Python (Programming Language)

12/25/2015
Python(programminglanguage)Wikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Python(programminglanguage)
FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia
Pythonisawidelyusedgeneralpurpose,highlevelprogramminglanguage.[20][21]Itsdesign
philosophyemphasizescodereadability,anditssyntaxallowsprogrammerstoexpressconceptsin
fewerlinesofcodethanwouldbepossibleinlanguagessuchasC++orJava.[22][23]Thelanguage
providesconstructsintendedtoenableclearprogramsonbothasmallandlargescale.[24]
Pythonsupportsmultipleprogrammingparadigms,includingobjectoriented,imperativeand
functionalprogrammingorproceduralstyles.Itfeaturesadynamictypesystemandautomatic
memorymanagementandhasalargeandcomprehensivestandardlibrary.[25]
Pythoninterpretersareavailableforinstallationonmanyoperatingsystems,allowingPythoncode
executiononawidevarietyofsystems.Usingthirdpartytools,suchasPy2exeorPyinstaller,[26]
Pythoncodecanbepackagedintostandaloneexecutableprogramsforsomeofthemostpopular
operatingsystems,allowingthedistributionofPythonbasedsoftwareforuseonthoseenvironments
withoutrequiringtheinstallationofaPythoninterpreter.
Python
Paradigm
multiparadigm:objectoriented,
imperative,functional,procedural,
reflective
Designedby
GuidovanRossum
Developer
PythonSoftwareFoundation
Firstappeared 1991
Stablerelease 3.5.1/
7December2015[1]
2.7.11/
CPython,thereferenceimplementationofPython,isfreeandopensourcesoftwareandhasa
communitybaseddevelopmentmodel,asdonearlyallofitsalternativeimplementations.CPythonis
managedbythenonprofitPythonSoftwareFoundation.
Contents
1 History
2 Featuresandphilosophy
3 Syntaxandsemantics
3.1 Indentation
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Python_(programming_language)
5December2015[2]
Typing
discipline
duck,dynamic,strong,gradual(as
OS
Crossplatform
License
PythonSoftwareFoundation
License
Filename
extensions
.py,.pyc,.pyd,.pyo, [4]pyw,
Website
www.python.org
ofPython3.5)[3]
.pyz[5]
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3.1 Indentation
3.2 Statementsandcontrolflow
3.3 Expressions
(https://www.python.org/)
Majorimplementations
CPython,IronPython,Jython,PyPy
Dialects
3.4 Methods
3.5 Typing
3.6 Mathematics
4 Libraries
5 Developmentenvironments
6 Implementations
7 Development
8 Naming
Cython,RPython,StacklessPython
Influencedby
ABC, [6]ALGOL68, [7]C, [8]C++, [9]Dylan, [10]
Haskell, [11]Icon, [12]Java, [13]Lisp, [14]
Modula3, [9]Perl
Influenced
Boo,Cobra,D,F#,Falcon,Go,Groovy,
JavaScript, [15][16]Julia, [17]Nim,Ruby, [18]
Swift[19]
PythonProgrammingatWikibooks
9 Use
10 LanguagesinfluencedbyPython
11 Seealso
12 References
13 Furtherreading
14 Externallinks
History
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Pythonwasconceivedinthelate1980s,[27]anditsimplementationwasstartedinDecember1989[28]byGuido
vanRossumatCWIintheNetherlandsasasuccessortotheABClanguage(itselfinspiredbySETL)[29]capable
ofexceptionhandlingandinterfacingwiththeAmoebaoperatingsystem.[6]VanRossumisPython'sprincipal
author,andhiscontinuingcentralroleindecidingthedirectionofPythonisreflectedinthetitlegiventohimby
thePythoncommunity,benevolentdictatorforlife(BDFL).
AbouttheoriginofPython,VanRossumwrotein1996:[30]
Oversixyearsago,inDecember1989,Iwaslookingfora"hobby"programmingprojectthatwould
keepmeoccupiedduringtheweekaroundChristmas.Myoffice...wouldbeclosed,butIhada
homecomputer,andnotmuchelseonmyhands.Idecidedtowriteaninterpreterforthenew
scriptinglanguageIhadbeenthinkingaboutlately:adescendantofABCthatwouldappealto
Unix/Chackers.IchosePythonasaworkingtitlefortheproject,beinginaslightlyirreverentmood
(andabigfanofMontyPython'sFlyingCircus).
Python2.0wasreleasedon16October2000andhadmanymajornewfeatures,includingacycledetecting
garbagecollectorandsupportforUnicode.Withthisreleasethedevelopmentprocesswaschangedandbecame
moretransparentandcommunitybacked.[31]
GuidovanRossum,thecreatorof
Python
Python3.0(alsocalledPython3000orpy3k),amajor,backwardsincompatiblerelease,wasreleasedon3
December2008[32]afteralongperiodoftesting.ManyofitsmajorfeatureshavebeenbackportedtothebackwardscompatiblePython2.6and2.7.[33]
Featuresandphilosophy
Pythonisamultiparadigmprogramminglanguage:objectorientedprogrammingandstructuredprogrammingarefullysupported,andtherearea
numberoflanguagefeatureswhichsupportfunctionalprogrammingandaspectorientedprogramming(includingbymetaprogramming[34]andbymagic
methods).[35]Manyotherparadigmsaresupportedusingextensions,includingdesignbycontract[36][37]andlogicprogramming.[38]
Pythonusesdynamictypingandacombinationofreferencecountingandacycledetectinggarbagecollectorformemorymanagement.Animportant
featureofPythonisdynamicnameresolution(latebinding),whichbindsmethodandvariablenamesduringprogramexecution.
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ThedesignofPythonofferssomesupportforfunctionalprogrammingintheLisptradition.Thelanguagehasmap(),reduce()andfilter()functions
comprehensionsforlists,dictionaries,andsetsandgeneratorexpressions.[39]Thestandardlibraryhastwomodules(itertoolsandfunctools)that
implementfunctionaltoolsborrowedfromHaskellandStandardML.[40]
Thecorephilosophyofthelanguageissummarizedbythedocument"PEP20(TheZenofPython)",whichincludesaphorismssuchas:[41]
Beautifulisbetterthanugly
Explicitisbetterthanimplicit
Simpleisbetterthancomplex
Complexisbetterthancomplicated
Readabilitycounts
Ratherthanrequiringalldesiredfunctionalitytobebuiltintothelanguage'score,Pythonwasdesignedtobehighlyextensible.Pythoncanalsobe
embeddedinexistingapplicationsthatneedaprogrammableinterface.Thisdesignofasmallcorelanguagewithalargestandardlibraryandaneasily
extensibleinterpreterwasintendedbyVanRossumfromtheverystartbecauseofhisfrustrationswithABC(whichespousedtheoppositemindset).[27]
Whileofferingchoiceincodingmethodology,thePythonphilosophyrejectsexuberantsyntax,suchasinPerl,infavorofasparser,lesscluttered
grammar.AsAlexMartelliputit:"TodescribesomethingascleverisnotconsideredacomplimentinthePythonculture."[42]Python'sphilosophy
rejectsthePerl"thereismorethanonewaytodoit"approachtolanguagedesigninfavorof"thereshouldbeoneandpreferablyonlyoneobvious
waytodoit".[41]
Python'sdevelopersstrivetoavoidprematureoptimization,andmoreover,rejectpatchestononcriticalpartsofCPythonthatwouldofferamarginal
increaseinspeedatthecostofclarity.[43]Whenspeedisimportant,aPythonprogrammercanmovetimecriticalfunctionstoextensionmoduleswritten
inlanguagessuchasC,ortryusingPyPy,ajustintimecompiler.Cythonisalsoavailable,whichtranslatesaPythonscriptintoCandmakesdirectC
levelAPIcallsintothePythoninterpreter.
AnimportantgoalofthePythondevelopersismakingPythonfuntouse.Thisisreflectedintheoriginofthename,whichcomesfromMonty
Python,[44]andinanoccasionallyplayfulapproachtotutorialsandreferencematerials,suchasusingexamplesthatrefertospamandeggsinsteadofthe
standardfooandbar.[45][46]
AcommonneologisminthePythoncommunityispythonic,whichcanhaveawiderangeofmeaningsrelatedtoprogramstyle.Tosaythatcodeis
pythonicistosaythatitusesPythonidiomswell,thatitisnaturalorshowsfluencyinthelanguage,thatitconformswithPython'sminimalist
philosophyandemphasisonreadability.Incontrast,codethatisdifficulttounderstandorreadslikearoughtranscriptionfromanotherprogramming
languageiscalledunpythonic.
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UsersandadmirersofPythonespeciallythoseconsideredknowledgeableorexperiencedareoftenreferredtoasPythonists,Pythonistas,and
Pythoneers.[47][48]
Syntaxandsemantics
Pythonisintendedtobeahighlyreadablelanguage.Itisdesignedtohaveanunclutteredvisuallayout,frequentlyusingEnglishkeywordswhereother
languagesusepunctuation.Furthermore,PythonhasasmallernumberofsyntacticexceptionsandspecialcasesthanCorPascal.[49]
Indentation
Pythonuseswhitespaceindentation,ratherthancurlybracesorkeywords,todelimitblocksthisfeatureisalsotermedtheoffsiderule.Anincreasein
indentationcomesaftercertainstatementsadecreaseinindentationsignifiestheendofthecurrentblock.[50]
Statementsandcontrolflow
Python'sstatementsinclude(amongothers):
Theifstatement,whichconditionallyexecutesablockofcode,alongwithelseandelif(acontractionofelseif).
Theforstatement,whichiteratesoveraniterableobject,capturingeachelementtoalocalvariableforusebytheattachedblock.
Thewhilestatement,whichexecutesablockofcodeaslongasitsconditionistrue.
Thetrystatement,whichallowsexceptionsraisedinitsattachedcodeblocktobecaughtandhandledbyexceptclausesitalsoensuresthatclean
upcodeinafinallyblockwillalwaysberunregardlessofhowtheblockexits.
Theclassstatement,whichexecutesablockofcodeandattachesitslocalnamespacetoaclass,foruseinobjectorientedprogramming.
Thedefstatement,whichdefinesafunctionormethod.
Thewithstatement(fromPython2.5),whichenclosesacodeblockwithinacontextmanager(forexample,acquiringalockbeforetheblockof
codeisrunandreleasingthelockafterwards,oropeningafileandthenclosingit),allowingRAIIlikebehavior.
Thepassstatement,whichservesasaNOP.Itissyntacticallyneededtocreateanemptycodeblock.
Theassertstatement,usedduringdebuggingtocheckforconditionsthatoughttoapply.
Theyieldstatement,whichreturnsavaluefromageneratorfunction.FromPython2.5,yieldisalsoanoperator.Thisformisusedtoimplement
coroutines.
Theimportstatement,whichisusedtoimportmoduleswhosefunctionsorvariablescanbeusedinthecurrentprogram.
Theprintstatementwaschangedtotheprint()functioninPython3.[51]
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Pythondoesnotsupporttailcalloptimizationorfirstclasscontinuations,and,accordingtoGuidovanRossum,itneverwill.[52][53]However,better
supportforcoroutinelikefunctionalityisprovidedin2.5,byextendingPython'sgenerators.[54]Priorto2.5,generatorswerelazyiteratorsinformation
waspassedunidirectionallyoutofthegenerator.AsofPython2.5,itispossibletopassinformationbackintoageneratorfunction,andasofPython3.3,
theinformationcanbepassedthroughmultiplestacklevels.[55]
Expressions
PythonexpressionsaresimilartolanguagessuchasCandJava:
Addition,subtraction,andmultiplicationarethesame,butthebehaviorofdivisiondiffers(seeMathematicsfordetails).Pythonalsoaddedthe**
operatorforexponentiation.
InPython,==comparesbyvalue,incontrasttoJava,whereitcomparesbyreference.(ValuecomparisonsinJavausetheequals()method.)
Python'sisoperatormaybeusedtocompareobjectidentities(comparisonbyreference).Comparisonsmaybechained,forexamplea<=b<=c.
Pythonusesthewordsand,or,notforitsbooleanoperatorsratherthanthesymbolic&&,||,!usedinJavaandC.
Pythonhasatypeofexpressiontermedalistcomprehension.Python2.4extendedlistcomprehensionsintoamoregeneralexpressiontermeda
generatorexpression.[39]
Anonymousfunctionsareimplementedusinglambdaexpressionshowever,thesearelimitedinthatthebodycanonlybeasingleexpression.
ConditionalexpressionsinPythonarewrittenasxifcelsey[56](differentinorderofoperandsfromthe?:operatorcommontomanyother
languages).
Pythonmakesadistinctionbetweenlistsandtuples.Listsarewrittenas[1,2,3],aremutable,andcannotbeusedasthekeysofdictionaries
(dictionarykeysmustbeimmutableinPython).Tuplesarewrittenas(1,2,3),areimmutableandthuscanbeusedasthekeysofdictionaries,
providedallelementsofthetupleareimmutable.Theparenthesesaroundthetupleareoptionalinsomecontexts.Tuplescanappearontheleft
sideofanequalsignhenceastatementlikex,y=y,xcanbeusedtoswaptwovariables.
Pythonhasa"stringformat"operator%.ThisfunctionsanalogoustoprintfformatstringsinC,e.g."foo=%sbar=%d"%("blah",2)evaluatesto
"foo=blahbar=2".InPython3and2.6+,thiswassupplementedbytheformat()methodofthestrclass,e.g."foo={0}bar={1}".format("blah",
2).
Pythonhasvariouskindsofstringliterals:
Stringsdelimitedbysingleordoublequotationmarks.UnlikeinUnixshells,PerlandPerlinfluencedlanguages,singlequotationmarks
anddoublequotationmarksfunctionidentically.Bothkindsofstringusethebackslash(\)asanescapecharacterandthereisnoimplicit
stringinterpolationsuchas"$foo".
Triplequotedstrings,whichbeginandendwithaseriesofthreesingleordoublequotationmarks.Theymayspanmultiplelinesand
functionlikeheredocumentsinshells,PerlandRuby.
Rawstringvarieties,denotedbyprefixingthestringliteralwithanr.Noescapesequencesareinterpretedhencerawstringsareuseful
whereliteralbackslashesarecommon,suchasregularexpressionsandWindowsstylepaths.Compare"@quoting"inC#.
Pythonhasindexandsliceexpressionsonlists,denotedasa[key],a[start:stop]ora[start:stop:step].Indexesarezerobased,andnegative
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indexesarerelativetotheend.Slicestakeelementsfromthestartindexupto,butnotincluding,thestopindex.Thethirdsliceparameter,called
steporstride,allowselementstobeskippedandreversed.Sliceindexesmaybeomitted,forexamplea[:]returnsacopyoftheentirelist.Each
elementofasliceisashallowcopy.
InPython,adistinctionbetweenexpressionsandstatementsisrigidlyenforced,incontrasttolanguagessuchasCommonLisp,Scheme,orRuby.This
leadstosomeduplicationoffunctionality.Forexample:
Listcomprehensionsvs.forloops
Conditionalexpressionsvs.ifblocks
Theeval()vs.exec()builtinfunctions(inPython2,execisastatement)theformerisforexpressions,thelatterisforstatements.
Statementscannotbeapartofanexpression,solistandothercomprehensionsorlambdaexpressions,allbeingexpressions,cannotcontainstatements.
Aparticularcaseofthisisthatanassignmentstatementsuchasa=1cannotformpartoftheconditionalexpressionofaconditionalstatement.Thishas
theadvantageofavoidingaclassicCerrorofmistakinganassignmentoperator=foranequalityoperator==inconditions:if(c=1){...}isvalid
Ccodebutifc=1:...causesasyntaxerrorinPython.
Methods
Methodsonobjectsarefunctionsattachedtotheobject'sclassthesyntaxinstance.method(argument)is,fornormalmethodsandfunctions,syntactic
sugarforClass.method(instance,argument).Pythonmethodshaveanexplicitselfparametertoaccessinstancedata,incontrasttotheimplicitself(or
this)insomeotherobjectorientedprogramminglanguages(e.g.C++,Java,ObjectiveC,orRuby).[57]
Typing
Pythonusesducktypingandhastypedobjectsbutuntypedvariablenames.Typeconstraintsarenotcheckedatcompiletimerather,operationsonan
objectmayfail,signifyingthatthegivenobjectisnotofasuitabletype.Despitebeingdynamicallytyped,Pythonisstronglytyped,forbidding
operationsthatarenotwelldefined(forexample,addinganumbertoastring)ratherthansilentlyattemptingtomakesenseofthem.
Pythonallowsprogrammerstodefinetheirowntypesusingclasses,whicharemostoftenusedforobjectorientedprogramming.Newinstancesof
classesareconstructedbycallingtheclass(forexample,SpamClass()orEggsClass()),andtheclassesthemselvesareinstancesofthemetaclasstype
(itselfaninstanceofitself),allowingmetaprogrammingandreflection.
Priortoversion3.0,Pythonhadtwokindsofclasses:"oldstyle"and"newstyle".[58]OldstyleclasseswereeliminatedinPython3.0,makingallclasses
newstyle.Inversionsbetween2.2and3.0,bothkindsofclassescouldbeused.Thesyntaxofbothstylesisthesame,thedifferencebeingwhetherthe
classobjectisinheritedfrom,directlyorindirectly(allnewstyleclassesinheritfromobjectandareinstancesoftype).
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Type
SummaryofPython3'sbuiltintypes
Description
Mutable
Syntaxexample
Immutable Acharacterstring:SequenceofUnicodecodepoints.
'Wikipedia'
"Wikipedia"
"""Spanning
multiple
lines"""
bytearray
Mutable
bytearray(b'SomeASCII')
bytearray(b"SomeASCII")
bytearray([119,105,107,105])
bytes
Immutable Sequenceofbytes.
b'SomeASCII'
b"SomeASCII"
bytes([119,105,107,105])
list
Mutable
[4.0,'string',True]
tuple
Immutable Cancontainmixedtypes.
set
Mutable
Unorderedset,containsnoduplicates.Cancontainmixedtypesaslongastheyare
hashable.
{4.0,'string',True}
frozenset
Immutable
Unorderedset,containsnoduplicates.Cancontainmixedtypesaslongastheyare
hashable.
frozenset([4.0,'string',
True])
dict
Mutable
Associativearray(ordictionary)ofkeyandvaluepairs.
Cancontainmixedtypes(keysandvalues).Keysmustbeahashabletype.
{'key1':1.0,3:False}
int
Immutable Integerofunlimitedmagnitude.[59]
42
float
Immutable Floatingpointnumber(systemdefinedprecision).
3.1415927
complex
Immutable Complexnumberwithrealandimaginaryparts.
3+2.7j
bool
Immutable Booleanvalue.
True
False
str
ellipsis
Sequenceofbytes.
List,cancontainmixedtypes.
AnellipsisplaceholdertobeusedasanindexinNumPyarrays.
(4.0,'string',True)
...
Mathematics
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PythonhastheusualCarithmeticoperators(+,,*,/,%).Italsohas**forexponentiation,e.g.5**3==125and9**0.5==3.0,andanewmatrix
multiply@operatorisincludedinversion3.5.[60]
Thebehaviorofdivisionhaschangedsignificantlyovertime:[61]
Python2.1andearlierusetheCdivisionbehavior.The/operatorisintegerdivisionifbothoperandsareintegers,andfloatingpointdivision
otherwise.Integerdivisionroundstowards0,e.g.7/3==2and7/3==2.
Python2.2changesintegerdivisiontoroundtowardsnegativeinfinity,e.g.7/3==2and7/3==3.Thefloordivision//operatoris
introduced.So7//3==2,7//3==3,7.5//3==2.0and7.5//3==3.0.Addingfrom__future__importdivisioncausesamodule
tousePython3.0rulesfordivision(seenext).
Python3.0changes/toalwaysbefloatingpointdivision.InPythonterms,thepre3.0/is"classicdivision",theversion3.0/is"realdivision",
and//is"floordivision".
Roundingtowardsnegativeinfinity,thoughdifferentfrommostlanguages,addsconsistency.Forinstance,itmeansthattheequation(a+b)//b==a
//b+1isalwaystrue.Italsomeansthattheequationb*(a//b)+a%b==aisvalidforbothpositiveandnegativevaluesofa.However,
maintainingthevalidityofthisequationmeansthatwhiletheresultofa%bis,asexpected,inthehalfopeninterval[0,b),wherebisapositiveinteger,
ithastolieintheinterval(b,0]whenbisnegative.[62]
Pythonprovidesaroundfunctionforroundingafloattothenearestinteger.Fortiebreaking,versionsbefore3useroundawayfromzero:round(0.5)is
1.0,round(0.5)is1.0.[63]Python3usesroundtoeven:round(1.5)is2,round(2.5)is2.[64]
Pythonallowsbooleanexpressionswithmultipleequalityrelationsinamannerthatisconsistentwithgeneralusageinmathematics.Forexample,the
expressiona<b<ctestswhetheraislessthanbandbislessthanc.Cderivedlanguagesinterpretthisexpressiondifferently:inC,theexpression
wouldfirstevaluatea<b,resultingin0or1,andthatresultwouldthenbecomparedwithc.[65]
Pythonhasextensivebuiltinsupportforarbitraryprecisionarithmetic.Integersaretransparentlyswitchedfromthemachinesupportedmaximumfixed
precision(usually32or64bits),belongingtothepythontypeint,toarbitraryprecision,belongingtothepythontypelong,whereneeded.Thelatter
havean"L"suffixintheirtextualrepresentation.[66]TheDecimaltype/classinmoduledecimal(sinceversion2.4)providesdecimalfloatingpoint
numberstoarbitraryprecisionandseveralroundingmodes.[67]TheFractiontypeinmodulefractions(sinceversion2.6)providesarbitraryprecision
forrationalnumbers.[68]
DuetoPython'sextensivemathematicslibrary,itisfrequentlyusedasascientificscriptinglanguagetoaidinproblemssuchasnumericaldata
processingandmanipulation.
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Libraries
Pythonhasalargestandardlibrary,commonlycitedasoneofPython'sgreateststrengths,[69]providingtoolssuitedtomanytasks.Thisisdeliberateand
hasbeendescribedasa"batteriesincluded"[25]Pythonphilosophy.ForInternetfacingapplications,alargenumberofstandardformatsandprotocols
(suchasMIMEandHTTP)aresupported.Modulesforcreatinggraphicaluserinterfaces,connectingtorelationaldatabases,pseudorandomnumber
generators,arithmeticwitharbitraryprecisiondecimals,[70]manipulatingregularexpressions,anddoingunittestingarealsoincluded.
Somepartsofthestandardlibraryarecoveredbyspecifications(forexample,theWSGIimplementationwsgireffollowsPEP333[71]),butthemajority
ofthemodulesarenot.Theyarespecifiedbytheircode,internaldocumentation,andtestsuite(ifsupplied).However,becausemostofthestandard
libraryiscrossplatformPythoncode,thereareonlyafewmodulesthatmustbealteredorcompletelyrewrittenbyalternativeimplementations.
ThestandardlibraryisnotessentialtorunPythonorembedPythonwithinanapplication.Blender2.49,forinstance,omitsmostofthestandardlibrary.
AsofAugust2015,thePythonPackageIndex,theofficialrepositoryofthirdpartysoftwareforPython,containsmorethan65,000packagesofferinga
widerangeoffunctionality,including:
graphicaluserinterfaces,webframeworks,multimedia,databases,networkingandcommunications
testframeworks,automationandwebscraping,documentationtools,systemadministration
scientificcomputing,textprocessing,imageprocessing
Developmentenvironments
MostPythonimplementations(includingCPython)canfunctionasacommandlineinterpreter,forwhichtheuserentersstatementssequentiallyand
receivestheresultsimmediately(REPL).Inshort,Pythonactsasashell.
Othershellsaddcapabilitiesbeyondthoseinthebasicinterpreter,includingIDLEandIPython.WhilegenerallyfollowingthevisualstyleofthePython
shell,theyimplementfeatureslikeautocompletion,retentionofsessionstate,andsyntaxhighlighting.
InadditiontostandarddesktopPythonIDEs(integrateddevelopmentenvironments),therearealsobrowserbasedIDEs,Sage(intendedfordeveloping
scienceandmathrelatedPythonprograms),andabrowserbasedIDEandhostingenvironment,PythonAnywhere.
Implementations
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ThemainPythonimplementation,namedCPython,iswritteninCmeetingtheC89standard.[72]ItcompilesPythonprogramsintointermediate
bytecode,[73]whichisexecutedbythevirtualmachine.[74]CPythonisdistributedwithalargestandardlibrarywritteninamixtureofCandPython.Itis
availableinversionsformanyplatforms,includingMicrosoftWindows(whileWindowsXPsupportwasdroppedsince3.5,"perPEP11"[as
consideredoneofthe"littleusedplatforms"][75])andmostmodernUnixlikesystems.CPythonwasintendedfromalmostitsveryconceptiontobe
crossplatform.[76]
PyPyisafast,compliant[77]interpreterofPython2.7and3.2.ItsjustintimecompilerbringsasignificantspeedimprovementoverCPython.[78]A
versiontakingadvantageofmulticoreprocessorsusingsoftwaretransactionalmemoryisbeingcreated.[79]
StacklessPythonisasignificantforkofCPythonthatimplementsmicrothreadsitdoesnotusetheCmemorystack,thusallowingmassivelyconcurrent
programs.PyPyalsohasastacklessversion.[80]
Otherjustintimecompilershavebeendevelopedinthepast,butarenowunsupported:
GooglestartedaprojectcalledUnladenSwallowin2009withtheaimsofincreasingthespeedofthePythoninterpreterby5timesbyusingthe
LLVMandimprovingitsmultithreadingabilitytoscaletothousandsofcores.[81]
PsycoisaspecialisingjustintimecompilerthatintegrateswithCPythonandtransformsbytecodetomachinecodeatruntime.Theproducedcode
isspecialisedforcertaindatatypesandisfasterthanstandardPythoncode.
In2005,NokiareleasedaPythoninterpreterfortheSeries60mobilephonescalledPyS60.ItincludesmanyofthemodulesfromtheCPython
implementationsandsomeadditionalmodulesforintegrationwiththeSymbianoperatingsystem.Thisprojecthasbeenkeptuptodatetorunonall
variantsoftheS60platformandthereareseveralthirdpartymodulesavailable.TheNokiaN900alsosupportsPythonwithGTKwidgetlibraries,with
thefeaturethatprogramscanbebothwrittenandrunonthedeviceitself.[82]
Thereareseveralcompilerstohighlevelobjectlanguages,witheitherunrestrictedPython,arestrictedsubsetofPython,oralanguagesimilartoPython
asthesourcelanguage:
JythoncompilesintoJavabytecode,whichcanthenbeexecutedbyeveryJavavirtualmachineimplementation.ThisalsoenablestheuseofJava
classlibraryfunctionsfromthePythonprogram.
IronPythonfollowsasimilarapproachinordertorunPythonprogramsonthe.NETCommonLanguageRuntime.
TheRPythonlanguagecanbecompiledtoC,Javabytecode,orCommonIntermediateLanguage,andisusedtobuildthePyPyinterpreterof
Python.
PyjamascompilesPythontoJavaScript.
ShedSkincompilesPythontoC++.
CythonandPyrexcompiletoC.
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AperformancecomparisonofvariousPythonimplementationsonanonnumerical(combinatorial)workloadwaspresentedatEuroSciPy'13.[83]
Development
Python'sdevelopmentisconductedlargelythroughthePythonEnhancementProposal(PEP)process.ThePEPprocessistheprimarymechanismfor
proposingmajornewfeatures,forcollectingcommunityinputonanissue,andfordocumentingthedesigndecisionsthathavegoneintoPython.[84]
OutstandingPEPsarereviewedandcommenteduponbythePythoncommunityandbyVanRossum,thePythonproject'sbenevolentdictatorforlife.[84]
EnhancementofthelanguagegoesalongwithdevelopmentoftheCPythonreferenceimplementation.Themailinglistpythondevistheprimaryforum
fordiscussionaboutthelanguage'sdevelopmentspecificissuesarediscussedintheRoundupbugtrackermaintainedatpython.org.[85]Development
takesplaceonaselfhostedsourcecoderepositoryrunningMercurial.[86]
CPython'spublicreleasescomeinthreetypes,distinguishedbywhichpartoftheversionnumberisincremented:
Backwardsincompatibleversions,wherecodeisexpectedtobreakandmustbemanuallyported.Thefirstpartoftheversionnumberis
incremented.Thesereleaseshappeninfrequentlyforexample,version3.0wasreleased8yearsafter2.0.
Majoror"feature"releases,whicharelargelycompatiblebutintroducenewfeatures.Thesecondpartoftheversionnumberisincremented.These
releasesarescheduledtooccurroughlyevery18months,andeachmajorversionissupportedbybugfixesforseveralyearsafteritsrelease.[87]
Bugfixreleases,whichintroducenonewfeaturesbutfixbugs.Thethirdandfinalpartoftheversionnumberisincremented.Thesereleasesare
madewheneverasufficientnumberofbugshavebeenfixedupstreamsincethelastrelease,orroughlyevery3months.Securityvulnerabilities
arealsopatchedinbugfixreleases.[88]
Anumberofalpha,beta,andreleasecandidatesarealsoreleasedaspreviewsandfortestingbeforethefinalreleaseismade.Althoughthereisarough
scheduleforeachrelease,thisisoftenpushedbackifthecodeisnotready.Thedevelopmentteammonitorthestateofthecodebyrunningthelargeunit
testsuiteduringdevelopment,andusingtheBuildBotcontinuousintegrationsystem.[89]
ThecommunityofPythondevelopershasalsocontributedover58,000softwaremodules(asof2May2015)tothePythonPackageIndex(calledPyPI),
theofficialrepositoryofthirdpartylibrariesforPython.
ThemajoracademicconferenceonPythonisnamedPyCon.TherearespecialmentoringprogrammeslikethePyladies.
Naming
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Python'snameisderivedfromthetelevisionseriesMontyPython'sFlyingCircus,[90]anditiscommontouseMontyPythonreferencesinexample
code.[91]Forexample,themetasyntacticvariablesoftenusedinPythonliteraturearespamandeggs,insteadofthetraditionalfooandbar.[91][92]Aswell
asthis,theofficialPythondocumentationoftencontainsvariousobscureMontyPythonreferences.
TheprefixPyisusedtoshowthatsomethingisrelatedtoPython.ExamplesoftheuseofthisprefixinnamesofPythonapplicationsorlibrariesinclude
Pygame,abindingofSDLtoPython(commonlyusedtocreategames)PyS60,animplementationfortheSymbianS60operatingsystemPyQtand
PyGTK,whichbindQtandGTK,respectively,toPythonandPyPy,aPythonimplementationoriginallywritteninPython.
Use
Since2003,PythonhasconsistentlyrankedinthetoptenmostpopularprogramminglanguagesasmeasuredbytheTIOBEProgrammingCommunity
Index.AsofSeptember2015,itisinthefifthposition.[93]ItwasrankedasProgrammingLanguageoftheYearfortheyear2007and2010.[20]Itisthe
thirdmostpopularlanguagewhosegrammaticalsyntaxisnotpredominantlybasedonC,e.g.C++,ObjectiveC(note,C#andJavaonlyhavepartial
syntacticsimilaritytoC,suchastheuseofcurlybraces,andarecloserinsimilaritytoeachotherthanC).
Anempiricalstudyfoundscriptinglanguages(suchasPython)moreproductivethanconventionallanguages(suchasCandJava)foraprogramming
probleminvolvingstringmanipulationandsearchinadictionary.Memoryconsumptionwasoften"betterthanJavaandnotmuchworsethanCor
C++".[94]
LargeorganizationsthatmakeuseofPythonincludeGoogle,[95]Yahoo!,[96]CERN,[97]NASA,[98]andsomesmalleroneslikeILM,[99]andITA.[100]
Pythoncanserveasascriptinglanguageforwebapplications,e.g.,viamod_wsgifortheApachewebserver.[101]WithWebServerGatewayInterface,a
standardAPIhasevolvedtofacilitatetheseapplications.WebapplicationframeworkslikeDjango,Pylons,Pyramid,TurboGears,web2py,Tornado,
Flask,BottleandZopesupportdevelopersinthedesignandmaintenanceofcomplexapplications.PyjamasandIronPythoncanbeusedtodevelopthe
clientsideofAjaxbasedapplications.SQLAlchemycanbeusedasdatamappertoarelationaldatabase.Twistedisaframeworktoprogram
communicationsbetweencomputers,andisused(forexample)byDropbox.
LibrarieslikeNumPy,SciPyandMatplotliballowtheeffectiveuseofPythoninscientificcomputing,[102][103]withspecializedlibrariessuchas
BioPythonandAstropyprovidingdomainspecificfunctionality.Sageisamathematicalsoftwarewitha"notebook"programmableinPython:itslibrary
coversmanyaspectsofmathematics,includingalgebra,combinatorics,numericalmathematics,numbertheory,andcalculus.
Pythonhasbeensuccessfullyembeddedinanumberofsoftwareproductsasascriptinglanguage,includinginfiniteelementmethodsoftwaresuchas
Abaqus,3DparametricmodelerlikeFreeCAD,3Danimationpackagessuchas3dsMax,Blender,Cinema4D,Lightwave,Houdini,Maya,modo,
MotionBuilder,Softimage,thevisualeffectscompositorNuke,2DimagingprogramslikeGIMP,[104]Inkscape,ScribusandPaintShopPro,[105]and
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musicalnotationprogramorscorewritercapella.GNUDebuggerusesPythonasaprettyprintertoshowcomplexstructuressuchasC++containers.Esri
promotesPythonasthebestchoiceforwritingscriptsinArcGIS.[106]Ithasalsobeenusedinseveralvideogames,[107][108]andhasbeenadoptedasfirst
ofthethreeavailableprogramminglanguagesinGoogleAppEngine,theothertwobeingJavaandGo.[109]
Pythonhasalsobeenusedinartificialintelligencetasks.[110][111][112][113]Asascriptinglanguagewithmodulearchitecture,simplesyntaxandrichtext
processingtools,Pythonisoftenusedfornaturallanguageprocessingtasks.[114]
ManyoperatingsystemsincludePythonasastandardcomponentthelanguageshipswithmostLinuxdistributions,AmigaOS4,FreeBSD,NetBSD,
OpenBSDandOSX,andcanbeusedfromtheterminal.AnumberofLinuxdistributionsuseinstallerswritteninPython:UbuntuusestheUbiquity
installer,whileRedHatLinuxandFedorausetheAnacondainstaller.GentooLinuxusesPythoninitspackagemanagementsystem,Portage.
Pythonhasalsoseenextensiveuseintheinformationsecurityindustry,includinginexploitdevelopment.[115][116]
MostoftheSugarsoftwarefortheOneLaptopperChildXO,nowdevelopedatSugarLabs,iswritteninPython.[117]
TheRaspberryPisingleboardcomputerprojecthasadoptedPythonasitsprincipaluserprogramminglanguage.
LibreOfficeincludesPythonandintendstoreplaceJavawithPython.PythonScriptingProviderisacorefeature[118]sinceVersion4.0from7February
2013.
LanguagesinfluencedbyPython
Python'sdesignandphilosophyhaveinfluencedseveralprogramminglanguages,including:
Boousesindentation,asimilarsyntax,andasimilarobjectmodel.However,Boousesstatictyping(aswellasoptionalducktyping)andis
closelyintegratedwiththe.NETFramework.[119]
Cobrausesindentationandasimilarsyntax.Cobra's"Acknowledgements"documentlistsPythonfirstamonglanguagesthatinfluencedit.[120]
However,Cobradirectlysupportsdesignbycontract,unittests,andoptionalstatictyping.[121]
ECMAScriptborrowediterators,generators,andlistcomprehensionsfromPython.[122]
Goisdescribedasincorporatingthe"developmentspeedofworkinginadynamiclanguagelikePython".[123]
GroovywasmotivatedbythedesiretobringthePythondesignphilosophytoJava.[124]
Juliawasdesigned"withtruemacros[..andtobe]asusableforgeneralprogrammingasPython[and]shouldbeasfastasC".[17]Callingtoor
fromJuliaispossibletowithPyCall.jl(https://github.com/stevengj/PyCall.jl)andaPythonpackagejyjulia(https://github.com/JuliaLang/pyjulia)
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allowscalling,intheotherdirection,fromPython.
OCamlhasanoptionalsyntax,calledtwt(TheWhitespaceThing),inspiredbyPythonandHaskell.[125]
Ruby'screator,YukihiroMatsumoto,hassaid:"IwantedascriptinglanguagethatwasmorepowerfulthanPerl,andmoreobjectorientedthan
Python.That'swhyIdecidedtodesignmyownlanguage."[126]
CoffeeScriptisaprogramminglanguagethatcrosscompilestoJavaScriptithasPythoninspiredsyntax.
SwiftisaprogramminglanguageinventedbyAppleithassomePythoninspiredsyntax.[127]
Python'sdevelopmentpracticeshavealsobeenemulatedbyotherlanguages.Thepracticeofrequiringadocumentdescribingtherationalefor,and
issuessurrounding,achangetothelanguage(inPython'scase,aPEP)isalsousedinTcl[128]andErlang[129]becauseofPython'sinfluence.
PythonhasbeenawardedaTIOBEProgrammingLanguageoftheYearawardtwice(in2007and2010),whichisgiventothelanguagewiththe
greatestgrowthinpopularityoverthecourseofayear,asmeasuredbytheTIOBEindex.[130]
Seealso
IPython
ComparisonofintegrateddevelopmentenvironmentsforPython
Comparisonofprogramminglanguages
Listofprogramminglanguages
Offsiderulelanguages,whereblocksareexpressedbyindentation
PythonforS60
Cython
LAMP(softwarebundle)
LEAP(softwarebundle)
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Furtherreading
19/20
12/25/2015
Downey,AllenB(May2012).ThinkPython:HowtoThinkLikeaComputerScientist(Version1.6.6ed.).ISBN9780521725965.
Hamilton,Naomi(5August2008)."TheAZofProgrammingLanguages:Python".Computerworld.Retrieved31March2010.
Lutz,Mark(2013).LearningPython(5thed.).O'ReillyMedia.ISBN9780596158064.
Pilgrim,Mark(2004).DiveIntoPython.Apress.ISBN9781590593561.
Pilgrim,Mark(2009).DiveIntoPython3.Apress.ISBN9781430224150.
Summerfield,Mark(2009).ProgramminginPython3(2nded.).AddisonWesleyProfessional.ISBN9780321680563.
Externallinks
Officialwebsite(http://www.python.org)
Python(programminglanguage)(news://comp.lang.python)newsgrouponUsenet(alternativefreewebaccess
(https://groups.google.com/group/comp.lang.python)usingGoogleGroups)
TheHistoryofPython(blogbyGuidovanRossum)(http://pythonhistory.blogspot.co.uk/)
Pythondevelopmentlist(https://mail.python.org/mailman/listinfo/pythonlist)
Python(https://www.dmoz.org/Computers/Programming/Languages/Python)atDMOZ
Retrievedfrom"https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Python_(programming_language)&oldid=695757119"
Categories: Classbasedprogramminglanguages Crossplatformfreesoftware Dutchinventions Dynamicallytypedprogramminglanguages
Educationalprogramminglanguages Highlevelprogramminglanguages Objectorientedprogramminglanguages
Programminglanguagescreatedin1991 Python(programminglanguage) Scriptinglanguages Textorientedprogramminglanguages
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