types of corrosion in C.S. can
be classified as under: -Uniform corrosion.

-Soil corrosion.
-Erosion corrosion.
-Pitting and crevice corrosion.
-Electro- chemical corrosion.
Only low carbon steel is considered for resistance to corrosion which has more
corrosion resistance than the other groups. CS is hardly worth considering for
resisting attack by very aggressive chemicals. CS is successfully utilized in the
condition of severe atmospheric and water attack. Carbon steel performs well in dry
rural atmosphere but the rate of corrosion increase quickly in industrial atmosphere.
We can increase the corrosion resistance of CS against atmosphere contact by
providing paint on that of the surface.
Application: We are using CS in the handling of C6H6 (Benzene), toluene (without acid content),
ODCB, H2, CL2, CO, NB, Aniline, TDA (Toluene diamine), MTD (Meta toluene
diamine), HCL, gas, boiler feed water, cooling water, steam, N2. It can use to handle
dry phosgene only. In wet phosgene the presence of moisture created hydrochloric
acid and formation of oxide takes place causes rapid corrosion of the metal.
C.S. can handle dry chlorine not wet chlorine. As in dry chlorine, moisture presence is
very few in percentage. So, No corrosion takes place as the chances of formation of
Ferric Hydroxide Fe(OH)2 is less. But in wet chlorine presence of moisture forms
oxide with C.S. and hence results into corrosion of C.S.
Carbon Steel can be classified into the following three categories:
Mild Steel: Mild steel is also known as low carbon steel. Carbon contents in mild steel lies
between 0.05 to 0.3 %. Mild steels do not respond to hardening. These steels are
soft, malleable, ductile and possess good forming properties. Mild steel is used for
making wires, sheets, structural sections, bolts, nuts, rivets, plates, screws and general
purpose shafts.
Dead Mild steel containing 0.005-0.15 % C has tensile strength of 390 N/mm2 and a
hardness of about 115 BHN It is used for making steel wires, sheets, rivets, screws,
pipe, nail and chain.
Mild steel containing 0.15-0.20% C has a tensile strength of 420 N/mm 2 and hardness
125 BHN. It is used for making camshafts, sheets and strips for fan blades, welded
tubing, forging, drag lines etc.
Mild steel containing 0.20-0.30% C has a tensile strength of 555 N/mm 2 and a
hardness of 140 BHN. It is used for making valves, gears, crankshafts, connecting
rods, small forgings etc.
Medium Carbon Steel: An alloy of iron and carbon containing carbon between 0.30 to 0.70 percentages is
known as medium carbon steel. It is stronger than mild steel, possesses greater tensile
strength and hardness. It is easily workable and can be rolled, forged and welded. It
is used for making stronger nuts, bolts, forging, steel sections, wires, ropes, hammers.

Steels containing 0.35-0.45% C have a tensile strength of about 750 N/mm 2 they are
used for making: Connecting rods, Wires and rods, spring clips, Gear shafts, Key
stocks, Small and medium forgings etc.
Steels containing 0.45-0.55% C have a tensile strength of about 1000N/mm 2 and are
used for making parts those are to be subjected to shock and heavy reversals of stress
such as Crank pins on heavy machines, Crankshafts, Spline shafts etc. Steels
containing 0.6-0.7% C have a tensile strength of 1230 N/mm 2 and a hardness of 400450 BHN. Such steels are used for making: Plate punches, set screws, self tapping
screws, valve springs, cushion rings, thrust washers etc.
High Carbon Steel: The percentage of carbon in high carbon steel is laid between 0.70 to 1.50%.
Increase of carbon content in steel increases strength, hardness and wear resistance.
This steel responds fairly well to heat treatment. It is mainly used for metal cutting
tools, punches, small drills.
Steels containing 0.7-0.8 % C have a tensile strength of about 140 N/mm2 and a
hardness of 450-500 BHN. These steel are used for making: cold chisels, wrenches,
jaws and vises, pneumatic drill bits, wire and structural work, shear blades, hacksaws
etc.
Steels containing 0.8-0.9 % C have a tensile strength of about 660 N/mm2 and a
hardness of 500-600 BHN. These steel are used for making: Rock drills, circular
saws, machine chisels, punches and dies, leaf springs etc.
Steels containing 0.90-1.00 % C have a tensile strength of about 580 N/mm2 and a
hardness of 550-600 BHN. These steel are used for making: punches and dies, springs
(Leaf and coil), keys, pins, shear blades etc.
Steels containing 1.0-1.1 % C are used for making: machine tools, mandrels, taps etc.
Steels containing 1.1-1.2 % C are used for making: Taps, thread metals dies, twist
drills, knives etc.
Steels containing 1.2-1.3 % C are used for making: Files, metal cutting tools, reamers
etc.
Steels containing 1.3-1.5 % C are used for making: Metal cutting saws, paper knives,
tools for turning chilled iron etc.

Stainless Steel:When 11.5 % or more chromium (Cr) is added to iron, a fine film of chromium oxide
forms spontaneously on the surface exposed to air. The film acts as a barrier to retard
further oxidation, rust or corrosion. As this steel cannot be stained easily, it is called
stainless steel. Stainless steel (SS) includes a large number of different alloys.
However, modern SS is principally an alloy of iron and chromium, known as straight
chromium steel.

Stainless steels are commonly grouped into three metallurgical classes: (a) Martensite SS
It contains 10-16 % Cr so its corrosion resistance is less than the other groups.
Because of the higher carbon to chromium ratio, martensitic stainless steels are the
only types hardenable by heat treatment. Martensitic stainless steels can be cold
worked without difficulty, especially with low carbon content, can be machined
satisfactorily, have good toughness, show good corrosion resistance to weather and
to some chemicals and are easily hot worked.
(b) Ferritic SS
This group has 16-18 % Cr and Si 0.6 % max, nickel is also minor so its corrosion
resistance is less than the other groups. Their principle usages are in heat
processing equipment where resistance to scaling is important, but strength and
hardness is less. Types 442 and 446 are capable of sustaining the operation at
temperature up to 9800C and 10950C.
Ferritic stainless steels have a low carbon to chromium ratio. This eliminates the
effects of thermal transformation and prevents hardening by heat treatment. Ferrite
steels are more corrosion resistance than martensitic steels.
(c) Austenitic SS
They possess the highest corrosion resistance of all the stainless steels. They are
non-magnetic so that they can be easily identified with a magnet.
Based on their microstructures, each of the classes has different welding requirements.
C %
0.15 max
max
1.0-1.2

Mn %
0.5max

Si %
0.75max

Cr %
14-18

Ni %
2.0max

ANNEALED STRUCTURE
Pearlitic

0.35-0.5

0.75max

16-18

0.5max

Pearlitic carbide

0.09-0.2

1.25max

0.6max

16-18

7-9

0.15max
0.6-0.8
0.1-0.2

2.0max
0.5-1.0
1.0-1.5

0.75max
0.4max
0.6max

18-20
10-16
16-18

10-14
-

Austenite
Austenitic
Martensitic
Ferritic

The structural condition known as austenite is favourable to the production of a tough

and ductile weld, capable of withstanding considerable stress without fracture. Hence,
for corrosion resistance and for a high degree of heat resistance austenitic stainless
steels are used in welded assemblies in preference to ferritic or martensitic stainless
steels. (Austenitic stainless steels, except for the free-machining grades, are more
weldable than the ferritic and martensitic stainless steels).
Composition of standard stainless steel is given below in the table.
TYPE C % Mn % Si % Cr %
Ni %
P% S %
304
0.08
2.0
1.0
18-20
8-12
0.045 0.03
304L
0.03
2.0
1.0
18-20
8-12
0.045 0.03
316
0.08
2.0
1.0
16-18
10-14
0.045 0.03
316L
0.03
2.0
1.0
16-18
10-14
0.045 0.03

OTHERS
2-3MO
2-3MO

Above composition are of austenitic types. In above table, for some tubemaking
processes, the nickel content of certain austenitic types must be slightly higher than
shown.
SS 304: SS acquires the property of corrosion resistant mainly by present of chromium. The
chromium forms a layer of chromium oxide which gives resistance to corrosion. But
due to presence of 0.08 % C (carbon) into SS 304 has got more affinity towards
chromium and forms chromium carbide in intergranual region and chromium gets
depleted. Hence SS 304 looses much of its corrosion resistance properties.
SS 304 L: In SS 304 L carbon content is reduced from 0.08 % to 0.03 %. The formation of
chromium carbide is less and thereby chromium is let to do its job. Hence SS 304 L
can withstand more corrosion resistant than SS 304.
SS 316: The carbon content in SS 316 is similar to SS 304.Molybdenum of 2-3 % is added in
SS 316 against no content of molybdenum in SS 304 and SS 304 L. here molybdenum
has got more affinity towards carbon than chromium. So it forms molybdenum
carbide and let the chromium to do its job. Hence, SS 316 has more corrosion
resistance than SS304 type.
SS 316 L: This contains the same composition of SS 316 except the carbon content is reduced to
0.03 % form 0.08 %. Hence, SS 316 L has more corrosion resistance than SS 316.
Application: We are using SS 316 L for handling H2SO4 (Sulphuric acid). We are also using SS 304
L for handling HNO3 (Nitric acid) at only 50 % or below concentration. At 50 %
concentration HNO3 has affinity toward molybdenum and SS 316 contains 2-3 % Mo
may form molybdenum carbide. So, rapid corrosion takes place in case of SS 316. AS
SS 304 L has lower percentage of carbon than SS 304 hence formation of chromium
carbide is less, corrosion is less.
We use SS in valves, fasteners, pump shafts, impeller and other parts in water and
waste water treatment plant. S.S. 316L is used to handle spent acid, red water, yellow
water, crude DNT, MTD, acidic toluene due to low carbon contents and high
chromium element. S.S. 316L has been used in DM plant. SS material is used in
almost all the shafts because of its good resistance against corrosion and also good
machinability. S.S.316L is also used at handling CO.
A useful grouping can be done as below:Element which tend to form carbides: - chromium, tungsten, molybdenum, vanadium,
and manganese.
Elements which tend to graphitic carbide: - aluminum, silicon and nickel.
Element which tend to stabilize austenite: - manganese, nickel and cobalt.
Element which stabilize ferrite: - silicon, chromium, tungsten and molybdenum.

Effects of Alloying Elements On Steel: -

Manganese:Manganese percentage in commercial steel varies from 0.13 to 0.8 percentages. It

reduces oxides and counteracts the harmful effects of sulphur in iron by forming
manganese sulphide. If manganese is increased beyond 1.8 percentage, the steel tends
to become air hardened. It imparts toughness and resistance to abrasion. It contributes
markedly to strength and hardness (but to a lesser degree than carbon). It lowers both
ductility and weldability, if it is present in high percentage with high carbon contents
in steel.
Silicon: It forms solid solution with ferrite and refines the grains. It is a strong deoxidizer and
a fairly effective hardener. It raises the critical temperature when slowly cooled. It
eliminates the formation of blow holes in steel castings. It improves oxidation
resistance and strengthens the low alloy steels.
Chromium: Chromium forms the corrosion resistant chrome oxide at high temperature. If
chromium content is increased, the corrosion protection increases. When the
chromium level reaches 25 to 30 percentage the passivity of the protective film is very
high and high temperature oxidation resistant is maximized due to high chromium
content may produce problem in fabricability or alloy stability. It joins with carbon to
form chromium carbide, thus adds to depth hardenability with improved resistance to
abrasion and wear.
Nickel: It increases the strength of steel without affecting its ductility. This steel has high
tenacity, good shock and fatigue resistance. It increases abrasion resistance, creep
resistance and corrosion resistance in steel. It increases toughness and resistance to
impact, also distortion is lesser during quenching. It also lowers the critical
temperatures of steel and widens the range of successful heat treatment. It does not
unite with carbon.
Carbon: It is an essential constituent of all steels. As the percentage of carbon increases,
hardness of steel also increases. 0.8 percentage carbon steel attains maximum
hardness due to the formation of 100-percentage pearlite in annealed or normalised
state or martensite in hardened state. Above 0.8 percentage carbon, steel becomes
increasingly brittle due to cementite. It forms hard complex carbides with iron,
chromium, tungsten and vanadium, resulting in increase of strength, wear resistance
and hardness. Thus carbon contents in the steel direct affects hardness, tensile
strength, machinability, melting point.
Molybdenum: In presence of carbon, it forms complex carbides Fe3Mo6C, Fe2Mo2C6 and Mo2C.
molybdenum increase hardness, hardenability, creep resistance and strength at high
temperature. It makes steel a fine grained and also forms abrasion resisting particles.
Sulphur and Phosphrous: Sulphur forms a weak sulphide and impacts the properties of hot shortness to steel.
Sometimes it is intentionally added in steels as it increases machinability and free

cutting qualities. Phospherous promotes cold shortness in steels. It lowers melting

point and to some extends increases machinability.
Boron:In steel percentage of boron increase hardnebility or depth to which steel will harden
when quenched, it improves yield strength and impact strength. Excess of boron
promotes hot shortness and brittleness.
Copper:Copper (0.2-0.5 %) added to steel and acts as a strengthening agent. Its percentage
increases the strength and resistance to atmospheric corrosion in steel.
Vanadium: Vanadium (0.15-0.5 %) is powerful carbide former. It stabilized cementite and
improvers the structure of the chill. It forms carbide V4C3 and acts as a scavenger to
oxides. It has a beneficial effect on mechanical properties.
Titanium: It prevents localized depletion of chromium in stainless steels during long heating. It
also prevents formation of austenite in high chromium steels. It reduces martensitic
hardness and hardenability in medium chromium steels.
Aluminum: - It acts as a deoxidizer, produces fine austenitic grain size. If present in
an amount of about 1%, it helps promoting nitriding.
Cobalt:It contributes to red-hardness by hardening ferrite. It improves mechanical properties
such as tensile strengths, fatigue strength and hardness. It refines the graphite and
pearlite. It is a mild stabilizer of carbides and improves heat resistance. It retards the
transformation of austenite and thus increases hardenability and freedom form
cracking from distortion. Thus it increases hardness, strength, and wear resistance and
promotes red hotness in combination with tungsten and chromium.

Alloy 20:A group of alloys with somewhat better corrosion resistance than stainless steels are
called "Medium Alloys" (or medium nickel alloys). A popular member of this group is
"Alloy 20", made by a number of companies under various trade names. They are
available both in wrought and in cast form. The UNS numbering system classifies
them arbitrarily as nickel alloys, although their nickel content is below 50%.
However, they do not fit the definition of a stainless steel either because they contain
over 50% alloying elements; hence their name "Super (austenitic) Stainless Steels".
All of these materials, and particularly those containing copper, are largely superior to
the 316 grade in many environments, especially under severely reducing conditions
(e.g., hot dilute sulfuric acid). In fact, Alloy 20 was originally developed to fill the
need for a material with sulfuric acid resistance superior to the stainless steels.
Composition in percentage: Ni %
Cr %
Mo %
27 to 30 19 to 22 2 to 3

Cu %
3 to 4

Mn %
1.5

10

Si %
1.5

C%
0.07 max

Alloy 20 consist chromium and nickel, and others as per above table. Chromium and
nickels percentage are higher than other S.S. materials so corrosion resistance and
temperature resistance is higher than S.S. material so we use these type of material for
manufacturing impeller and its intermediates. Plain carbon steel possesses poor
strength corrosion resistance and fatigue resistance so, large variety of alloy steels are
used in industries with higher tensile strength together with ductility.
It has good resistance to the HNO3 in all concentration up to 100 0F and also to boiling
acids up to about 50 % strength. We use this material generally for impeller, casings,
and wear rings of centrifugal pumps.

Refractories:In brief:
1) Refractories are heat resistance materials.
2) They can withstand high temperatures without being fused (5500 to 21500 C).
3) Crucible and furnace sides and bottoms containing molten metal are made up
of refractories.
4) Refractories are used as ladles for pouring metal into the mould.
5) Refrectories constitute furnace walls and roof and thus minimize heat losses.
Properties:
1) Refractories should be heat, corrosion and abrasion resistant.
2) They should possess high fusion temperature.
3) They should possess low thermal coefficient expansion.
4) They should not have chemical affinity with the molten metal they hold.
5) They should be able to withstand high temperature and pressure (due to the
weight of the molten charge).
6) They should possess heat and electric insulating properties.
Depending upon chemical constituents, acid refractories can be divided into two
categories:Those containing silica (SiO2) and
Those composed of aluminum silicate or clay.
The prime ingredient for Silica refractories or acid refractories is Silica. These
materials are well known for their high-temperature load bearing capacity.
Acid refractories: They are:
Type
Appox. Fusion
Tempurature(oC)
1)
2)
3)
4)

Silica
Aluminum silica (46% Al2O3 + 54% SiO2)
Alumina (Al2O3)
Silimanite (63% Al2O3 + 37% SiO2)

1700 oC
1780 oC
2050 oC
1900 oC

In N.C.P.L. we use kyanite based refractories suitable for acidic and sodium salt traces
effluent. Kyanite needs calcination due to high volume changes on burning. Mineral
is crushed, mixed with binders means organic binder or plastic fire- clay which is
moulded to shape in iron moulds. Finally it is burnt between 1400 0C to 15000C and

11

slowly cooled. Kyanite is found in Ranchi, Singhbhum, Hasan (Mysore), Jaipur and
Lapsa Buru. Lapsa Buru deposits are the largest in the world.
Silicon and alumina are the main constituents of acidic refractories. We use alumina
base refractories in the incinerator.

Inconel:It is basically high nickel based alloy. It is used in oxidation, carburizing organic acid,
alkalines, salt and chloride media upto 1000oF. Inconel can resistance to corrosion at
high temperature. It can also withstand repeated heating and working without
embrittlement. Inconel was originally developed for use in the milk industry as a
corrosion resistance alloy and now is much used in many chemical industries because
of its excellent corrosion resistance.
Composition:Alloy
Inconel
600
Inconel
625
Inconel
825
Inconel
200
Inconel
201
Inconel
400
Inconel
800

NI %
76

C%
0.04

Mn %
0.2

Fe %
7.2

S%
0.007

Si %
0.02

Cu %
0.1

Cr %
15.8

Al %
-

Ti %
-

Mo %
-

61

0.05

0.25

2.5

0.008

0.25

21.5

0.02

0.02

41.8

0.03

0.5

30

0.02

0.2

2.2

21.5

0.1

0.9

99.5

0.06

0.25

0.15

0.005

0.05

0.05

99.5

0.01

0.2

0.15

0.005

0.05

0.05

66

0.12

0.9

1.35

0.005

0.15

31.5

32.5

0.1

1.5

Bal

0.015

0.75

0.38

Inconel 600:This alloy has excellent mechanical properties and oxidation resistant at high
temperatures. It is used for furnace parts, heat treatment equipments, heating element,
sheathing in nuclear engineering and in the construction of chemical plant.
We use Inconel 600 for exchanger tubes in phosgenation reaction system, vapour
services in TDI block where high temperature occurs, where the possibility of
forming HCL can immediately takes place corrosion and errosion of piping. As
inconel 600 has 76 % Ni and 15 % Cr, it is having properties like high corrosion and
temperature resistance.
Inconel 800:This alloy has resistant against hydrogen sulphide corrosion and chloride, stress
corrosion cracking. It has excellent high temperature strength and immunity to
sigma phase formation. Its widely used where high temperature occurs. NCPL we
use this in at TDI vapour in tubes of condenser.

12

Nickel Alloys:"Nickel alloys" are defined as alloys in which nickel is present in greater proportion
than any other alloying element. The most important alloying constituents are iron,
chromium, copper, and molybdenum, and a variety of alloy classes is available.
This type of alloy consist extremely effective corrosion resistant material in service
environments. We use this type of alloys in liquid or gaseous environments, high
stresses occur. It is highly resistant to caustic and chloride-iron induced stresscorrosion cracking. Nickel and its alloys have excellent resistant to corrosion caused
by caustic alkalis because nickel is a ductile and hardenable matrix. It forms strong
and corrosion resistance alloys.
The principle element used in nickel base alloys is copper and chromium plus
aluminum. Chromium and aluminum provide elevated temperature oxidation
resistance. Chromium and titanium provide resistance to hot corrosion.
When the percentage of copper increases, then the improvement in the resistance of
nickel towards nonoxidizing acids also shows an increasing trend. 30 to 40 percentage
content of alloy offer useful resistance to sulphuric acid and offer excellent resistance
to all concentrations of hydroflouric acid.
Molybdenum contributes excellent resistance to stress corrosion cracking and virtual
immunity from crevice corrosion in chloride iron environments.
NICKEL200

Ni
99.5

C
0.08

Mn
0.18

Fe
0.2

S
0.005

Si
0.18

Cu
0.13

Cr
-

The usual grade of commercially pure wrought nickel is Nickel 200 (purity: Ni
>99.5%). The normal cast version is ACI CZ-100 (ASTM A494, A 743 and A744).
Whereas the wrought nickels are usually of at least 99% purity, cast nickel must
contain some alloying elements, mainly silicon and carbon to increase fluidity.
We are using Nickel 200 in N.C.P.L. It is commercially pure wrought Nickel for the
construction of chemical plant. We use nickel 200 in tubes of exchanger where high
temperature occur, particularly mainly we are using in TDI vapour services.

Monel: "Monel" is the proprietary name for one of the best known nickel alloys. Monel 400 is
the most widespread grade and contains 67% Ni and about 30% Cu (with up to 2.5%
Fe). It is a general engineering alloy with good resistance to corrosion by seawater,
mineral and organic acids, pharmaceuticals, inorganic salts, etc. This nickel-copper
alloy is ductile and tough, and can be readily fabricated and joined (welded, brazed).
Equivalent alloys to Monel 400 are nowadays available from different producers and
are indicated as "Alloy 400" (UNS N04400).
Monel K-500 has similar corrosion resistance to Monel 400 but is precipitation
hardenable for increased strength, hardness and abrasion resistance. It is, for example,
preferred for pump shafts, impellers, bolts, valve trim and spindles, doctor blades and
scrapers, etc. We are using it at TDI side in the exchangers.

13

Mo
-

Hastelloy: "Hastelloy" signifies a line of commercial alloys containing Ni, Mo, Cr, and Fe. The
B- and C-designated alloys enjoy the widest use. Hastelloy B, however, contains no
chromium and should therefore only be used in reducing environments. Hastelloy C
has excellent resistance to a very wide range of chemicals (both oxidizing and
reducing). Both alloys have a tensile strength of about 100,000 psi and a yield
strength of about 45,000 psi. Equivalent alloys to Hastelloy B and C are nowadays
available from different producers. In general, they are indicated as "Alloy B" and
"Alloy C".
Hastelloy is basically a nickel based alloy, which has good magnetic properties. So
magnetism from outer magnet is transferred to inner magnet carrier with very less
magnetic losses. Hastelloy can be cast and machined.
Composition in percentage: Types of Alloy
Hastelloy A
Hastelloy B 2
Hastelloy C
Hastelloy C 276
Hastelloy C 4

Ni %
57
Bal.
Bal.
Bal.
Bal.

C%
0.02
0.08
0.02
0.15

Mn %
1
1
1
1

Fe %
20
2
4.7
4.5
3

S%
0.03
0.03
0.03
0.03

Si %
0.1
1
1
0.08

Cr %
14.5
14.5
14.5

Ti %
0.7

Co %
1
2.5
2.5
2

Mo %
20
26.3
15.17
16.18
15.17

P%
0.04
0.04
0.04
0.04

Hastelloy-C can be cast and machined, Resistant to HNO3, free chlorine and
acid solutions of salts such as cupric and ferric. Used in chemical industry for
pumps, valves, spray nozzles etc. It has excellent resistance to pitting stress,
corrosion, cracking and to oxidizing atmosphere up to 1900 0F. This material is
used at TDI plant in isolation shell of all magnetic drive plumps. Hastelloy- C is
also used in N.B. plant as a material of construction of separators. Hastelloy-C is
also useful to store H2SO4 in all concentration provided if material cost doesnt
matter. It is used for both dry and wet chlorine handling. Since cost point of view
it is less costly than tantalum. It is difficult for machining as it is hardest material.
Hastelloy C 276 is used in isolation shells of all magnetic driven pumps due to
the reason of Nickel based alloy. Another good property of this metal is it has
good magnetic properties. Thus the magnetism transferred from outer magnet to
inner magnet carrier with very less magnetic losses.
Hastelloy A is having a high strength and ductility. Can be forged and rolled.
Resists attack of acids. Used in chemical industry for equipments such as storage
tanks and for material handling and transportation.

Aluminum and Aluminum alloy: The term "aluminum" is often used loosely as the generic term for a broad family of
materials, ranging from super-purity aluminum to alloys containing as much as 20%
of other metals. Aluminum is known for its attractive appearance, high thermal and
electrical conductivity, non-sparking characteristics under most circumstances, lowtemperature fracture toughness, and ease of fabrication. Of most importance is also
the corrosion resistance of aluminum to a variety of chemical agents, and the fact that
aluminum can be cathodically protected when used in corrosive environments.
The mechanical properties of aluminum may be improved by alloying, by strain
hardening, by thermal treatment, or by combinations of all three techniques. Copper,

14

W%
3.5
3.6
3

magnesium, manganese, silicon, and zinc are used as the major constituents in
aluminum alloys. Chromium, lead, nickel, and other elements are used for special
purposes as minor alloy constituents. Impurities such as iron affect the performance of
aluminum alloys and must be considered. Pure aluminum can be strengthened by
alloying with small amounts of Mn (up to 1.25%) and Mg (up to 3.5%). The addition
of larger percentages of Mg produces still higher strengths, but precautions are needed
for satisfactory performance. These alloys and pure aluminum can be further hardened
by cold work up to tensile strengths of 200 MPa or even 300 MPa. Higher strengths
are achieved in alloys which are heat-treatable.
Aluminum is best material for handling CNA.
Silicon Iron Alloy: Additions of 13 to 16% silicon to Cast Iron create a material with excellent corrosion
resistance to a number of media. However, it is very hard, brittle and difficult to
machine. It is subject to damage by mechanical impact and thermal shock and has to
be handled with the same care as stoneware! These materials are known as "silicon
iron", Duriron, Corrosiron (or "Silicium Gu" in German) and have been widely used
in the past instead of stainless steel, but they were available only in cast form. Adding
4% Cr yields a product called Durichlor.
Applications:
Silicon irons are still being used in a number of applications, like the handling of
mineral acids to which they have an unequalled resistance. They are very resistant to
both oxidizing and reducing environments. Resistance depends on the formation of a
Si-rich passive film. Because they are very hard, silicon irons are also good for
combined corrosion-erosion service.
Duriron is 14 % Si based alloy most corrosive resistant in sulfuric acid service. The
alloy is difficult to use as an engineering material of construction because of poor
ductility, poor impact resistance and poor fabrication characteristics. This alloy does
not have even 10,000 psi compressive strength. So it is mainly used for stacked,
towers and columns.

Tantalum: Tantalum is a very heavy metal with a density more than twice that of steel. The
physical properties of tantalum are similar to mild steel, except that tantalum has a
(much) higher melting point (3000 0C). The tensile strength is about 345 MPa (50,000
psi), which can be approximately doubled by cold work. Tantalum is easy to fabricate.
It is soft, ductile and malleable and can be worked into intricate forms. It is relatively
ductile and can be worked at room temperature in much the same manner as fully
annealed steel. It can be welded by a number of techniques but requires completely
inert conditions during welding. The metal is practically inert to many oxidizing and
reducing acids, except fuming sulfuric. It is attacked by hot alkalis and hydrofluoric
acid. However, it is very susceptible to hydrogen pickup and embrittlement.
The major uses are not in high temperature area. Its corrosion resistance and electrical
properties have always directed most of its use into chemical and electrical fields.
Tantalum is one of the most-if not the most- corrosion resistant metals available. It is
also having a higher heat transfer co-efficient. It is only attacked by hydrofluoric acid,
alkalies, and hot, concentrated sulfuric of phosphoric acid. However it is susceptible
to hydrogen embrittlement under certain conditions, and has poor oxidation resistance
in air above 2600C. Its cost limits its use to thermocouple pockets, heating coils,

15

bayonet heaters, coolers and condensers operating under severely corrosive

conditions. Other applications include electrodes in thermionic valves, capacitors,
surgical implants, and corrosion resistant linings in chemical industry.

Tantalum
Room temperature
Tempereture-1315 0C

Tensile strength
10000 psi

Reduction of area
%

Modulas of elasticity
106 psi

Hardness
VHN

60
13

95+
95+

27
-

155
-

Advantages:
1. Anodic film has better dielectric properties than Al.
2. Very low ductile-brittle transition temperature.
3. Very versatile aqueous corrosion resistance: inert to HCl, HNO3 , resistant to
aqua regia, perchloric and chromic acids, oxides of nitrogen, chlorine and
bromine, organic acids, H2O2 and chlorides.
Limitations:
1. Combines with most gases above 500 0C.
2. Susceptible to hydrogen embrittlement.
3. Attacked by nascent hydrogen and F2, HF, SO3 and alkalis above 5%
concentration; 98% H2SO4 above 170 0C; H3PO4 above 190 0C. Even so,
attack is uniform (no pitting).
Application: Tantalum we are using at acid resistant heat exchangers e.g. E-5012 in NOx plant. It is
the best M.O.C. for very high corrosive media. It can hadle both the dry as well as wet
chlorine but the main disadvantage is its cost is too high and availability is poor.

Graphite: General:
Carbon products have an amorphous structure, which is usually produced below 1225
0
C. Graphite is a crystalline form of carbon produced by processing at temperatures
above about 2000 0C.
Imprevious Carbon and Graphite:
Impervious graphite is manufactured by forming the desired shape from graphite,
evacuating the pores, and impregnating with a resin. The impregnation seals the
porosity. Thermal conductivity in impervious graphite heat exchangers is close to that
of copper-tube heat exchangers.
Resin Impregnates & Chemical Resistance:
Two types of resin impregnates are employed in manufacturing impervious graphite:
The standard impregnant is a phenolic resin suitable for service in most acids, salt
solutions, and organic compouds.

16

A modified phenolic impregnant is recommended for service in alkalis and

oxidizing chemicals.
However, neither type of impervious graphite is recommended for use in:
60% hydrofluoric acid.
20% nitric acid.
96% sulfuric acid.
100 % bromine, fluorine, or iodine.
An important limitation of these materials is their low tensile strength, and all
components manufactured from carbon or graphite are highly susceptible to brittle
fracture by mechanical shock or vibrations.
The graphite has outstanding thermal conductivity other than metals. Due to this it
makes heat transfer in column and exchangers. Another feature, as it has low coefficient of expansion about 20 to 30 % less of iron due to this high thermal
conductivity and low modulus of elasticity combines to produce the exceptional
resistance to thermal shock.
Another advantage of graphite differs from metals is that it does not depend on a
surface film for corrosion protection and also does not exhibit a definite measurable
corrosion rate. It is there for less sensitive to variation factors such as solution
contaminates aeration and change in solution as it can handle both strong and alkaline
solutions.
Main disadvantage of graphite is highly brittleness.
Applications:
Impervious graphite is almost completely inert to all but the most severe oxidizing
conditions. This property, combined with excellent heat transfer, has made impervious
carbon and graphite not only very popular in heat exchangers, but also for a number
of other services:
- piping.
- Pumps.
- Valves.
- Brick lining for process or storage vessels.
- "inert" anode material in electrochemical processes.
- ring packing for columns.
It is used in 67 dept C-6711 and E-6712 of TDI. Can used in HCL as an exchanger
and column.

Glass: Glass manufacture:

Raw material is SiO2, H2BO3, Na2CO3, K2CO3, CaCO3, MgCO3, dolomite, Pb3O4,
aluminum silicate etc. Mix these oxides and/of salts and melt in a furnace at 14001500 0C. Shape the glass as required by a suitable method, at a temperature as few
hundred degrees lower and afterwards cool to room temperature in such a way as to
eliminate almost all stresses.
Types of Glass:

17

There are number of general families of glasses, some of which have many hundreds
of variations in compositions.
Soda-Lime Glasses: - The soda lime family is the oldest, lowest in cost, easiest to
work, and most widely used. It accounts for about 90 percent of the glass used. Sodalime glasses have only fair to moderate corrosion resistance and are useful at
temperature up to about 860 0F (annealed) and 480 0F (tempered). Thermal expansion
is high and thermal shock resistance is low compared with other glasses. These are the
glass of ordinary windows, bottles and tumblers.
Borosilicate Glasses: - Borosilicate glasses are most versatile of the glasses. They are
noted for their excellent chemical durability, for resistance to heat and thermal shock,
and for low coefficient of thermal expansion. There are six basic kinds. The low
expansion type is best known as Pyrex ovenware. The low electrical loss types have a
dielectric loss factor second only to fused silica and some grade of 96 percent silica
glass. Sealing types, including the well known Kovar, are used in glass to metal
sealing applications. Optical grades, which are referred to as crowns, are characterized
by high light transmission and good corrosion resistance. Ultraviolet-transmitting and
laboratory apparatus grades are the two other borosilicate glasses.
Because of wide range of types and compositions, borosilicate glasses are used in
such products as sights and gages, piping, seals to low-expansion metals, telescope
mirrors, electronic tubes, laboratory glassware, ovenware and pump impellers.
Glass lining:General:
Glass fused onto metals forming coatings are widely used today in the chemical and
food industries, as well as others, because of resistance to a wide variety of chemicals
and corrosive solutions. One of the major uses for glass linings is in the handling of
strong acids (hydrofluoric acid is the exception). Glass linings are not resistant to hot
concentrated bases. A definite disadvantage of glass linings is, of course, brittleness
and easy breakage. However, small breaks and pinholes can be repaired by tantalum
plugs. Products that will adhere or stick to walls of metal equipment will not adhere to
glass linings in many instances. This is a definite advantage of using glass linings.
Glass-lined piping reactors, storage tanks, and many other pieces of equipment are
available to industry.
Production of Glass-Lined Equipment:
Glass linings are produced as follows:
1. A special grade of steel is selected that has low gas content, thus reducing the
amount of gas that can be expelled during firing. (Escaping gas can cause
pinholes to be formed in the glass lining.)
2. The steel is sandblasted and/or pickled for cleanliness.
3. Powdered glass is spread evenly over the steel surface and heated to 1400 to
1600 0F (760 to 871 0C).
4. The glass flows and bonds to the steel.
Generally, two types of glass are used. A borosilicate glass provides the best bond to
the steel. This is followed by a high-silica glass that has better acid resistance.
The glass could have high utility in sulfuric acid service. It can be used almost all
concentration and above all boiling point. MSGL (Mild steel glass lining) used in

18

SAC plant is an example of this. Main disadvantage of glass is low strength, little, low
ductility and brittleness.
Glass equipment:
Chemical processes for liquid-liquid or liquid-gas reactions can be carried out in glass
equipment designed for the purpose by the glass manufacturer responding to
requirements of the customer. Glass would be used when a need exists for corrosion
resistance, product purity, or observation of the process. In using glass for major
processes, restrictions of rated pressure, temperature, or size must be recognized to
assure the equipment selected will do the intended job. Assuming the choice is made
for glass-based process units, a wide variety of standard products as well as specialty
items are readily available for reacting, absorbing, distilling, extracting, rectifying, or
crystallizing operations. In addition, standardized units can be furnished preassembled or on-site erected for many of these processes.
We are having Glass equipments in NOx plant.

Ceramics:The word ceramics has been derived from the Greek word Keramos. Broadly
ceramics can be classified into the three groups Clays, Glasses and Refractories.
Literally it means potters earth or clay. These days this word does not mean clay
only, but includes a wide variety of substances like glass, stones, concrete, abrasives,
porcelain, enamels, non- metallic magnetic materials, dielectric insulators and
refractories. The common characteristic feature of all these materials is that they all
are the compounds of metals and non- metals.
Types of Ceramics: - There are a great number of different types of ceramic materials
and these may be grouped according to their method of production and uses.

Ceramic materials
Glasses

Clay products

Refractories

Abrsives

Glasses

Structural clay products

Fire clay

Glass ceramics

White-wares

Silica

Cements

Advanced ceramics

Basic

special

Some common types of ceramics are: a) Whiteware which includes china and porcelain.
b) Structural clay products
c) Glass
d) Refractory materials, which are capable of withstanding very high temperature.
Examples of Ceramic materials:

19

All types of glass products including fibres.

Cements, limes, and plasters
Abrasive and some types of cutting tools
Bricks, tile, sewer and drain pipe.
Many types of electrical insulations, ferro-electrics, ferro-magnetics and
semiconductors.
Refractories for high temperature use.
Porcelain enamels and refractory coatings for metals
Dinner-ware, sanitary ware, art ware etc.
Insulating Materials: Insulating materials are those which retard or stop the flow of heat, second or
electricity through them. Some materials work as only heat insulators whereas others
work as a barrier against both the passage of heat and electricity. Insulators assure a
safe handling of heat energy and electrical power. Sound insulating materials dont
allow the sound waves to propagate through them. The acoustic insulators offer
resistance to transmission and reflection of sound waves. Sound insulators check the
flow of noise from noise producing machinery to the surroundings.
There are three types of insulations:
a) Thermal i.e. insulation against heat.
b) Electrical i.e. insulation against electricity.
c) Sound (Acoustic) insulation.
Examples of:
a) Heat insulators: Cork, fiber boards, asbestos, mineral wool, glass wool,
foamed polystyrene slabs, hollow blocks, cellular rubber ect.
b) Electrical insulators: Gases, liquids and solids, common electrical insulating
materials are- mica, asbestos, rubber, paper, synthetic resins, porcelain, glass,
cotton etc.
c) Sound insulators: Fiber boards, glass, cellular concrete, acoustic plaster and
boards, vermicul etc.
In industrial applications, the cost of the insulation is likely to be important. As the
thickness of the insulation on any surface is increased, the rate of heat flow is
decreased but the cost of the insulation is increased. The optimum thickness is the
one for which the total cost the cost of the heat lost, or gained, plus the cost of
the insulation is a minimum.
Application:
We are using LRB (Light resin bonded) mattress mineral wool as a hot insulators
and asbestose rope on the steam lines of small diameters. Whereas Polyurethane
puff as cold insulators. We are also using perlite in the cold box in CO plant.

Mineral wool or Slag wool is an aggregate of fine filaments of slag produced

by blowing air through as steam of blast furnace slag.
Asbestos is a fibrous mineral substance that is used primarily as a fireproofing
and insulation material.

20

Perlite is a light weight rocks that occur naturally as volcanic rocks or made
artificially are crushed, mixed with gypsum to form plasters.

Thermocole:Thermocole is the trade name of expandable polystyrene which was first produced
by U.S.A. during second world war.
Properties:
Colour:- It has a natural attractive snow white colour.
Density:-Its density is only 15 to 30 kg/cu.m. It is very light as it contains 98
percentage of air trapped in its pores.
Moisture Resistance:-It is highly resistant to moisture.
Chemical Properties:-It is odourless, chemically stable and fungus resistant. It is
resistant to salts, acids and alkalies. Chemical solvents like benzene attack it
readily. It is resistant to soap and bleaching agents.
Shock Resistant:-It possesses good shock resistance.
Effect Of Heat:-It is a good heat insulator upto 200c. I t burns when in contact
with flames but heat produced is less and is not a fire hazard.
Sizes:- Thermocole sheets are available in the following sizes: 10,12.5,20,25,37.5
and 50 mm thickness (11kg/cu.m.).
Application:-Thermocole has the following uses.
-Shock protecting packing medium, particularly for edge protecting packing.
-Cold insulator.
-Used as a buoyancy medium for fishing boat etc.

Rubber:Rubbers are good electrical insulating material as well as good packing materials.
Rubber is considered as a military essential. It is used in tyres, tubes, shoes, hot water
bottles, toys, power transmission, belts and many other components of daily use.
Rubber can be classified into the following three categories:- Natural rubber
- Synthetic rubber
- Rubber-like plastics.
Natural rubber is found in abundance in South Africa, Malaya, Singapore, Peru and
Srilanka. Natural rubber is of botanical origin. It possesses good strength, good
resilience and abrasion resistance. However, it is attacked readily by organic solvents.
It cannot withstand thermal changes and disintegrates easily.
Synthetic rubber is artificially produced rubber. It exhibits all the characteristics of
rubber and is capable of withstanding comparatively high temperatures.
The chemical resistance depends on the type of rubber and its compounding. A
number of synthetic rubbers have been developed to meet the demands of the
chemical industry. While none of these has all the properties of natural rubber, they
are superior in one or more ways. (Cis-) Polyisoprene and (cis-) Polybutadiene
synthetic rubbers are close duplicates of natural rubber. Hard rubber is made by
adding 25% or more of sulfur to natural or synthetic rubber and, as such is hard and
strong.

21

A variety of rubbers and elastomers has been developed for specific uses. Some of the
most common types include:
Natural Rubber
Polyisoprene
Polybutadiene
Styrene/buna S
Nitrile/buna N
Butyl/gr-i
Chloroprene/neoprene/gr-m
Chlorosulfonated Polyethylene
Polysulfide/thiokol
Silicone/polysiloxanes
Fluorelastomers
Pvc Elastomer
Epr/Epdm
A variety of rubber like plastics used as rubbers are thiokol, neoprene rubber,
ethylene, proplylene rubber, flourine rubber and silicon rubber.
Thiokol is also known as polysulphide rubber. It has good aging characteristics, good
resistance to attacks by organic solvents, oils and water. Neoprene rubber is also
known as polychoropropene rubber. It can be compounded for use at varying
temperatures. It is resistant to oils, paraffin and water. It is also abrasion resistant.
Silicon rubber possesses good strength at elevated temperatures.
Certain compounds are added to rubber to make it more useful. These compounds are
accelerators, accelerator activators, fillers, hardeners, plasticizers, pigments and
vulcanizing agents. All these elements are added to improve the properties of rubber.
Pigments are added to provide desired colour to rubber, wax, resin, vegetable oils are
the common plasticizers added to rubber to impart softness to rubber. Calcium
carbonate, barium sulphate, sealing wax imparts hardness to rubbers. They also
increase tensile strength of rubbers. Accelerators and activators reduce the
preparation time of rubber where as fillers in the form of carbon, cotton etc. increase
the strength and rigidity of rubber. The phenomenon of addition of different
compounds to achieve certain desired properties of rubber is called compounding of
rubbers.
Rubber lining of material: - Rubber lining of material means natural rubber is linned
in C.S. fabricated pipes and fittings. It is one type of cladding. It is economical
method for corrosion resistance. Rubber and elastomers are widely used as lining
materials for columns, vessels, tanks, piping, etc. In TDI pant Block 191 & 193 using
this material.
Main disadvantage of this material is it does not work in organic media.

P.T.F.E.:- (PolyTetraFluroEthylene)
Polytetrafluroethylene or P.T.F.E. is extremely inert, has very low co-efficient of
friction (without lubrication) and low thermal conductivity. It is chemically inert to
water, many chemicals and solvents and has good stability at high temperature. It has

22

excellent electrical properties. It is relatively weak and poor cold flow properties. It
may be used to 2600C (500 F).
Typical applications : Anticorrosive seals, chemical pipes and valves, bearings,
antiadhesive coatings, high temperature electronic parts.
It can hadle easily H2SO4 at all above 90 % concentration. It can also be used in
handling WNA (Weak nitric acid) upto 20 % concentration at high temperature. It can
use at high concentration provided if the temperature of the CAN is ambient.

P.P. (PolyPropylene): Polupropylenes, which are also olefins, are some what similar to higher density
polyethylenes, except that they are lighter in weight, have greater heat resistance and
rigidity, and better resistance to environmental stress cracking. They are relatively low
cost.
Polypropylenes are the first of the so called isotactic polymers, in which the
molecule is tailored to provide desired properties. The term isotactic refers to the
regularity and symmetric location of the side chains on the main molecular spine.
The characteristics of P.P. are resistant to heat distortion, excellent electrical properties
and fatigue strength, chemically inert, relatively inexpensive, poor resistance to UV
light.
Application: The material is used in Block 193 A due to the following reasons. HCL is byproduct
of main TDI product. In HCL formation there is a chance of carry over an organic
material along with HCL. Rubber line does not withstand in organic material and gets
puncture. As P.P. can withstand organic very well we have fabricated new P.P. lined
tanks and some new P.P. pipings also. So HCL is first taken in the this P.P. lined
tanks. After sampling we are transferring HCL in main storage tanks.

P.E. (Polyethylenes): Polyolefin resins, polyethylene are produced as three general types, classified by
ASTM( American Society for Testing and Materials) as:
Type I, lower density (0.910-0.925 gm/cm3)
LDPE
3
Type II, intermediate density (0.926-0.940 gm/cm )
IDPE
Type III, higher density (0.941-0.965 gm/cm3)
HDPE
All three have in common, low cost, toughness, excellent dielectric properties, color
ability, near zero moisture absorption and excellent resistance to chemicals. The
primary differences between the three types are in rigidity, heat resistance and ability
to sustain loads. In general, increasing density is accompanied by increasing stiffness,
strength, hardness and heat resistance and decreasing impact strength and resilience.
The characteristics of P.E. are chemically resistant and electrically insulating, tough
and relatively low coefficient of friction, low strength and poor resistance to
weathering.
HDPE (high density polyethylene): The high density polyethylene and polypropylene are in many ways similar for
chemical applications. A considerably improved mechanical property is obtained by

23

the use of these materials, and the chemical resistance is also greatly increased. Only
strong oxidants will attack the materials appreciably within the appropriate
temperature range. Stress cracking of the HDPE can again be a problem if proper
selection of the resin is not made. The better mechanical properties of these two
products extend their use into larger shapes, the application of the sheet materials on
the interior of appropriately designed vessels, as packing in columns, and as solid
containers to compete with glass and steel. The modulus of the polypropylene is
somewhat higher, which is beneficial in certain instances. The coefficient of thermal
expansion is less for polypropylene than for the high density polyethylene.
Fusion welding with a hot nitrogen gun is practical in the field for both materials
when the technique is learned.
We are using HDPE pipe lines in ETP palnts.

F.R.P. (Fiber Reinforced Plastic):F.R.P. is known as fiber reinforced plastic. F.R.P. was first used in aircrafts during the
First World War. Here glass fibers provide strength while the polymers reduce
brittleness. The fibers can be woven together and pressed into a material to form fiber
reinforced plastics. Superior quality F.R.P. can be produced by using high
temperature polyamide resin with pure silica fibers.
This type of F.R.P. has a crack arresting action. Consider the fracture of fiber due to
some local stress concentration. In such a composite, the matrix adhering to the fibers
tries to smoothen the stress. The pull exerted on the two parts of the broken fiber
causes shearing between the matrix and the end portion of each part. In fiber
reinforced plastics, the matrix adhere the fiber over the whole length. It results in
consequent reduction in shearing strain and the strength of materials increases.
Application: We are using F.R.P. material for scrubbing system. For phosgene, T.D.I. vapor,
caustic and other gases which contents acidic, F.R.P. is the best material because of
less cost and easy handling. It can also be used for 60 to 80 % concentration of HCL
and H2SO4. A cooling tower fan blades are made up of F.R.P.

Material of Construction of Mechanical Seal: Ceramic: - This is a super fine-grain high alumina ceramic material (99.5 % Al 2O3)
that exhibits excellent low wear characteristics. It is the best seal face material for
highly corrosive chemical services.
Metal impregnated Hard Carbon: - This is an antimony impregnated hard carbon
that is specially suited for extreme heavy duty applications involving non-corrosive
media. Boiler feed water and hydrocarbon service seals with this hard carbon as a
melting face have a much longer service life. Hard carbon exhibits better abrasive
resistance and emergency dry running characteristics.
Resin impregnated Carbon: - This is the normal rotary seal face material and the
grade of Carbon offered is obtained from the best international sources.
Recommended in most general purpose applications involving corrosive fluids, this
Carbon exhibits good resistance to thermal shock and good dimensional stability over

24

a wide temperature range. In addition, resin impregnated Carbon has low permeability
and good thermal conductivity.
Silicon Carbide: - Technologically the best seal face material to date. It is highly
resistant to thermal stress and corrosion in high temperature oxidizing atmospheres,
has low wear properties and is an ideal seal face material for the petrochemical,
fertilizer, chemical, refinery and off-shore duties. It is almost twice as hard as
Tungsten carbide, which it will eventually replace. Silicon carbide also exhibits better
dry run capabilities thus making it an ideal choice for critical duties in the nuclear and
thermal power industries.
Tungsten Carbide: - The universally accepted hard seal face that is available in two
forms- nickel bonded and cobalt bonded. Solid seal rings of Tungsten Carbide are
offered as a standard as against shrunk-fit faces with their inherent limitations.
Glass filled PTFE (GFT): - Offered as a standard seal face material on outside
mounted PTFE bellows type seals. It is recommended for extremely corrosive light
duties.
Lecrolloy: - This is a specially developed high-chrome cast steel exhibiting excellent
wear characteristics and is offered as a replacement to stellited faces. The major
advantage of Lacrolloy faces lies in the fact that faces are solid single pieces and not
deposits or coatings that are liable to peel off.
Other face materials: - Alternate face materials are available for custom seals and
other special applications. Seal faces of stainless steel with stelliting and Ni-resist are
available. Cast iron faces are also available for certain non-critical duties.

Material

Carbon, resin impregnated

Carbon, antimony
impregnated
Tungsten Carbide (6% Co.)
Silicon Carbide
Alumina Oxide (99.5%)

Compressive
Strength
N/mm2

Density
g/cm3

Modulus
of
elasticity
kN/mm2

Coefficient
of Thermal
Expansion
X 10-6/0C

Thermal
Conductivity
W/m0C

Hardness

250
350

1.83
2.15

234
262

2.88
3.96

6
8

100*
115*

4750
2750
2620

15
3.1
3.9

635
365
385

5
4.5
4.32

100
145
35

1500**
2400**
1800**

* Brinnel hardness
** Vickers hardness

25

M.O.C. used in mechanical seal assembly: 1

1.1

1.2

1.3

1.4

1.5

2
2.1

Face Materials

Max. Temp Limit

0
C

Description

Carbons
Carbon-R
Carbon-M

+275
+350

Carbon graphite, resin impregnated

Carbon graphite, antimony impregnated

Plastics
GFT
CFT

+175
+175

PTFE, glass fiber filled

PTFE, carbon filled

Metals
Bronze
Stellite
Cast Iron
Lecrolloy
Hastelloy B
Hastelloy C

+175
+175
+150
+175
+250
+250

Bronze
SS-316, stellited
Grey cast iron
Specially cromed cast steel
Hastelloy B
Hastelloy C

Metal Carbides
TC(Co)-Solid
TC(Co)-shrunk fitted
TC(Ni)-solid
TC(Ni)-shrunk fitted
SiC-solid
SiC-shrunk fitted
SiC-solid
SiC-shrunk fitted

+400
+175
+400
+175
+1650
+175
+1650
+175

Tungsten Carbide with Co binder

Tungsten Carbide with Co binder
Tungsten Carbide with Ni binder
Tungsten Carbide with Ni binder
Silicon Carbide reaction bonded
Silicon Carbide reaction bonded
Silicon Carbide sintered
Silicon Carbide sintered

Metal Oxides
Ceramics

+175

Al-oxide, 99.5 %

Secondary Seal Materials

Elastomers
Nitrile (Buna-N)
Butyl
Neoprene
EPR

Max. Temp Limit

0
C
-40 to +105
-40 to +140
-40 to +120
-40 to +190

26

Desctiption
Perbunan (nitrile-butadiene-rubber)
Butyl rubber
Neoprene rubber (chloroprene)
Ethylene Propylene rubber

2.2

Slicon
Viton
Hypalon
Fluorosilicone
Kalrez

-100 to +200
-18 to +200
-40 to +120
-70 to +205
-20 to +205

Silicon rubber
viton(Fluorocarbon rubber)
Hypalon
Fluorosilicone
Fluorocarbon rubber

Non-Elastomers
PTFE
GFT
Grafoil

-200 to +260
-200 to +260
-270 to +450

Polytetrafluoro ethylene
Glass fibre filled PTFE
Grafoil, pure graphite

The temperature limits listed are for guidance only. Viton, Kalrez Registered trade marks of Dupont,
USA. Grafoil Registered trade mark of Union Carbide Corporation, USA.

27

Srping Materials
SS-304
SS-316
Hastelloy C
Alloy-20
Monel

Description
CrNi-steel (304)
CrNiMo-steel(316)
Hastelloy C
Alloy-20
Monel alloy K 500

Hardware Materials
Steel
SS-304
SS-316
Hastelloy B
Hastelloy C
Alloy-20
Monel
Bronze
AM-350
C-42

Description
Carbon steel
CrNi-steel (304)
CrNiMo-steel (316)
Hastelloy B
Hastelloy C
Alloy-20
Monel alloy K500
Bronze
AM-350 steel
Carpenter 42

28