INTRODUCTION TO

PHYSIOLOGY
Ethem Gelir, M.D.,
Professor of Physiology

Why are we here?

Obviously, to learn about human physiology.

But, what does that mean?
Before we begin, weve got to figure a few
things out:
1.
2.
3.

Whats a human?
Whats anatomy?
Whats physiology?

What are humans?

Organisms are classified as
human because they are:
Animals
Vertebrates
Possess backbones

Mammals
Possess:

Mammary glands
Hair
Endothermy (i.e., we generate heat internally)
Heterodonty (i.e., we have teeth w/ different shapes
and functions)
3 middle ear bones.

What are humans?

Primates
Possess:
Opposable thumbs (touching end of another
digit).
What advantage does this confer?
2 clavicles (collarbones)
Only 2 mammary glands. Why only 2?
Forward facing eyes with stereoscopic vision (for
depth perception)

Hominids
Bipedal (walk on 2 legs)
Possess a large brain size/body size ratio

 What is anatomy?
Anatomy is defined as the study of structure.

Structure refers to the shapes, sizes, and

characteristics of the components of the
human body.
The word anatomy comes from 2 words:
Ana which means up or apart
Tomos which means to cut

Types of Anatomy

We can divide our study of structure into 2 parts:

Study of stuff seen by the naked eye (Gross Anatomy).

Study of stuff seen ONLY with the microscope (Microanatomy).

We can divide microanatomy into:

Histology study of tissues
Cytology study of individual cells.

Physiology
Physiology is defined as
the study of function so
human physiology
attempts to explain how
and why humans function.
Physiology is where we
figure out how stuff
works.
How do muscles contract?
How do we run?
How does our heart beat?

Some Important Themes

1. Biology is hierarchical with each level building
on the level below it.
2. Each level of biological structure has emergent
properties.
3. Cells are an organisms basic unit of structure
and function.
4. Structure and function are correlated at all levels
of biological organization!!!!!!!!
5. Regulatory mechanisms ensure a dynamic
balance in living systems.

Levels of Structure
In order to understand how
something is built and how
something works, you must
look at all of its components
and analyze them both
individually and together.
In doing these collective and
separate analyses, you must
examine things at multiple
structural levels, i.e., one must
break them down from large to
small this is called
reductionism
An organism (such as a human
being) may be broken down as
illustrated on the left.

Organelle

Cell

Tissue

Organ

Organ System

Organism

Levels of Structure
The basic unit of life is the cell.
All living organisms are composed of one or more
cells.
The human body contains about 100 trillion cells.
There are about 200 different types of cells in the
human body.
The different types of cells have different features but
for the most part, all cells are made up of organelles
and various macromolecules (e.g., proteins, lipids,
carbohydrates and nucleic acids).
Organelles themselves are made of these
macromolecules and macromolecules are polymers of
smaller molecules which consist of atoms of various
chemical elements.

A Prototypical Cell

Important Organelles
Plasma Membrane Separates the cell exterior
from the cell interior (cytoplasm).
Nucleus Membrane bound structure that
contains deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) which is
the set of instructions for the synthesis of all the
bodys proteins.
Mitochondria Structure bound by a double
membrane and the site at which the energy
stored in sugars and other organic molecules is
transferred to ATP, the chemical which acts as
the currency for energy in the cell.
Ribosomes Sites of protein synthesis. May
be free floating in the cytoplasm or bound to
the endoplasmic reticulum.

Important Organelles
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum
Membranous set of tubes with
ribosomes studded along its surface.
Site of the synthesis of proteins that
are destined to be exported from the
cell.
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum
ER w/o the attached ribosomes. Site
of cellular lipid synthesis, among
other things.
Golgi Apparatus Membrane
bound organelle responsible for
determining the direction of proteins
synthesized in the rough ER.
Lysosomes Membrane bound
organelle that houses digestive
enzymes that can be used to break
down ingested toxins or worn out
cell parts.

More Levels of Structure

Similar cells and cell
products come together to
form tissues.
A structure made of 2 or
more tissue types that
perform a particular
function is an organ.
A group of organs with a
unique collective function
is an organ system. There
are 11 of these in the
human body.

Integumentary System

Structures:
-

Skin, hair, sweat and oil glands

Functions:
-

Forms the external body covering

Protects deeper tissues from injury
Involved in vitamin D synthesis
Prevents desiccation, heat loss, and
pathogen entry
Site of pain and pressure receptors

Skeletal System
Structures:
The 206 bones of the human body

Functions:
Protects and supports body organs
What characteristics might bone have that
allows it to support and protect?

Provides a framework that muscles can use to

create movement
Hemopoiesis (synthesis of blood cells)
Mineral storage
Bone contains 99% of the bodys store of what
mineral? (Hint you can get this mineral from
drinking milk)

Muscular System
Structures:
The 600+ muscles of
the body

Functions:
Locomotion
Manipulation of the
environment
Maintaining posture
Thermogenesis
(generation of heat)

Nervous System
Structures:
Brain, spinal cord, and
peripheral nerves

Functions:
Fast-acting control
system of the body
Monitoring of the
internal and external
environment and
responding by
initiating muscular or
glandular activity

Endocrine System
Structures:
Hormone-secreting glands
Pituitary, Thyroid, Thymus,
Pineal, Parathyroid, Adrenal,
Pancreas, Small Intestine,
Stomach, Testes, Ovaries,
Kidneys, Heart

Functions:
Long-term control system of
the body
Regulates growth,
reproduction, and nutrient use
among other things.

Cardiovascular System
Structures:
Heart, Blood vessels (arteries,
veins, and capillaries)

Functions:
The heart pumps blood thru the
blood vessels.
Blood provides the transport
medium for nutrients (glucose,
amino acids, lipids), gases (O2,
CO2), wastes (urea, creatinine),
signaling molecules (hormones),
and heat.

Lymphatic/Immune
System
Structures:
Lymphatic vessels, Lymph nodes,
Spleen, Thymus, Red bone
marrow

Functions:
Returning leaked fluid back to
the bloodstream,
Disposal of debris
Attacking and resisting foreign
invaders (pathogens i.e., diseasecausing organisms)

Respiratory System
Structures:
Nasal cavity, pharynx,
trachea, bronchi, lungs

Functions:
Constantly supply the
blood with O2, and
remove CO2
Regulate blood pH

Digestive System
Structures:
Oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small
intestine, large intestine, rectum, salivary
glands, pancreas, liver, gallbladder

Functions:
Ingestion and subsequent breakdown of food
into absorbable units that will enter the blood
for distribution to the bodys cells

Urinary System
Structures:
Kidneys, ureters,
urinary bladder,
urethra

Functions:
Removal of
nitrogenous wastes
Regulation of bodys
levels of water,
electrolytes, and
acidity

Reproductive System
Structures:
Male:
Testes, scrotum, epididymis,
vas deferens, urethra, prostate
gland, seminal vesicles, penis

Female:
Ovary, uterine tube, uterus,
cervix, vagina, mammary
glands

Functions:
Production of offspring

Why Are Levels of Structure Important?

In this class, well study all levels and see how they work
together to create structures and allow them to function.
In essence, the combination of these different yet
connected levels allows life to proceed.
But we must also be aware of emergent properties.
Things are often much more than simply a sum of their parts.
Consider a hammer which is made of a head and a handle. Either
piece by itself is of little use to drive a nail but put together, they
perform the task quite easily.
Or consider table salt sodium chloride (NaCl). By themselves,
chlorine is a poisonous gas and sodium an explosive metal. But
when bound together, they create something much, much different.

We must be aware of emergent properties as well as

reducing structures to their component parts.

Can Anatomy & Physiology Be Separated?

NOOOOOOO!!!!! Absolutely
not!
Structure and function are
undeniably connected. We cannot
divorce them.

When you consider the structure of an organ, cell, or anything for

that matter you must also consider its function!

Stayin Alive
Your body has about 100 trillion cells in it.
For your life to NOT end abruptly, these cells
need to have the correct amount of:

Oxygen
Nutrients
Waste removal
Heat
Ions (sodium, calcium, etc.)
Lots of other stuff

The Cells Environment

In order to keep the right amount of stuff in the cell,
weve got to make sure that all the fluid surrounding
our cells (i.e., the extracellular fluid) has the right
collection of nutrients, ions, etc.
We keep both our cells and the fluid surrounding our
cells in a dynamically stable environment via a process
called HOMEOSTASIS.

Walter CANNON (1871-1945)

American physiologist Walter

Cannon coined the term
homeostasis to describe
internal constancy.

Homeostasis
Defined as the bodys ability to maintain stable
internal conditions in spite of the changing
external conditions.
We just said that our body needs to have the right
amount of stuff (i.e., temperature, blood [glucose],
pH etc.) at all times in order to function properly.
First, lets refer to all this stuff as different
variables
Note: the brackets surrounding the word glucose in the above paragraph mean concentration
of glucose, i.e., how much glucose is dissolved in a particular fluid (blood in this case)

Lets use a thermostat

as an example
In order to keep the temperature in my house at
the right level, the thermostat must first measure
the current temperature in the house.
After the thermostat measures the temperature, it
compares the current value to a preset standard
value.
If there is no difference then theres nothing to do.
However, if its too hot or too cold, the thermostat has
to send a signal to the furnace or air conditioner to
change the temperature of the house so that it equals the
standard value.

Lets clarify some stuff.

In the previous example we had a:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Variable temperature
Measuring device thermostat
Control center also the thermostat
A preset value for the variable
Effectors the air conditioner and furnace

Similar situations arise in the human body

where there are lots of variables that we
want to maintain at certain precise levels

Blood Pressure
BP is a variable that weve got to
maintain at a certain level
We have sensory receptors that
measure the BP in the body. Theyre
located in the aorta and in the carotid
arteries.
These pressure receptors measure BP
and then send the info (we can call
this input) to a control center in the
brain the particular BP control
center is in the medulla oblongata of
the brain

Blood Pressure
We call the connection btwn the receptor
and the control center the afferent
pathway.
In the control center, the input BP is
compared with a set value.
If there is a difference between the current
BP value and the reference BP value then
weve got an error.
And weve got to fix that error!

Blood Pressure
The control center will signal effector
organs such as the heart in this case to
alter their activity. This process is called
output.
The connection between the control center
and the effector organ is called the efferent
pathway.

Blood Pressure
Suppose the current BP is too high.
The effector must act in a way to decrease it so
the medulla oblongata (the control center) would
signal the heart to decrease the force and rate of its
contractions; this would decrease BP.
Notice that the original stimulus was an INcrease
in BP and the bodys response was to act so as to
DEcrease BP.
The response is opposite the stimulus!

Negative Feedback
The movement of a variable in one direction
causes the body to enact processes that
cause the variable to move in the opposite
direction (so as to return the value to the
correct level) we call it negative feedback
Lets look at BP again:

Increased
BP

Sensed by pressure
receptors in aortic arch and
carotid sinus

Input sent via

afferent pathway
to medulla
oblongata

BP DECREASES
Heart rate & force
of contraction
decrease
Blood
vessel
diameter
increases

Output sent along

efferent pathway to
heart and blood
vessels

Current BP
compared with
set point and
error signal
generated

Why is Negative Feedback so

common in the body?
Think about it! Every time a variable starts
changing too much, weve got to bring it
back to normal. Weve got to counteract its
change.
THATS NEGATIVE FEEDBACK

Other examples you will encounter:

Maintenance of blood [Ca2+], blood [Glucose],
blood pH, and many others

When does a negative feedback process end?

THINK ABOUT IT!
A negative feedback
process begins when a
particular variable leaves
its homeostatic range.

The process ends when

that variable is back
within its normal range.
Negative feedback
processes (or loops) are
self-terminating.
MAKE SURE YOU
UNDERSTAND WHY!

Homeostasis is Important!
Most of the physiological processes that occur in
your body are designed to maintain homeostasis.
ALWAYS KEEP THIS IN MIND!

Question: Does the magnitude (i.e., size) of the

error signal influence the magnitude of the
response?
Just to recap, lets look at a couple more figures!

Homeostasis
is
DYNAMIC!

What this means is that the homeostatic variables are NOT kept
rigidly fixed upon a single value. They are kept within a certain
range, and when they exit that range thats when negative
feedback loops turn on to bring them back.
Is your body temperature always exactly 36.5C?

Feed forward Regulation

Another type of regulatory process frequently used
in conjunction with negative-feedback systems is
feed forward.
The temperature-sensitive nerve cells that trigger
negative-feedback regulation of body temperature
when body temperature begins to fall are located
inside the body.

 In addition, there are temperature-sensitive nerve

cells in the skin, and these cells, in effect, monitor
outside temperature.
When outside temperature falls, these nerve cells
immediately detect the change and relay this
information to the brain, which then sends out
signals to the blood vessels and muscles, resulting
in heat conservation and increased heat
production.

 In this manner, compensatory

thermoregulatory responses are activated
before the colder outside temperature can
cause the internal body temperature to fall.

 Thus, feedforward regulation anticipates

changes in a regulated variable such as
internal body temperature, improves the
speed of the bodys homeostatic responses,
and minimizes fluctuations in the level of
the variable being regulatedthat is, it
reduces the amount of deviation from the
set point.

 In our example, feed forward control utilizes a set

of external environmental detectors.
It is likely, however, that most feed forward
control is the result of a different phenomenon
learning.
The first times they occur, early in life,
perturbations in the external environment probably
cause relatively large changes in regulated internal
environmental factors, and in responding to these
changes the central nervous system learns to
anticipate them and resist them more effectively.

What about Positive Feedback?

Positive feedback occurs when the response
amplifies or magnifies the stimulus that produced
it.
In other words, a variable is altered and then the
bodys response alters that variable even more in
the same direction.
How does this differ from negative feedback?
Which do you suppose is more common in the
body: positive or negative feedback?

Positive
Feedback
in Childbirth

Positive
Feedback
in Blood
Clotting

Dangerous Positive Feedback

Rise in body temperature

Increase in body
heat production

Increase in body
metabolism

What stops a positive feedback loop?

Biological
Membranes
Solutes & Solutions

Ethem Gelir, M.D.,

Associate Prof. Of Physiology

 Cells are the basic

units of life
All organisms are
composed of cells.
The activity of the
bodys cells
determines the both
the structure and the
function of the body.

Plasma Membrane (Cell Membrane)

Defines the boundary of the cell and separates
intracellular fluids from extracellular fluids
Not just a container for the cell, plays a dynamic role
in cellular activity

Cell membrane,
Plasma membrane,
Cytoplasm membrane,
are synonymous

Cell Membrane Phospholipids

Phospholipids modified triglycerides with two fatty
acid groups and a phosphate group
- main component of cell membranes

Singer-Nicholson Fluid Mosaic Model

Phospholipids are amphipathic - have both
hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions a polar head
(the phosphate group) and a nonpolar tail (the two
fatty acids
water

hydrophilic
polar heads
Hydrophobic
nonpolar tails
hydrophilic
polar heads

water

Fluid Mosaic Model

Double layer or bilayer of lipid molecules with
imbedded proteins (peripheral and IMPs) referred
to as a unit membrane.
Cell membrane bilayer consists of phospholipids,
cholesterol, and glycolipids

Fluid Mosaic Model Fluid? Mosaic?

Functions of Membrane Proteins

Transport
Enzymatic
activity

Receptors for
signal
transduction

Functions of Membrane Proteins

Intercellular
adhesion (CAMs)
Cell-cell
recognition
Attachment to
cytoskeleton and
extracellular
matrix

 The cell membrane constitutes a barrier against

movement of water molecules and watersoluble substances between the extracellular
and intracellular fluid compartments.

 Extracellular fluid contains a large amount of

sodium but only a small amount of potassium.
Exactly the opposite is true of the intracellular fluid.
Also, the extracellular fluid contains a large amount
of chloride ions, whereas the intracellular fluid
contains very little.
But the concentrations of phosphates and proteins in
the intracellular fluid are considerably greater than
those in the extracellular fluid.

These differences are extremely important to

the life of the cell.

Chemical compositions of extracellular and

intracellular fluids.

Cell Membrane Properties Semi-Permeable

The plasma membrane is a selectively permeable barrier.
It only allows selected substances to pass through.