Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
EXPRESSION
INSTRUMENT
UNIT 15
OF
MANNER,
MEANS
AND
OUTLINE
1. INTRODUCTION.
1.1. Aims of the unit.
1.2. Notes on bibliography.
2. A THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK FOR THE NOTIONS OF MANNER, MEANS AND
INSTRUMENT.
2.1. Linguistic levels involved in the notions of manner, means and instrument.
2.2. On defining manner, means and instrument: what and how.
2.3. Grammar categories: open vs. closed classes.
3. THE EXPRESSION OF MANNER, MEANS, AND INSTRUMENT: AN INTRODUCTION.
3.1. Adverbs: main features.
3.2. Manner, means and instrument in terms of other grammatical categories.
3.3. A classification of adverbs: main functions.
3.2.1. The morphological function.
3.2.1.1. Simple adverbs.
3.2.1.2. Adverb formation by means of affixation.
3.2.1.3. Adverb formation by means of compounding.
3.2.1.4. Adverb formation by means of other constructions.
3.2.1.5. Spelling and pronunciation changes.
3.2.2. The syntactic function.
3.2.2.1. The notion of adverbial phrase.
3.2.2.2. Types of grammatical functions.
3.2.2.2.1. Disjuncts.
3.2.2.2.2. Conjuncts.
3.2.2.2.3. Subjuncts.
3.2.2.2.4. Adjuncts.
3.2.2.2.4.1. Predication adjuncts.
3.2.2.2.4.2. Clause adjuncts.
3.2.2.3. Adverbs and word order.
3.2.2.3.1. General considerations.
3.2.2.3.2. Particular cases.
3.2.3. The semantic function.
3.2.3.1. Disjuncts.
3.2.3.1.1. Style disjuncts: manner and modality, and respect.
3.2.3.1.2. Content disjuncts: certainty and evaluation.
3.2.3.2. Conjuncts.
1/29
3.2.3.3. Subjuncts.
3.2.3.3.1. Wide orientation subjuncts: viewpoint and courtesy.
3.2.3.3.2. Narrow orientation subjuncts: item, intensifier, focus.
3.2.3.4. Adjuncts.
3.2.3.4.1. Space.
3.2.3.4.2. Time.
3.2.3.4.3. Degree.
3.2.3.4.4. Interrogative.
3.2.3.4.6. Modality.
3.2.3.4.7. Others.
3.2.3.4.8. Process: manner, means and instrument.
4. THE EXPRESSION OF MANNER.
4.1. By means of adverbs and adverbial phrases.
4.2. By means of other adjuncts.
4.3. By means of prepositional phrases.
4.4. By means of noun phrases.
4.5. By means of clause structures.
5. THE EXPRESSION OF MEANS.
5.1. By means of adverbs and adverbial phrases.
5.2. By means of prepositional phrases.
5.3. By means of noun phrases.
6. THE EXPRESSION OF INSTRUMENT.
7. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS.
8. CONCLUSION.
9. BIBLIOGRAPHY.
2/29
1. INTRODUCTION.
1.1. Aims of the unit.
Unit 15 is primarily aimed to examine the different ways of expressing manner, means, and
instrument in English, namely achieved by means of adverbs, and also by means of prepositions,
noun phrases and other grammatical structures. In doing so, the study will be divided into eight
main chapters. Thus, Chapter 2 provides a theoretical framework for the notions of manner, means
and instrument, and in particular, of those grammatical categories which are involved in it.
Moreover, within the field of grammar linguistic theory, some key terminology is defined in
syntactic terms so as to prepare the reader for the descriptive account on the expression of manner,
means and instrument in subsequent chapters.
Chapter 3, then, presents and defines the notion of manner, means and instrument mainly regarding
adverbs and other grammatic al categories involved in it, such as prepositions, and other means.
Moreover, adverbs are classified according to their three main functions: morphological, in terms of
adverb formation processes (one-word phrase, affixation and compounding); syntactic, which is
introduced by the notion of adverbial phrase, and moves on to examine adverbs as functioning as
disjuncts, conjuncts, subjuncts, and adjuncts; and finally, semantic, in terms of different types of
adverbs (place,time, degree, and others).
This syntactic and semantic classification allows us to frame the notions of manner, means and
instrument within the label of process adjuncts. Once established within the linguistic framework,
we are ready to examine them individually. Therefore, Chapter 4 offers a descriptive account of the
expression of manner by means of adverbs or adverbial phrases, other adjuncts, prepositional
phrases, noun phrases and other types of phrase structures. Similarly, Chapter 5 does the same on
the expression of means, and Chapter 6 on the expression of instrument.
Chapter 7, then, provides an educational framework for the expression of manner, means and
instrument within our current school curriculum, and Chapter 8 draws a conclusion from all the
points involved in this study. Finally, in Chapter 9, bibliography will be listed in alphabetical order.
3/29
years; also, another essential work is that of Rodney Huddleston, English Grammar, An Outline
(1988).
Other classic references which offer an account of the most important and central grammatical
constructions and categories in English regarding the expression of manner, means, and instrument,
are Quirk & Greenbaum, A University Grammar of English (1973); Thomson & Martinet, A
Practical English Grammar (1986); and Greenbaum & Quirk, A Students Grammar of the English
Language (1990).
More current approaches to notional grammar are David Bolton and Noel Goodey, Grammar
Practice in Context (1997); John Eastwood, Oxford Practice in Grammar (1999); Sidney
Greenbaum, The Oxford Reference Grammar (2000); Gerald Nelson, English: An Essential
Grammar (2001); Rodney Huddleston and Geoffrey K. Pullum, The Cambridge Grammar of the
English Language (2002); and. Angela Downing and Philip Locke, A University Course in English
Grammar (2002).
2.
Before describing in detail the different ways of expressing manner, means, and instrument in
English, it is relevant to establish first a theoretical framework for these notions, since they must be
described in grammatical terms. In fact, this introductory chapter aims at answering questions such
as where these notions are to be found within the linguistic level, what they describe and how and
which grammar categories are involved in their description at a functional level. Let us examine,
then, in which linguistic level these notions are found.
2.1. Linguistic levels involved in the notions of manner, means, and instrument.
In order to offer a linguistic description of the notion of manner, means, and instrument, we must
confine it to particular levels of analysis so as to focus our attention on this particular aspect of
language. Yet, although there is no consensus of opinion on the number of levels to be
distinguished, the usual description of a language comprises four major components: phonology,
grammar, lexicon, and semantics, out of which we get five major levels: phonological,
morphological and syntactic, lexical, and semantic (Huddleston, 1988).
First, the phonology describes the sound level, that is, consonants, vowels, stress, intonation, and so
on. Secondly, since the two most basic units of grammar are the word and the sentence, the
component of grammar involves the morphological level (i.e. the internal structure of words) and
the syntactic level (i.e. the way words are placed in th e sentence). Third, the lexicon, or lexical
level, lists vocabulary items, specifying how they are pronounced, how they behave grammatically,
4/29
and what they mean. Finally, another dimension between the study of linguistic form and the study
of meaning is semantics, or the semantic level, to which all four of the major components are
related. We must not forget that a linguistic description which ignores meaning is obviously
incomplete, and in particular, when dealing with the notions of manner, means, and instrument.
Therefore, we must point out that each of the linguistic levels discussed above has a corresponding
component when analysing these notions. Thus, phonology deals with pronunciation of adverbs (i.e.
usually, ever; late-later-the latest); morphology deals with comparative and superlative markers
(i.e. er, -est) or the addition of suffixes to form adverbs (i.e. -ly, -wise, -wards); and syntax deals
with which combinations of words constitute grammatical strings and which do not (i.e. She wants
to come also vs. She wants to come, too).
On the other hand, lexis deals with the expression of manner, means, and instrument regarding the
choice between adverbial phrases or prepositional phrases (i.e. He drives carefully vs. He drives in a
careful manner), lexical choices regarding different types of adverbs (i.e. source, goal, agency,
modality, degree, and so on), the use of specific adverbs (i.e. intensifiers: decreasing or
increasing), or other means such as other formal realizations of these notions (i.e. a noun phrase, a
verbless clause, a finite clause, etc); and finally, semantics deals with meaning where syntactic and
morphological levels do not tell the difference (i.e. He was lying in the room- But where? This,
that, here, or there?).
adverbs, then, answer to questions such as How did he react to your proposal?: with great courtesy
(manner), by means of a bribe (means), and with a gun pointing at me (instrument).Note that the
expression of manner, means, and instrument is mainly achieved by means of adverbial,
prepositional, adjectival and noun phrases (Quirk & Greenbaum, 1973).
3.
As stated before, the expression of manner, means, and instrument will be first examined through
the category of adverbs, and then we shall offer a descriptive approach through other grammatical
categories related to it, such as prepositions, adjectives, nouns and other grammatical structures like
periphrastic phrases, idiomatic expressions or verbless sentences as possible answers to the question
of How ...?
Moreover, before we continue, we must note that, although adverbs are mainly classified in two
groups following syntactic and semantic rules, as stated before, our study will be primarily based on
the notion of process adjuncts since it is this category that is constituent or a clause or sentence and
will lead us to the expression of manner, means, and instrument further on.
6/29
In the following chapters, then, we shall examine the main issues that will provide the base for the
whole unit. Thus, (1) main features of adverbs; (2) the expression of manner, means, and instrument
in terms of other grammatical categories, (3) a classification of adverbs according to their main
functions, thus morphological, syntactic, and semantic. First, within the morphological function, we
shall examine the formation of adverbs. Second, within the syntactic function, we shall examine the
different types of syntactic organization. And finally, within the semantic function, we sha ll
examine the main issue of this unit.
Note that in languages which distinguish between adjectives and adverbs the primary difference is that adjectives modify
nouns while adverbs modify verbs. The modifiers of verbs, in turn, can to a large degree, also modify adjectives and
adverbs, so that we then extend the definition of adverb to cover modifiers of all three open classes other than nouns
(Huddleston, 1988).
7/29
(1) Another major kind of expression which can function like an adverb, that is, prepos itions, which
belong to the closed-class category and which connect two units in a sentence, specifying a
relationship between them (i.e. Adverbial: I dont like to drink out of a cracked glass; Adjective
complement: I was very grateful for your help ; and manner: the woman in the red dress).
(2) Adverbialisation (Huddleston, 1988) is also realized by means of noun phrases, although it is
not common (i.e. He came last week). However, time reference is not included in our study as a
main issue.
(3) Another kind of syntactic structure involves clause subordination, where we find two types.
Thus (a) the non-finite verb clauses (or infinitival clauses) which function as modifier of the verbal
phrase, and in which the verb is (i) an infinitive, as in He left at nine to catch the nine-thirty bus,
(ii) present participle ing, as in Hoping to see him as soon as possible, and (iii) past participle
ed, as in If urged by you, well stay in. Secondly, (b) we may find the finite content clause as
modifier of an adjectival phrase, as in I was so broke that I couldnt buy any food or The child
was playing although he was very tired.
(4) And finally, we may find another type of syntactic structure realized by verbless clauses, as in
She was shopping, unaware of the time.
Then, as we can see, all these items have the same function but belong to different grammatical
categories or class (i.e. noun, adjective, finite clauses, and so on ). We may observe that the degree
of adverbialisation is significantly less than in prepositional phrases in that although such
subordinate clauses have broadly the same function as adverbs, we do not normally find anything
like the close semantic equivalence to adverbs illustrated above for prepositional phrases.
Then, since both function and word class are relevant for our present purposes, we must examine
the expression of manner, means, and instrument through them. These expressions can be grouped
together into word classes (also called parts of speech) following morphological, syntactic, and
semantic rules but bearing in mind the phonological one when pronouncing adverbs or other
periphrastic expressions (i.e. in th e air).
8/29
9/29
(3) Interrogative adverbs (i.e. how, whither, when, whence, where, why, and so on). Aarts (1988)
points out that these adverbs are occasionally modified by intensifying postmodifiers such as on
earth and by the adverb ever.
(4) Intensifying adverbs and adverbs of degree (i.e. almost, altogether, enough, even, most, only,
quite, rather, somewhat, too, very, and so on ).
(5) Conjuncts (i.e. again, also, besides, furthermore, however, moreover, nevertheless, next,
therefore, yet, and so on).
(6) And finally, Aarts (1988) mentions other adverbs (i.e. askance, just, needs, part-time, perhaps,
piecemeal, pointblack, somehow, thus, twofold, and so on).
10/ 29
fashioned but still used in legal documents, official reports, and similar writings. Therefore we
distinguish three main types:
(a) here + preposition (i.e. hitherto, herein, hereto, heretofore, herewith, hereby, hereafter); (b)
there + preposition (i.e. therefrom, therein, thereto, therewith, thereby, thereof, thereafter); and (c)
where + preposition (i.e. wherein, whereof, wherefore,whereon, whereby, whereupon). Also, we
may find compounds of some + how, where, what, and so on (i.e. somehow, somewhere, somewhat,
etc).
11/ 29
(4) Adjectives which end in a vowel + single consonant letter l, they double the final consonant
(i.e. final-finally ; beautiful-beautifully ).
(b) Regarding phonological changes, it is worth remembering that, suffixation (the addition of ly, wise, -wards) is not only accompanied of changes in spelling but also in pronunciation. For
instance, we may observe the following changes:
(1) First, the stop consonant /k/, usually pronounced in final position (i.e. clock ), is silent when
added the suffix wise to that word (i.e clockwise).
(2) And second, the lateral consonant /l/, usually pronounced as dark l in the positive degree, turns
into clear l when suffixes are added (i.e. final-finally; beautiful-beautifully ).
adjuncts function as constituents of a clause or sentence (i.e. Sheila dances beautifully) answering
to the question How...?
3.2.2.2.1. Disjuncts.
Syntactically, disjuncts have a peripheral relation in the sentence, being somewhat detached from
and superordinate to the rest of the sentence. We identify them because most of them are
prepositional phrases or clauses which express the speakers authority for, or comment on, the
accompanying clause (i.e. Honestly , I want to go home; From my point of view, you should not go).
3.2.2.2.2. Conjuncts.
Syntactically, conjuncts have a peripheral relation in the sentence, being somewhat detached from
and superordinate to the rest of the sentence. We identify them because they serve to conjoin two
utterances or parts of an utterance, and they do so by expressing at the same time the semantic
relationship obtaining between them (listing, result, contrast, etc). Moreover, conjuncts from
different sets can appear in the same sentence (i.e. Moreover, he had in addition a headache).
3.2.2.2.3. Subjuncts.
Syntactically, as stated before, subjuncts (together with adjuncts) are integrated within the structure
of the sentence rather than being a peripheral element. However, subjuncts have a subordinate and
parenthetic role in comparison with adjuncts since they lack the grammatical parity with other
sentence elements.
3.2.2.2.4. Adjuncts.
And finally, as seen before, adjuncts function as constituents of a clause or sentence (i.e. Sheila
dances beautifully ) since they are totally integrated in it when answering to the question How...?.
They will lead us to the further classification of process adjuncts in order to develop our unit.
Adjuncts, more than other adverbials, have grammatical properties resembling the sentence
elements subject, complement and object and as such, can be the focus of a cleft sentence (i.e. It was
because of the fine that he got so furious; Who helped Sarah?).
This means that irrespective of their word order position, adjuncts function like other post-operator
elements in coming within the scope of predication ellipsis or pro-forms (i.e. He became a fireman
(complement) in 1996 (adjunct) and her wife also became a firewoman (c) in 1996 (a) vs. In 1996,
he became a fireman and so did her wife). As we can see, functioning as pro-forms or being
ellipted does not change the meaning of adjuncts.
In fact, there are four main syntactic features of adjuncts (Quirk & Greenbaum, 1973): First, they
can come within the scope of predication pro-forms or predication ellipsis, as seen above. Second,
14/ 29
they can be the focus of limiter adverbials such as only (i.e. They only want the car for an hour= for
an hour and not for longer). Third, they can be the focus of additive adverbials such as also (i.e.
They will also meet afterwards = afterwards in addition to some other time ). And fourth, they can
be the focus of a cleft sentence (i.e. It was when we stayed in Miami that we saw Julio Iglesias).
Yet, while these characteristics hold generally for all adjuncts, Greembaum & Quirk (1990)
distinguish three subcategories ranging in centrality from the obligatory predication adjunct
(functioning as an object in being both indispensable and fixed in position) to the clause adjunct
whose position is more variable and whose presence is always optional. In many cases, it is worth
seeing predication adjuncts as obje ct-related and clause adjuncts as subject-related. Hence, we
divide adjuncts in (1) predication adjuncts and (2) clause (or sentence) adjuncts.
have their fixed positio n within the sentence structure (i.e. I will always love you; I have just
sneezed; he hasnt appeared yet) whereas some English adverbs, such as now and sometimes are
free-positioned. However, it is worth pointing out that it is not sensible to establish strict rules
regarding adverb position but general considerations as follows:
(1) Following Eastwood (1999), there are three main positions in the sentence where an adverb can
go. They are called initial/front position (at the beginning of a sentence), mid position (in the middle
of the sentence) and end/final position (at the end of the sentence). We shall see many different
types of adverbs in different positions depending on syntanctic and semantic guidelines (i.e.
syntactic: I am always happy; semantic: He is playing in the garden).
Word order is normally determined by the adverb syntactic function, that is, depending on the
grammatical element it modifies. Thus, on modifying a verb, it is placed after it (i.e. they worked
very hard; he shaved really fa st); on modifying an adjective/adverb, it is placed before (i.e.
extremely good; very well), except with enough, when it is placed after it (i.e. intelligent enough;
quick enough); on modifying a sentence by means of an adverbial/prepositional phrase, it has final
position (i.e. They will go to Murcia tomorrow/in the morning ), although when found in initial
position, it implies emphasis (i.e. Tomorrow they will go to Murcia ).
(2) The most common position is the mid one, that is, when adverbs are placed close to the verb
(i.e. just, always, often, definitely, really, probably, etc). They are applied in different positions as
follows:
(a) when there is a first auxiliary (i.e. is, are, has, dont, etc), the adverbs goes after it (i.e. The
visitors are just leaving; He should never cry).
(b) If there is no auxiliary, then the adverb comes before the main verb (i.e. She always tells you the
same; they never go home on Saturdays). This position is the usual one for adverbs of frequency
(i.e. often, always, nor mally, etc) although phrases like every day, once a week or most evenings go
in initial or final position (i.e. Every day we go swimming; Theres a news summary every hour).
(c) Note that this rule is also applied in questions (i.e. Has he always hated Jenny?; Do you usually
go for a walk?).
(d) When we are dealing with the verb to be or modal verbs, the adverbs usually comes after them
(i.e. Your boss is always angry; he must certainly sleep just a few hours).
(e) When there is stress or emphasis on the main verb to be or on the auxiliary, then the adverb
usually comes before it (i.e. You certainly are right; she really has a bad day ).
(3) Final position is restricted to certain grammatical categories, such as adverbial and prepositional
phrases, and semantically, with non-essential information since emphasis places adverbs in initial
16/ 29
position. In addition, note that there can be more than one adverb or adverbial phrase in end
position (i.e. He turned up at the door entrance(place) in a wet T-shirt (manner) last night (time)).
(a) Usually a single -word adverb (i.e. hard) usually comes before a phrase (i.e. It has been a hard
day for me).
(b) Moreover, when there is a close link in meaning between a verb and an adverb, the adverb goes
next to the verb, especially with verbs of movement (i.e. come, go, move, jump, turn, etc), as in My
children go to school every day ). It is worth noting that a phrase of place comes before time (i.e.
She came here (place) last night (time)). But often two adverbial phrases can go in either order (i.e.
The concert was held at the stadium two weeks ago or two weeks ago at the stadium).
final position (i.e. normally, sometimes) and certain phrases like every day, twice a month or every
evening go in front or final position.
(d) Sentence adverbs, which are a word or phrase like certainly, probably, of course, fortunately,
etc, can go in initial, middle or final position. Sometimes we put a comma after or before the
adverb, especially in front or final position (i.e. Fortunately, the weather is fine today; Michael is
late, of course). In a negative sentence, probably and certainly come before auxiliaries (i.e. We
probably wont get there until midnight). Furthermore, the additive adverb also usually goes in
initial or middle position (i.e. Also, she wants to come; she also wants to come) whereas too and
well go in final position (i.e. She loves cats too/as well).
3.2.3.1. Disjuncts.
As stated before, semantically, disjuncts express an evaluation of what is being said either with
respect to the form of the communication or to its meanin g. They usually function as comment
words, whereby they provide the speakers comment on the content or form of the utterance (i.e.
Frankly, unfortunately, wisely).
There are two main types of disjuncts, each with subtypes. First, we have the relatively small class
of (1) style disjuncts, conveying the speakers comment on the style and form of what is being said
and defining in some way the conditions under which authority is being assumed for the
statement, which can be subdivided into (a) the expression of manner and modality, and (b) respect.
Secondly, (2) we find content disjuncts, which may relate to the expression of (a) certainty and (b)
evaluation.
3.2.3.1.1. Style disjuncts: manner and modality, and respect.
Following Greenbaum & Quirk (1990), many style disjuncts can be seen as abbreviated clauses in
which the adverbial has the role of manner adjunct. For instance, Frankly, I am tired meaning I
tell you frankly that I am tired. Sometimes, the disjunct may be realized by a clause, as in If I may
18/ 29
say so, I think your house looks awful. More often, it may be realized by other type of
constructions, such as that of non-finite clauses (i.e. to be frank, considered candidly ).
Semantically speaking, the semantic roles of disjuncts fall under two main headings: manner and
modality, and respect. Regarding (1) manner and modality, we find disjuncts such as crudely,
frankly, honestly, seriously, personally, strictly speaking, to be honest, to be precise, to put it
briefly, in all honesty, and so on. Regarding (2) respect, they often appear in metalinguistic
comments. For instance, strictly, generally, from what he said, in a word, in other words, and so on.
3.2.3.1.2. Contenct disjuncts: certainty and evaluation.
Content disjuncts may be of two kinds, first, expressing certainty, and second, expressing
evaluation in declarative clauses. Regarding (1) certainty, these disjuncts comment on the truth
value of what is said, firmly endorsing it, expressing doubt, or posing contingencies such as
condit ions or reasons, as in undoubtedly, apparently, perhaps, obviously, of course, to be sure,
which is not surprising, and so on.
Regarding (2) evaluation, these disjuncts express an attitude to an utterance by way of evaluation,
expressing a judgment on the utterance as a whole, including its subject, as in correctly, foolishly,
rightly, stupidly, certainly, unquestionably, possible, presumably, theoretically, technically,
hopefully, wrongly, wisely, and so on.
3.2.3.2. Conjuncts.
As stated before, conjuncts function as the connecting link between the sentence in which they
occur and the preceding context. Semantically, they may express listing (in the first place, secondly;
furthermore, moreover), summative (therefore, in sum, to sum up), appositive (for example, that is,
i.e., specifically, in particular), resultive (as a result, in consequence), inferential (in that case,
then), contrastive (better; on the contrary, on the other hand; however, nevertheless, yet), and
transitional references (by the way, now; meanwhile, eventually). As we can see manner, means and
instrument are not reflected in them.
3.2.3.3. Subjuncts.
In semantic terms, subjuncts work at the sentence level answering to the question How...? by
expressing viewpoint (i.e. in my view) and courtesy (i.e. please), among others. Hence, they show
their subjunct character by trying to establish a link with the rest of the sentence through a particular
relationship with one of the clause elements, especially the subject. Thus, there are two main types
of relationship: wide and narrow orientation (Greenbaum & Quirk, 1990). (1) Wide orientation
adverbs refer to (a) viewpoint and (b) courtesy; on the other hand, (2) narrow orientation adverbs
19/ 29
refer to (a) items (subject and predication), (b) intensifiers and emphasizers, and (c) focusing
subjuncts.
3.2.3.4. Adjuncts.
Semantically, adjuncts add extra information to the action or process by means of descriptions
about place (at the station), time (yesterday morning), manner (with patience/in jeans), means (by
20/ 29
bike), or instrument (with a fork ) among others. Since our study will focus on manner, means and
instrument, we shall review them in depth whereas the rest of the classification will be briefly
examined.
Following Greenbaum & Quirk (1990), we may classify adjuncts according to: (1) place (or space)
adjuncts; (2) time adjuncts, including time-position, duration and span, time-frequency, and time relationship adjuncts; (3) degree (intensifiers, emphasizers); (4) interrogative; (5) other adjuncts;
and finally, (6) process adjuncts, including manner, means, instrument, and agency, respect, and
contingency.
question. Other interrogative particles are How far...? (distance), How long...?(duration),
When...? (time), Why ...?(purpose), and so on.
3.2.3.4.5. Other adjuncts.
Snchez Benedito (1975) distinguishes other types of semantic classification, such as (a) quantity
(i.e. little, much, once); probability (i.e. maybe, perhaps, possibly, probably); and affirmative and
negative adjuncts (i.e. affirmative: certainly, indeed, naturally, of course, surely, yes, and negative:
never, no, not, not at all). Note that some of these adverbs have been previously classified according
to Greenbaum & Quirk (1990) in syntactic terms.
3.2.3.4.6. Process adjuncts.
And finally, process adjuncts are those which define in some way the process denoted by the verb.
They are mainly realized by adverbs or adverbial phrases, by like-phrases, as-clauses, and by
prepositional or noun phrases involving such nouns as way and manner. Common pro-forms for
process adjuncts answering to the question How...? are in that way, that way (informal), and like
that.
Process adjuncts are divided into the semantic subclasses of (a) manner, (b) means, instrument and
agency, (c) respect, and (d) contingency, but we shall only focus on the expression of manner,
means and instrument in our study. Following Quirk & Greenbaum (1973), we may mention the
general features for all of them:
(1) They co-occur with dynamic verbs, but not with stative verbs (i.e. He ran away awkwardly
but NOT he liked them awkwardly).
(2) They favour final position, since they usually receive the information focus. Indeed, no
other position is likely if the process adjunct is obligatory for the verb (i.e. They live
frugally but not they frugally live).
(3) Since the passive is often used when the need is felt to focus attention on the verb, process
adjuncts are commonly placed in middle position rather than finally when the verb is in the
passive (i.e. Tear gas was indiscriminately sprayed on the protesters).
(4) Process adjuncts realize d by units other than adverb phrases often occur initially, that
position being preferred if the focus of information is required on another part of the
sentence (i.e. By pressing this button you can stop the coffee machine).
(5) Co-occurrence of process adjuncts is by no means unusual (i.e. She was accidentally
(manner) wounded with a racket (instrument) by her partner (agent)).
Once we have examined the very origin of the expression of manner, means and instrument, that is,
process adjuncts, we are ready for analysing them individually.
22/ 29
4.
As stated before, the expression of manner may be mainly realized by adverbs, adverbial phrases,
and prepositional phrases but also by other semantic types of adjuncts, noun phrases, or clauses (i.e.
like phrases, as-clauses, etc ). They are usually placed in mid position (i.e. She was accidentally
struck because of the emphasis on how the action took place). We must bear in mind that thus
associated with the greatest rhetorical weight in a clause, there is no simple interrogative device for
eliciting them. In this section we shall provide a general overview on all types of manner
expression.
23/ 29
Wide orientation subjuncts also involve the semantic category of manner by non gradable adverb
phrases (i.e. from a personal point of view, looked at politically, etc ), and also by adverbs ending in
wise (i.e Weatherwise, healthwise, etc), as in Weatherwise, the outlook is dismal: Moreover,
courtesy subjuncts obviously involve the semantic category of manner but differ strongly from
manner adjuncts, as in He kindly invited me for dinner (subjunct meaning: He was so kind to
invite me for dinner) vs. He invited me for dinner kindly (adjunct meaning: He invited me for
dinner in a kind manner).
24/ 29
5.
According to Greenbaum & Quirk (1990), there are close semantic similarities between means,
instrument and agency, which respectively respond to the question How...?(except for agency)
with by used for means, by used for agency and with/without for instrument. There is also
considerable overlap in realization since the means and the agent are both expressed with byphrases, although the latter is grammatically distinct in correlating with the passive, and hence,
corresponding to a transitive clause (i.e. He was caught by his father = His father caught him).
However, a manner adjunct can easily occur in a transitive clause (i.e. She influenced me by her
behaviour).
But let us concentrate on the expression of means, which apart from being realized with by-phrases,
it is often realized with ly suffixes or the words by means of ... (i.e. He decided to treat her
surgically=by means of surgery, My father goes to work by tube=by means of transport or He
entered the mob by means of a bribe).
Also, the expression of means is elicited by how-questions, as in How are you travelling to Italy?
By air/By Iberia whose answers are prepositional phrases but some are adverb phrases and others
are noun phrases without an article. With means of transport, on + article implies means and not
locative (i.e. I often go to work on the 7.30 bus). In general, the expression of means is realized:
25/ 29
7. EDUCATIONAL IMPLICATIONS.
The various aspects of the expression of manner, means and instrument dealt with in this study is
relevant to the learning of the vocabulary of a foreign language since differences between the
vocabulary of the learner's native language (L1) and that of the foreign language (L2) may lead to
26/ 29
several problems, such as the incorrect use of process adjuncts expressions, especially because of
the syntactic, morphological, and semantic processes implied in these categories.
This study has looked at the expression of process adjuncts within lexical semantics, morphology
and syntax in order to establish a relative similarity between the two languages that Spanishspeaking students would find it useful for learning English if these connections were brought to
their attention, especially when different categories may be overlapped (means and instrument).
It has been suggested that a methodology grounded in part in the application of explicit linguistic
knowledge enhances the second language learning process. In the Spanish curriculum (B.O.E.
2002), the expression of manner, means and instrument is envisaged from earlier stages of ESO in
terms of simple descriptions of people, things, and places, up to higher stages of Bachillerato,
towards more complex descriptions of people, things, and situations, asking teenagers for detailed
descriptions.
The expression of manner, means and instrument that is, describing items, has been considered an
important element of language teaching becaus e of its high-frequency in speech. We must not
forget that the expression of process adjuncts is mainly drawn from closed class categories, such as
adverbs, adjectives, and nouns, and open class categories such as prepositions which have a high
frequency of use when speaking or writing.
Hence, the importance of how to handle these expressions cannot be understated since you cannot
communicate without it. Current communicative methods foster the teaching of this kind of
specific linguistic information to help students recognize new L2 words. Learners cannot do it all on
their own. Language learners, even 2nd year Bachillerato students, do not automatically recognize
similiarities which seem obvious to teachers; learners need to have these associations brought to
their attention.
So far, we have attempted in this discussion to provide a broad account of the expression of manner,
means and instrument in order to set it up within the linguistic theory, going through the
localization of process adjuncts in syntactic structures, and finally, once correctly framed, a brief
presentation of the three main process adjuncts under study. We hope students are able to
understand the relevance of handling correctly the expression of process adjuncts in everyday life
communication.
8. CONCLUSION
Although the questions How did you go home yesterday? may appear simple and straightforward,
they imply a broad description of the manner, means and instrument that make an appropriate
answer suitable for students and teachers, which may be so simple if we are dealing with ESO
students, using simple grammatical structures and basic vocabulary, or so complex if we are dealing
27/ 29
with Bachillerato students, who must be able to describe people, places, and things using more
complex vocabulary and grammatical structures.
So far, in this study we have attempted to take a fairly broad view of the expression of manner,
means and instrument since we are also assuming that there is an intrinsic connexion between its
learning and successful communication. Yet, we have provided a descriptive account of Unit 15,
untitled The Expression of Manner, Means, and Instrument whose main aim was to introduce the
student to the different ways of expressing process in English by means of description.
In doing so, the study provided a broad account the notion of manner, means and instrument,
starting by a theoretical framework in order to get some key terminology on the issue, and further
developed within a grammar linguistic theory, described in syntactic terms as we were dealing with
syntactic structures. Once presented, we discussed how adverbs, prepositions and other syntactic
constructions reflected this notion.
In fact, lexical items and vocabulary, and therefore, the expresin of process adjuncts, is currently
considered to be a central element in communicative competence and in the acquisition of a second
language since students must be able to describe people, things, and places in their everyday life in
many different situations and in detail. As stated before, the teaching of process expressions
comprises four major components in our educational curriculum: phonology, grammar, lexicon, and
semantics, out of which we get five major levels: phonological, morphological and syntactic,
lexical, and semantic.
In fact, for our students to express process properly, they must have a good knowledge at all those
levels. First, on phonology which describes the sound level. Secondly, since the two most basic
units of grammar are the word and the sentence, they must have good grammatical knowledge,
which invoves the morphological level (i.e. the internal structure of adverb formation) and the
syntactic level (i.e. where adverbs are placed: frequency, place, time, etc ).
Third, the lexicon, or lexical level, lists vocabulary items, that is, different adverbs (frequency, time,
place, etc), and other expressions to denote manner, means and instrument, specifying how they are
pronounced, how they behave grammatically, and what they mean. Finally, another dimension
between the study of linguistic form and the study of meaning is semantics, or the semantic level, in
which students must understand when we are dealing with means or agency, for instance.
Therefore, it is a fact that students must be able to handle the four levels in communicative
competence in order to be effectively and highly communicative in the classroom and in real life
situations. The expression of quality proves highly frequent in our everyday speech, and
consequently, we must encourage our stude nts to have a good managing of it.
28/ 29
9. BIBLIOGRAPHY.
- Aarts, F., and J. Aarts. 1988. English Syntactic Structures. Functions & Categories in Sentence
Analysis. Prentice Hall Europe.
- B.O.E. RD N 112/2002, de 13 de septiembre por el que se estable ce el currculo de la Educacin
Secundaria Obligatoria/Bachillerato en la Comunidad Autnoma de la Regin de Murcia.
- Bolton, D. And N. Goodey. 1997. Grammar Practice in Context. Richmond Publishing.
- Council of Europe (1998) Modern Languages: Learnin g, Teaching, Assessment. A Common
European Framework of reference.
- Downing, A. and P. Locke. 2002. A University Course in English Grammar. London: Routledge.
- Eastwood, J. 1999. Oxford Practice in Grammar. Oxford University Press.
- Greenbaum, S. and R. Quirk. 1990. A Students Grammar of the English Language. Longman
Group UK Limited.
- Greenbaum, S. 2000. The Oxford Reference Grammar. Edited by Edmund Weiner. Oxford
University Press.
- Hymes, D. 1972. On communicative competence. In
Sociolinguistics, pp. 269-93. Harmondsworth: Penguin.
29/ 29