Chapter 1 Transport 1.

Circulatory system - distribute oxygen & nutrient - remov

e waste product - protect body from disease
Cardiovascular system
Leucocytes - colourless, irregular shape - produce in bone marrow & lymph nodes
- able to squeeze throught blood capillaries pores Granulocytes - granulor Neutr
ophils - 3-5 lobed nucleus - phagcytosis of bacteria platelets - lifespan 7 days
- irregular shape - produce in bone marrow - destory by liver & spleen Agranulo
cytes - non-agranular cytoplasm
erythrocytes - lifespan 120 days - produce in bone marrow - large TSA/V - rapid
diffusion of oxygen - biconcave dics shape & flexible -consist heamoglobin, comb
ine with oxygen to form oxyheamoglobin & carbon dioxide to form carbaminoheamogl
obin
Basophils - S-shape nucleus - cure inflammation & allergic reaction
Eosinophils - double-lobed nucleus - cure inflammation & allergic reaction
Lymphocytes - rounded nucleus - produce antibodies
Monocytes -bean-shaped nuclues - phagocytosis of bacteria
Plasma - contain salts, digested food, vitamin, proteins (albumin- osmotic balan
ce), enzyme & hormones - Haemolymph (invertebrates) transport water & insoluble
salts through haemocytes Hearts - contract to pumps blood & relax to receive blo
od 1. Oxygenated blood enter left atrium via pulmonary veins, Deoxygenated blood
enter right atrium via vena cava. Both atria contract & push blood to ventricle
s through tricuspid (right) & bicuspid (left) valve. 2. Ventricles contract & pu
mp oxygenated blood to aorta & deoxygenated blood to pulmonary arteries blood th
rough semi-lunar valve Left ventricle thicker than right to pump blood the every
body parts Valve to prevent backflow of blood & to allow blood flow in a direct
ion Pressure gradient (produce when) - right ventricle pumps blood to lungs whil
e left ventricle pumps to the aorta - Contraction of skeletal muscle cause vein
to contract Semilunar valves in vein - ( return blood to heart & prevent backflo
w of blood) Blood pressure A force of blood exerted on the wall of arteries -Sys
tolic pressure (120 mmHg) when ventricles contract - Diastolic pressure (80 mmHg
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Negative Feedback mechanism of blood pressure Person in shock Blood volume incre
ase Baroreceptor less stimulated increase rate of impulses to medulla oblongata
that send impulses to effector 1. Cardiac muscle & smooth muscle relax 2. Blood
flow resistance decrease 3. Heart beat rate decrease 4. Vasodilation occurs ( wi
dening of blood vessel) Blood pressure decrease
Person injured or do vigorous exercise Blood volume decrease Baroreceptor stimul
ated - decrease rate of impulses to medulla oblongata that send impulses to effe
ctor 1. Cardiac muscle & smooth muscle contract 2. Blood flow resistance increas
e 3. Heart beat rate increase 4. Vasoconstriction occurs (narrowing of blood ves
sel) Blood pressure increase
Insects (open circulatory system) Vessels site of chemical exchange Haemocoel co
nsist haemolymph Heart (1 or more) pump heamolymph into vessel Ostia open when h
eart relax to allow heamolymph to flow through (consist valve) close when heart
contract Fish ( single circuit closed circulatory system) 1. Blood leave the ven
tricle to gill capillaries, gaseous exchange occur, then flow into a vessel to s
ystemic capillaries. Carbon dioxide diffuse out & oxygen diffuse in to blood the
n return to atrium through vein Amphibians (double circuit closed circulatory sy
stem) 1. Oxygenated blood from lung& skin enter left atrium, Deoxygenated blood
from body enter right atrium. Both atria contract & push blood to a ventricle. 2
. Ventricles contract & pump mixed blood to pulmocutaneous circulation (lung & s
kin) & systemic circulation (body). Mammal & Bird (double circuit closed circula
tory system) 1. Oxygenated blood from lungs enter left atrium, Deoxygenated bloo
d from body enter right atrium. Both atria contract & push blood to ventricles,
then contract & pump oxygenated blood to systemic circulation via aorta & deoxyg
enated blood to pulmonary circulation via pulmonary arteries Blood does not mixincrease blood pressure & speed up delivery of oxygen to body. Mechanism of blo
od clotting 1. When blood vessel damaged, platelets exposed to collegen fibres &
release clotting factors that cause the platelet sticky & release thromboplasti
n to convert prothrombin to thrombin with calcium & vitamin K. Thrombin act as e
nzyme to convert fibrinogen to fibrin that form sticky net of fibres & traps red
blood cell. Heparin chemical that inhibits clot formation Joshua Chong Kah Leon
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Importance 1. Prevent excessive blood loss 2. Prevent microorganism entering 3.

Maintain blood pressure & circulation of blood in a closed circulatory system Ha
emophilia - Lack of clotting factor that cause excessive bleeding - caused vy re
cessive gene in X chromosome Thrombosis - Blood clot (thrombus)within blood vess
el - lead to stroke( in brain) & heat attack (in heart), Deep vein thrombosis (i
n legs ) Lymphatic system (single way & closed system) - to fight against diseas
e - to produce electrolyte balance - to transport lipid from digestive system 1.
Lymph / Interstitial fluid - squeezed from blood plasma into intercellular spac
es by high pressure of arterial end - consists water, dissolved nutrient & gases
, hormones, proteins & waste product - flowing supported by interstinal movement
s, single-way valves, contraction of skeletal muscle & blood pressure change dur
ing respiration . Lymph form intercellular space flow into lymphatic capillaries
which merge into lymphatic vessel (lymphatics), then into right lymphatic duct
to right subclavian vein & thoracic duct to left subclavian vein. 2. Lymph nodes
- In neck, groin & abdomen Functions: 1. produce & store lymphocytes 2. Protect
body against infection (swollen when infected) 3. Oedema ( excessive accumulati
on of lymph in intercellular space) -cause by blocking of lymphatic vessel Blood
Plasma - in blood vessel - contain most protein - Red & white blood cell & plat
elets - Low lipid content Interstitial fluid - in intercellular spaces - contain
less protein - leucocytes - Low lipid content Lymph - in blood vessel - contain
more protein - leucocytes - high lipid content
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First line of defence

- non-specific -prevent pathogen entering the body
Second line of defence Third line of defence
- non-specific - phagocytes (neutrophil & monocyte) - specific defence
Mucous membrane - traps pathogen in air - secretes mucus with lysozyme to kill p
athogen Skin (Tough) - secrete sebum to form protective film & inhibits pathogen
growth - sweat contain lysozyme to kill pathogen Hydrochloride acid in stomach
- to kill pathogen Tears & saliva contain lysozyme to prevent pathogen invasion
Phagocyte attracted to chemical released by pathogen, then engulf & ingest it wi
th pseudopodia. Lysosome release lysozyme to digest pathogen & the digested prod
uct is release from the cell. Antigens - a protein that immune system recognize
as foreign - stimulate specific lymphocytes to produce antibody (destroy by lyso
zyme) - binding site highly specific Lysis lysin bind & disintegrate pathogen Op
sonisation opsonin bind pathogen & act as marker for phagocyte to recognized & e
ngulf it Agglutination agglutinin bind & clump pathogen so it cannot reproduce &
capture by phagocytes easily Neutralisation antitoxins neutralizes toxin molecu
le & prevent from attaching to body cell Passive Immunity (temporary) individual
obtain ready- make antibodies Natural acquired Artificial acquired - through br
eastfeeding - injection of antiserum (colostrum) & mother ( laboratory animal an
itibodies cross antibodies) placenta to foetus - Tetanus, rabies, hepatitis & sn
ake bites - Immediate immunity - After or have a high risk of infection - does n
ot produce antibodies - way of prevention - second injection to boost antibodies
production
Active Immunity (permenant) individual produce own antibodies Natural acquired A
rtificial acquired - when individual - injection of vaccine recovered from a (we
akened pathogen) disease - through immunization & vaccination - rubella, mumps &
poliomyelitis - Delay immunity - Before infection - produce antibodies - way of
treatment - second injection to fight disease
AIDS - cause by HIV virus that destroy lymphocytes - bind, insert its viral DNA,
so that host cell produce new viruses that released into bloodstream - cause im
munity weak & vulnerable to disease - transmitted by sexual intercourse, blood p
roducts, shared syringe needles, pregnancy & breastfeeding
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Cardiovascular disease 1. cause by dysfunctional heart condition & blood vessel

2. Atherosclerosis - fatty plaque( cholesterol) form & harden on arteries inner
surface. - cause arteries not elastic & narrow - Heart attack when coronary arte
ries clot & stroke when cerebal arteries clot Proper Nutrition Healthy lifestyle
- Avoids high fats & cholesterol food - Dont smoke ( improve heart functioning &
- eat more soluble-fibre food (lower cholesterol level) lower cholesterol level
- eat more furit & vegetable( promote healthy blood - Often exercise circulatio
n) - Maintain balance diet Xylem - transport water & dissolved mineral salts (co
ntinuous from root to leaves) 1. ligninfied wall- support plant, increase water
adhesion 2. perforated pits allow water & mineral salts pass sideways 3. Trachei
ds smaller & longer vessels than xylem - transport organic substances 1. Sieve t
ubes - transport organic substances through translocation 2. Companion cells pro
vide nutrient & ATP to sieve tube 3. Parenchyma - store food substances Transpor
t of organic substances in phloem ( to growing & storage region) - ensure plant
survival - To store & convert sucrose into other sugar Water vapour lost through
in plant. (Site: Stomata, Cuticle & Lenticels) 1. Sun heat up water & evaporate
into spaces in between mesophyll cell & diffuse out through stomata to less sat
urated atmosphere air 2. Osmosis between mesophyll cell cause water flow from xy
lem to outermost cells - keep plant cool - prevent plant witting by maintaining
cell turgidity - help to supply water - help to transport & absorb water & miner
al salts
Phloem
Translocation (Importance) Transpiration
(Importance)
Monocotyledons stem Dicotyledons stem Parenchyma store food substances Epidermis
maintain plant shape & secrete waterproof cuticle Monocotyledons root Dicotyled
ons root Parenchyma store food substances Sclerenchyma in pericycle support the
root Potometer measure water uptake rate Bubble photometer- measure water loss d
uring transpiration Factors affect transpiration rate temperature high - increas
e water evaporation rate light intensity high- stimulate stomata opening & photo
synthesis rate relative humidity low - increase water evaporation rate (differen
ce of water concentration between sub-atomal spaces & atmosphere) air movement f
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Guttation Root pressure Cohesion Adhesion

- Root pressure push water out of hydathodes - in humid morning ( air too satura
ted for water droplets to evaporate from the leave ) - a force pushing water fro
m root to stem with ATP used attraction force between same (water) molecule attr
action force between different molecule
Transport mechanism First 1. Root hairs absorb water through osmosis as it is hy
pertonic to soil water. 2. Water dilute cell sap & become hypotonic. 3. Water th
en passes from cell to endodermis 1. Endodermis secrete mineral ions into xylem
& create water potential gradient & root pressure to flow water through osmosis
Second 1. Water evaporate during transpiration create transpirational pull from
root 2. Forces of cohesion & adhesion of water help water draw up to leave 1. Gu
ard cell turgid when stomata open & flaccid when stomata close, which response t
o light intensity & carbon dioxide level.
Guard cell - control transpiration rate & regulate gaseous exchange Opening of s
tomata Closing of stomata Guard cell potassium ions & glucose level increase, Gu
ard cell potassium ions & glucose level decrease, became hypotonic & water poten
tial decrease, became hypertonic & water potential increase, water move in throu
gh osmosis, became turgid. water move out through osmosis, became flaccid.
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Stimulus : Change that trigger body responses Response : Reaction towards a stim
ulus Coordination : regulation of body activities Internal Stimuli : Blood osmot
ic pressure & glucose level External Stimuli : Light, temperature, touch, pressu
re & sound Chapter 2. Pathway of nerve transmission Stimulus is detected by rece
ptors & send impulses along afferent neurons to integrating centre for analysis,
then send impulses along efferent pathway to effector for response. Negative fe
edback corrective mechanism in opposite direction of environment change
Nervous system
Central Nervous System - proses, analyse & store information & start response
Peripheral Nervous System - relay signals between CNS & body parts
Autonomic nervous System Brain - Primary integration organ Spinal Cord - control
reflex action - connect brain & PNS - conduct impulses to & from the brain Symp
athetic System - prepare for activity ( Spinal Nerve) - control involuntary acti
on - has motor parts (efferent neurons & effector)
Somatic Nervous System - control voluntary action - has sensory & moror parts
Parasympathetic System - prepare for relazation ( 12 Carnial & 31 Spinal Nerve)
Human Brain Cerebrum Cerebellum Thalamus Hypothalamus Pituitary Gland Medulla Ob
longata Spinal Cord Central Canal Grey Matter White Matter Ventral root Dorsal r
oot Spinal nerve
- control voluntary action, memory & intelligence ( action, hearing & tasting) left side control right body movement & vise-versa - control body balance & mov
ement - give awareness of touch, pain & temperature (sense) - control homeostasi
s, blood pressure, body temperature, sleep & thirst - Produce hormones & control
growth, reproduction & osmoregulation - control involuntary action, act as refl
ex centre
- contains cerebrospinal fluid ( supply nutrient & act as shock absorber) - main
tain electrolyte balance in CNS - contain neurons & dendrites - contains myelincoated axons of neurons that surrounds grey matter - contain efferent neurons &
conduct impulses from spinal cord to effector - contain afferent neurons & condu
ct impulses from receptor to spinal cord - Ganglion ( place afferent neurons clu
stered) - contain ventral & dorsal roots
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Neurons Dendron / Dendrites Cell body Axon Synaptic terminal Myelin sheath
- conduct impulses - provide large surface area to receive information - integra
te electrical signals & coordinate metabolic activities - transmits impulses fro
m cell body to synaptic terminal - transmits impulses from neurons to effector o
r other neurons - speed up the impulses transmission & protect axons Interneuron
s - from afferent to efferent neurons - Grey matter - CNS ( not myelinated) Effe
rent neurons -from CNS to effector - Grey matter - whole body
Impulses Cell Body Location
Afferent neurons - from receptor to CNS - Dorsal root ganglion - whole body
Transmission of Information across synapses Impulses form presynaptic neurons st
imulate synaptic vesicles to release neurotransmitter into synaptic cleft/ synap
se & diffuse to dendrite of post-synaptic neurons that excites to produce impuls
es
-Converts electrical > chemical > electrical Signal, contain mitochondria (gener
ate energy for transmission)
Function of synapse 1. control & integrate impulses 2. ensure impulses transmiss
ion in one direction Voluntary action under control of will Cerebral cortex of c
erebrum Fast or Slow aware action is taken Skeletal muscles Involuntary action N
ot under control of will Medulla Oblongata & hypothalamus Fast unaware action is
taken Skeletal muscles & Gland
Characteristic CNS Reaction Awareness Effector
Reflexes - involuntary response to stimulus (rapid & automatic) Importance : 1.
Protect body from danger 2. Coordinate muscular function 3. Act as automatic res
ponse 4. Provide response before feeling pain Reflex Arc - nerve pathway that pr
oduce reflex action
Knee-jerk reflex / Patella reflex - Knee tendon is tapped by rubber hammer. Quad
riceps muscle stretched & send impulses along afferent neurons to spinal cord &
back to efferent neurons to then cause the leg jerk forward.
Burns cause receptors to send impulses along afferent neurons to spinal cord for
analysis, then relayed to interneurons & sent along efferent neurons to effecto
r. Cause triceps relax & biceps contracts to pull hand away.
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Parkinsons Disease 1. Accelerating disorder of CNS due to low level of dopamine (

neurotransmitter) Alzheimers Disease 1. Neurological disorder that cause increasi
ng loss of memory ( forgetful, confused, cant read & write ) Nervous system volun
tary & involuntary action electrical signal neurons fast reversible Endocrine sy
stem involuntary action chemical signal bloodstream slow irreversible
controls signals conveyed via reaction effect of action
Transmission of Hormones Stimulus affects endocrine secretes hormones into blood
stream to target organ, then bring response. Hormones : chemical produced that c
onveyed thought out organism & produce response in target cell Chapter 3 Growth
: irreversible process with increase in mass, sixe & number of cells Development
: Change in shape, function & complexity Growth Stages Cell Division 2n, n : num
ber of mitosis Cell enlargement Cell elongation : vacuolation in plants ( intake
water to increase size & volume) assimilation in animal ( intake of amino acid)
Cell differentiation Differs from each other with specific function Dry mass: w
ater content removed ( heating above 100oC until the mass is constant) Growth cu
rve in insects (egg > instar > Imago) - discontinuous growth (ecdysis during ins
tar) - old exoskeleton shed, new exoskeleton grows meanwhile enlarge body volume
. When exoskeleton hardens, ecdysis stop Primary growth in plants ( cell elongat
ion of root & shoot) 1. Meristem cell undergoes mitosis (cell division) - replac
e worn out root cap (root) - give rise to leaf primordial which grow into leaves
(shoot) 2. Cell elongation through vacuolation 3. Cell differentiation to give
rises to phloem, xylem, epidermis & sclerenchyma
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Secondary growth ( increase in diameter of plant) 1. lateral meristems cell ( va

scular cambium ) - divide to form cambial cells that link together into cambium
rings, - differentiate into secondary phloem (from outside cambium ring) & xylem
(from inside cambium ring) - causes primary phloem pushed outwards & xylem push
ed inwards, & form vascular tissue. (cork cambium) - divide to form secondary co
rtex (inside cork cambium) & cork (outside cork cambium ) Undergoes secondary gr
owth Dicotyledons large present present woody Long Does not undergoes secondary
growth Monocotyledons small absent absent non-woody short
Plants Sixe Vascular Cambium cork cambium Stem Lifespan
Annual growth ring - ( growth of tree in 1 year) Importance of Primary Growth 1.
To achieve maximum length 2. To obtain sunlight 3. Form xylem (carries water &
minerals) 4. Form phloem (carries organic substances) 5. Support plant with lign
ified xylem Importance of Secondary Growth 1. Increase plant diameter 2. Support
& Strengthen the plant 3. Produce more vascular tissue 4. Thick bark decrease w
ater evaporation 5. Increase success of seed propagation
Economic Importance of Secondary Growth 1. Produce valuable timber 2. Produce la
rge quantities of fruits 3. Produce ornamental plants 4. High commercial value 5
. Supply material for buildings & furniture processing Chapter 5 Inheritance tra
it transmission from 1 generation to another generation Gene inheritance unit at
a locus in chromosome. - determine individual characteristic Allele Form of gen
e Trait a characteristic varies of others Genotype Genetic composition of organi
sm Phenotype outward appearance of organism Homozygote Organism with 2 same alle
le Heterozygote Organism with 2 difference allele Monohybrid Inheritance Inherit
ance of single character Dihybrid Inheritance Inheritance of 2 characteristic, c
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Mendels experiment (cross-breeding of dwarf & tall plant ) 1. Remove stamens to p

revent self-fertilization 2. Transfer pollen to stigma of another flower of cont
rasting trait 3. Seeds produced are collected, counted & grown. 4. First filial
generation traits are recorded 5. Crossed filial generation plants 6. Seeds prod
uced are collected, counted & grown. 7. Second filial generation traits are reco
rded
Result : 3 Tall ( TT & 2Tt) & 1 Short (tt) All F1 Generation : genotype (Tt) Rea
son Mendel choose pure-breeding plants - can self fe rtilise - have same trait a
s parent plant - trait can pass down from generation to generation
Law of Segregation -Allele in pairs determine organism characteristic. One pair
of allele can be carried in a single gamete Importance 1. Meiosis produce gamete
s with one of each pair of genes 2. Meiosis I - cross over occur to form chiasma
ta ( gene are swapped) - homologous chromosome pair separated 3. Meiosis II - ch
romatids separated - gamete with unique individual chromosomes formed Law of Ind
ependent Assortment - Allele pair may combined with any other pair ( 4 possible
allele combinations) Blood groups
Blood Group Antigen on RBC surface Antibodies in serum Donate blood to Receive b
lood from
O A B AB
A B A&B
anti-A & anti-B anti-B anti-A A, AB, B & O A & AB B & AB AB
O A&O B&O A, B, AB & O
Rhesus system 1. When rhesus negative (Rh-) is exposed to rhesus positive (Rh+),
the body produce antibodies in plasma, and cause hemolysis 2. Rh- can receive R
h- only , but Rh+ can receive Rh+ & Rh- blood 3. Blood pass from foetus (Rh+) to
mother(Rh-)due to leaky placenta, causes mother to produce antibodies that harm
the foetus . Prevented by injecting drug that inhibits the antibodies productio
n. Human karyotypes - human have 22 pairs identical autosome & a pair of sex chr
omosome
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Sex-linked inheritance ainheritance genes on sex chromosomes Haemophilia Lack of

ability to clot, due to deficiency of clotting factor Colour-blindness cannot d
istinguish colours Thalassemia Abnormal & lack of haemoglobin due to defective g
ene. -Treated by blood transfusion & bone marrow transplant DNA
Caused recessive allele of chromosome X Major (carrier), Minor (have anaemia )
Long polynucleotide condensation chain
Nucleotides subunits of
DNA
- twisted / double helix structure Phosphate - thymine(T) paired adenine (A) by
2H bond group - guanine(G) paired cytosine (C) by 3H bond - contain instructions
for making protein (determine trait) Importance of genetics 1. Improve human li
ves 2. Improve quality of crops 3. Control genetic codes to create new organism
4. Identify the mechanism of genetic disease DNA fingerprinting 1. Distinguish i
ndividual of same species using DNA (through different number of microsatellites
at a locus) 2. 5% code for protein, 95% non-coding( microsatellites) Human Geno
me Project ( study to map all human genes) 1. Determine gene that cause disease
2. Manufacture human protein 3. Treat common disease
Pentose sugar
Nitrogenous base
Function of DNA fingerprinting 1. To identify criminal 2. To test potential orga
n donors 3. To study relationship among human population 4. To confirm animal pe
digrees
Adult stem cell - activated by injury or infection Embryonic stem cell - found a
t blastocyst - develop into all tissues expect gamete
Potential Stem cell research Stem cell - undifferentiated cell that divide & dev
elop into specific functional cell Function: 1. generate new cell, 2. treat dise
ase by replacing cell, 3. develop ways to manipulate gene
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Genetic Engineering - modification of organism characteristic by manipulating DN

A a) Gene therapy Insertion of genes to treat hereditary disease ( sickle cell a
naemia ) 1. Normal gene inserted into genome to replace non-functional cell 2. H
omologous recombination occurs (normal swapped abnormal gene) & return normal ge
ne function\ b) Genetically modified organism - organism with genetic codes alte
red i) genetically modified food - improve crop with pest resistance & herbicide
tolerance - Insulin extracted from animal pancreas to treat diabetic Manufactur
e of insulin 1. Plasmid is removed from bacteria & cut with restriction enzyme 2
. mRNA extracted from pancreatic cell & reverse transcript to cDNA 3. cDNA is in
serted into plasmid & introduced to plasmid free-bacteria 4. Bacteria divide dur
ing fermentation & human insulin is separated & purified. Advantage 1. Produce m
ore & different types of product 2. Develops new crop & livestock 3. Overcome fo
od shortage 4. Food available at cheaper cost 5. Cope with environment problem
1. Safety is not proven 2. affect natural ecology 3. Natural equilibrium disturb
ed 4. Side-effect undetermined
Chapter 6 Variation Difference in traits between individuals of the same species
Continuous variation Discontinuous variation - variation with no distinct categ
ories that can be -variation with distinct categories that can be replaced repla
ced - characteristic different from others - characteristic distinct & invariabl
e from others - quantitative in nature - qualitative in nature - influenced by e
nvironment - not influenced by environment - caused by genetic & environment fac
tors - caused by genetic factors - 2 or more gene control a character - 1 gene c
ontrol 1 character -Cannot be inherited - can be inherited - normal distribution
graph - discrete distribution graph - height, weight & skin colour - blood grou
p, fingerprint & ability to roll tongue Variation in Sexual Reproduction 1. Cros
sing over - exchange of genes between homologous chromosome during prophase I form chiasmata (mix of paternal & maternal allele) Joshua Chong Kah Leong 2012 C
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2. Independent of assortment -Chromosomes can line up in any orientation

3. Random fertilization - numerous male gametes fuse with any female gamete to f
orm a unique zygote Mutation in Genetic Variation - spontaneous change of DNA irreversible & permanent a) Mutagens Physical mutagens 1. radiation ionises DNA
bases & do not form complementary base pairs. (Ultraviolet, gamma & X-rays)
Importance of variation 1. Increase survival & success rate in reproduction 2. R
esistant to pests & diseases 3. Withstand severe weather
Chemical mutagens Damage DNA (Asbestos, Benzene & Pesticides)
b) Chromosomal mutation - sister chromatids fail to separate during meiosis (ana
phase)& form monosomy & trisomy gametes Deletion Chromosome segment breaks off &
the 2 ends rejoins Duplication Chromosome segment copied twice Inversion Chromo
some segment breaks off & & reversed middle piece is reinserted Translocation Ch
romosome breaks off & attached to another chromosome 1. Non-disjunction chromoso
me fail to separate during meiosis Downs Syndrome (Trisomy 21) Uneven parental ch
romosome division where sister chromatids fail to separate - Extra copy of chrom
osome at chromosome 21 - Cause by increasing age of mother of radiation - Mental
retardation, short neck & slanted eyes - female with 1 X chromosome, low level
of sex hormones - Men with extra X chromosome - low level of testosterone & unde
velop sex organs
Turners Syndrome (Monosomy) Klinefelters Syndrome (Trisomy)
c) Gene Mutation ( cause no protein produced) Base addition extra nucleotide seq
uence is added into chain Base deletion a segment of nucleotide chain is removed
Base duplication a segment of nucleotide chain is repeated Base inversion nucle
otide sequence is separated & rejoins in an inverted manner Base substitution a
segment of nucleotide chain is replaced another (Sickle-cell anaemia) Diease Sic
kle-cell Mutation of gene that synthesize heamoglobin. anaemia Produce abnormal,
sickling shape haemoglobin which is not efficient in transporting oxygen Albini
sm Mutation of gene that control skin colour. Unable to produce enzyme for produ
ction of melanin pigment, cause white / pink skin.
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Form 4 Chapter 1 Homeostasis (maintenance of internal environment for cells func

tion optimally) 1. Regulating the internal environment - Physical factors : temp
erature, blood pressure, osmotic pressure - Chemical factors: salt content, suga
r content, pH value Regulation of body temperature: 1. Nervous system, circulato
ry system, muscular system, endocrine system When Temperature raise, skin detect
& send impulses to hypothalamus that send impulses to effectors 1. Blood vessel
dilate to increase heat loss 2. Sweat gland secrete more sweat to cool body thr
ough evaporation 3. Hair erector muscle relax to reduce insulation (hair flatten
) 4. Thyroid gland less stimulated (lower metabolic rate ) Regulation of blood g
lucose level (endocrine, circulatory & digestive system) 1. When glucose level h
igh, pancreas secrete insulin & send to liver through circulatory system 2. insu
lin converts glucose into glycogen & blood glucose level decrease 3. When glucos
e level low, pancreas secrete glucagon & send to liver through circulatory syste
m 4. Glucagon converts glycogen into glucose & blood glucose level increase Regu
lation of blood pH level ( excretory, circulatory & respiratory system) 1. Kidne
y regulate hydrogen ions, hydroxyl ions & hydrogen carbonate ions content Amoeba
sp Paramecium sp Irregular shape Fixed shape one nucleus two nucleus (mirco- &
marco-) Locomotion & Feeding using pseudopodium Locomotion & Feeding using cilia
( cytoplasmic projection ) ( rotate & spin along its axis) Using pseudopodium e
ngulf & enclose foods The beating of cilia create water current that through pha
gocytosis. Food package in food carries food into cytostome. Form food vacuole &
vacuole & digested by lysozyme. Nutrient is digested by hydrolytic enzyme. Wast
e is absorbed & waste is egested eliminated through anal pore Binary Fission & S
pore Formation ( Unfavorable) Binary Fission & Conjugation ( Sexual) Osmoregulat
ion. Water diffuse in through osmosis, Water diffuse in through osmosis, contrac
tile vacuole expand, diffuse out when vacuole is full. vacuole expand, & expel w
ater when reached Hence the vacuole shrink plasma membrane by contraction - Both
live in pond & lake, eat algae & bacteria - Both respiration through simple dif
fusion across plasma membrane
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Chapter 6 Type of Nutrition food undergoes six major processes: 1. Ingestion : p

rocess of eating 2. Propulsion : passing of food down the GI tract swallowing :
voluntary peristalsis : reflex, involuntary, alternating contractions of muscles
in body walls of GI organs 3. Mechanical digestion prepares food for chemical d
igestion includes chewing, mixing with enzyme 4. Chemical digestion Process whic
h food is broken down to basic food blocks by enzymes in digestive juices 5. Abs
orption : passage of food particles into the blood-lymph 6. Defecation : elimina
tion of indigestible food substances BALANCE DIET - diet contains the right amou
nts of different classes foods required by body 1. Carbohydrates (provide energy
) 2. Proteins (Build new tissues / important in growth and repairing damaged tis
sues) 3. Fats (provide energy / storage of extra foods) 4. Water (act as medium
for biochemical reaction / transportation of substances) 5. Vitamins (prevent di
seases / efficient metabolism / important for normal growth) 6. Minerals (import
ant for normal growth and development of teeth, bones and muscles) 7. Roughage /
Dietary fiber (prevent constipation / stimulate peristalsis) FACTORS EFFECTING
DAILY ENERGY REQUIREMENT Bomb calorimeter calculate the energy value of various t
ypes of food samples. The energy value/ calorific value - quantify of heat produ
ced when one gram of food is completely oxidised. Body size Gender Age Occupatio
n Climate - bigger body build, high metabolic rate, more body cells, more energy
used Male need more energy for body development- high metabolic rate, more acti
ve Children need more energy for growth- high metabolic rate, more active Person
does heavy work needs more energy- more active Colder place need more energy to
maintain body tempPregnant mother need more energy to supply energy to foetus high metabolic rate Breast-feeding mother need more energy to produce milk Low
level of thyroxine- low metabolic rate, High level of thyroxine- high metabolic
Make new cells for growing
Repair & R
rate Proteins : (meat, fish, cheese, eggs)
eplace damaged cells/tissues Make enzymes, antibodies & hormones
Lack of it: kwa
shiorkor, very weak, muscle are poorly developed
Carbohydrates: (rice, noodles, potatoes) Source of energy for motion and growth
Used to form supporting structures in plants (cell wall) Effective methods for f
ood storage (starch/glycogen)
Part of nucleus (DNA)
Lack of it : become very wea
k
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Fat : ( oils, butter, milk, nuts)

Supply energy
Part of cell membrane
Help absor
b certain vitamins (ADEK) Too much: excess fat stored under the skin (obese) Too
little: vitamins wont be absorbed, cell membrane wont be formed normally Vitamins
: Organic compound
Can be reused, small amount needed
As Biological catalyst i)
Fat soluble vitamins, A,D,E,K Stored in the body fat No need to consume everyday
(stored in the body) ii) Water soluble vitamins, C and B
Dissolved easily in wa
ter, easily lost Cannot be stored in the body, need to be consumed everyday.
Vit
amin A Function: - Healthy Epithelial tissue growth, - Formation of pigment in r
etina - As antioxidant Deficiency disease: Night blindness.
Vitamin B1 Function:
- coenzyme for carbohydrates metabolism - healthy nervous & muscular system (gr
owth) Deficiency disease: Beriberi (affects nervous system). Vitamin B3 Function
: - healthy skin, digestive & nervous system Deficiency disease: Pellagra.
Vitam
in B5 Function: - coenzyme for carbohydrates, protein & fats metabolism - antibo
dy formation - healthy skin nervous system Vitamin B5
Roughage/ fiber o Higher water holding capacity o Help peristalsis / bowel movem
ent o Prevent from constipation o Lower the cholesterol o Reduce the risk of hea
rt disease
Mineral salts:
- inorganic substances
- small amount needed
Macronutrient - requ
ired in large amount Micronutrient - required in small amount Iron - Formation o
f heamoglobin, prevent anaemia Magnesium - Bone formation, impulses transmission
, energy metabolism Phosphorus Formation of bone & ATP
Potassium & Sodium blood
osmotic balance, normal function of muscle & nervous system
Sulphur energy metab
olism & enzyme reaction

Iodine thyroxine formation, prevent goitre Zinc - growth

Water
Medium for biochemical reactions Medium for transportation of respiratory
gases
Regulates body temp. Removes excretory waste
Maintain osmotic pressure
Aid
s peristaltic movement Hydrolyse some food substances
Dissolve most chemical sub
stances
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Function: - coenzyme for carbohydrates, protein & fats metabolism - red blood ce
ll formation Deficiency disease: Anaemia & Diarrhoea
Vitamin B12 Function: tissu
e & red blood cell formation Deficiency disease: Anaemia
Vitamin C Function: Hea
lthy skin & healing of wounds, as antioxidant Deficiency disease: Scurvy
Vitamin
D/ Calcium/ flourine Function: Strong bones & teeth. Deficiency disease: Ricket
s (Soft / deformed bones)
Vitamin E Function: - tissue & red blood cell formatio
n, - as antioxidant - prevent sterility
Vitamin K Function: Help in blood clotti
ng Deficiency disease: Anaemia

MALNUTRITION -unbalanced diet due to wrong proportions of nutrition for a long t

erm Anorexia Nervosa believe themselves to be fat, extremlely thin, dont want to
eat. Bulimia Over concern with body weight, eat a lot and force themselves to vo
mit Overweight/ Obesity high risk of diabetes,hypertension, heart attack Over co
nsumption of cholesterol & arthrosclerosis (build up fatty deposits in the coron
ary arteries/ saturated fat: blood vessels Constipation lack of dietary fiber. H
igh blood Pressure Diabetes Mellitus Osteoporosis heart pump faster excessive gl
ucose in blood lack of calcium, vitamin D & phosphorus
Digestion Break down of complex food into simple form for body absorption Physic
al Digestion - breaking food into smaller pieces mechanically - Mouth chewing &
slicing action Mouth Chemical Digestion - Enzyme hydrolyse complex food into sim
oke soluble food
1. Salivary amylase digest starch into maltose, lysozyme- kill bacteria 2. Food
chewed & rolled into bolus 3. Tongue push bolus into pharynx, larynx rise & epig
lottis close glottis, trachea is closed
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4. Bolus move down the oesophagus by peristalsis Stomach 1. Gastric Gland secret
e gastic juice : - Pepsin digest protein into polypeptides - Rennin coagulates m
ilk & digest caseinogen into casein - hydrochloride acid stop salivay amylase ac
tivity, kill bacteria & provide acidic medium for rennin & pepsin Duodenum 1. Pa
ncreas secrete pancreatic juice: (Start absorption) - Pancreatic amylase digest
starch, trypsin digest polypeptides, Lipase digest lipid droplets 2. Bile produc
ed by liver & stored by gall bladder: - emulsify lipid into lipid droplets Ileum
(complete 1. Intestinal gland secrete intestinal juice absorption) - digest suc
rose, lactose & maltose, peptides, lipid * Digestion of albumen Peristalsis spon
taneous contraction & relaxation of alimentary tube Digestion of Cellulose in Hu
man, Ruminants & Rodents Similarities 1. Consume plant & digest starch, fats & p
rotein 2. Digestive system with stomach, small & large intestine 3. Contain symb
iotic bacteria ( protozoa ) to secrete cellulase Differences Human Omnivores Sin
gle stomach chamber Small caecum No protozoa no chewing cud & regurgitate food d
oes no re-ingest faeces Food Digestion Problem Indigestion (Incomplete food dige
stion) - eat too much oily food - eat too fast Ruminanats Herbivores & Omnivores
Single stomach chamber Long & well-developed caecum Protozoa in caecum no chewi
ng cud & regurgitate food re-ingest faeces Specific enzyme production decrease damage of digestive glands - diabetes mellitus & genetic factors Rodents Herbiv
ores Four Small caecum stomach chamber Big & not well-developed caecum Protozoa
in rumen have chewing cud& regurgitate food no re-ingest faeces does Formation o
f gallstone (blocked bile duct) - eat too much fatty food - obesity
Structure of Small Intestine in Relation to Absorption 1. Villi absorbed most nu
trient in the ileum, 4. Absorption in epithelial cell factors: Amino acid & gluc
ose facilitated transport - folded walls to increase total surface area fatty ac
id & glycerol simple diffusion - having very thin walled ( one cell thick ) Wate
r Osmosis - having a network of blood capillaries Mineral & Vitamin simple diffu
sion & active - Having lacteals for absorption of fatty acid & transport glycero
l 2. Intestinal crypt make epithelial cell - secrete lysozyme & intestinal juice
(alkaline fluid & mucus) to increase fluid volume in gut - goblet cell secrete
mucus
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3. Lacteals / lymphatic vessel - absorb glycerol, fatty acids & fat soluble vita
mins (ADEK) then transport via lymphatic system to bloodstream 4. Blood capillar
ies from villi merge to form hepatic portal vein which transport nutrient to liv
er Liver store & convert glucose in glycogen & amino acid into urea & flow proce
ssed nutrient into hepatic vein Assimilation - absorption of digested product by
body cell Fats & lipid Amino acids - stored by adipose tissue - Excess - underg
oes deamination into (keep body warm & stored urea energy, protect body) - gluco
se shortage -converted into - oxidise to generate energy glucose - build plasma
membrane & - help on blood clotting cholesterol - growth & repair damaged tissue
- synthesis enzyme & hormones
Glucose - excess converted into glycogen & stored in liver -shortage glycogen co
nverted back into glucose - used in cellular respiration
Function of liver - maintain blood glucose level by secretion of insulin & gluca
gon - maintain body temperature - manufacture bile, plasma protein (fibrinogen &
prothrombin )& haemoglobin - store vitamin fat soluble vitamin & nutrient - det
oxification of poisonous substances - deamination of amino acid - synthesis of v
itamin A for blood clotting Formation of Faeces - water, vitamin & salt from und
igested food are absorbed by colon - mucus to lubricates movement of faeces alon
g colon - Beneficial synthesis vitamin K & B12, produce antibiotic to kill patho
genic & digest nutrient fragments Constipation Colon Cancer Haemorrhoids faeces
hard & slow in passing due cause by prolonged constipation & Veins around anus i
nflamed & too large amount water loss toxic accumulated in colon swollen Prevent
ed by eat more roughage & drink more water & often exercise Defecation Dischargi
ng of faeces from large intestine through anus Importance 1. Excrete waste & tox
ic substances 2. Avoid toxicity & poisoning in body Gastritis Inflammation of st
omach lining Irregular meal time, too much alcohol & smoking Pain in abdomen Obe
sity Excessive body fats above than a normal weight Eat too much fatty food Lack
of exercise High risk of high blood pressure, diabetes mellitus & heart attack
Anorexia Nervosa Eating disorder by consuming food minimally Low self-esteem bel
ieve themselves to be fat, extremely thin, dont want to eat. Bulimia Nervosa Eati
ng disorder by consuming food excessively Depression, misuse of laxatives Over c
oncern with body weight, eat a lot and force themselves to vomit
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Treated with antacids

Overcoming with practicing balanced diet
Counseling & gradual restoration through nutrition
Often exercise & gradual restoration through nutrition
Plants in large amount Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium Sulphur Magnesium
Macronutrient - required -stem & leaf growth -increase seed & fruit yeild - help
in protein & ATP synthesis - help in photosynthesis & fertilization - help in p
rotein & ATP synthesis - help in chlorophyll formation - help in protein synthes
is - promotes fruit development - help in chlorophyll synthesis
Micronutrient - required in small amount Boron - help in cell wall formation - p
romotes fruit development Manganese - help in photosynthesis & fertilization Cop
per Zinc Ferum - help in chlorophyll formation - help in plant reproduction - he
lp in protein& auxin synthesis - help in chlorophyll synthesis
Leaf Structure in photosynthesis; 1. Flattened shape increasing surface area 2.
Thin so that gases can diffuse quickly 3. A vascular system to supply water & ta
ke away the products 4. Stomata To allow gas exchange 5. Chloroplast (Palisade m
esophyll cell) to capture light energy Terrestrial Plant 1. Waxy cuticle to prev
ent excessive water loss 2. Most chloroplast in palisade mesophyll to maximise p
hotosynthesis 3. Most stomata in lower epidermal layer to maximize gaseous excha
nge Floating plant 1. Waxy cuticle to prevent excessive water loss 2. Air sacs i
n aerenchyma tissue provide buoyant force 3. Most stomata in upper epidermal lay
er to maximize gaseous exchange
Importance : 1. Maintain oxygen & carbon dioxides level in environment 2. Suppli
es food directly to green plant & indirectly to animal
Submerged plant 1. Air sacs in aerenchyma tissue to support plant 2. Many small
leaves increase absorption of sunlight
Dry places plant 1. Waxy cuticle to prevent excessive water loss 2. Spiky leaves
to prevent excessive water loss 3. Shuken stomata prevent excessive water loss
4. Shiny surface to reflect heat
Photosynthesis Chlorophyll in granum capture sunlight & used to split water into
hydrogen & oxygen Carbon dioxide diffuse into stomata & oxygen released out of
stomata Hydrogen react with carbon dioxide to form glucose that store in starch
grains. Light reaction require light energy grana photolysis of water Form ATP P
roduce water & oxygen presence of light Similarities 1. Occur in chloroplast & d
uring the day Dark reaction does not require light energy stroma Reduction carbo
n dioxide Use ATP produce glucose & water after light reaction
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2. Catalysed by enzyme & involve chemical reaction Factors Carbon dioxide concen
tration photosynthesis rate increase as carbon dioxide concentration increase up
to a certain point where light intensity & temperature became the limiting fact
ors Light Intensity Photosynthesis rate is increase as light intensity increase
to a certain point where carbon dioxide & temperature became the limiting factor
s Temperature Photosynthesis dark reaction is catalysed by photosynthetic enzyme
Optimum temperature 25-300C the Temperature too high destroy the enzyme and pho
tosynthesis stops.
Ways to improve food production Direct seeding seed sown directly into soil Hydr
oponics Aeroponics Breeding Tissue Culture Genetic Engineering Soil management B
iological control growing in aerated culture solution suspended in air with root
sprayed with nutrient Dura sp & Pisifera sp = Tenera Sp ( Thick mesophyll, smal
l shell & Big kernel) grow in culture medium Manipulating DNA to produce organis
m with new characteristic Reduce soil erosion & leaching
Save cost, labour & time, increase the yield Better quality & quantity, Save spa
ce Better quality & quantity, Save space high nutritional value, higher yield &
pest resistance Better quantity & same quality as parent x Enhance growth & nutr
itional properties 1. Add fertilizer consistently 2. ploughing to increase soil
aeration 3. Practice crop rotation- improve soil fertility control pest & reduce
pesticides usage
natural prey-predator relation
Importance of Food Processing 1. Food can last longer 2. Prevent spread of disea
se 3. increase fodd commercial value 4. Avoid food wastage Ways (Food additives)
Food preservation, food enhancers, food colouring Cooking Caning Drying Ferment
ation Sugar or Salt pickling Pasteurisation Refrigeration Ultra Heat Treatment H
igh temperature kill bacteria High temperature kill bacteria, vacuum prevent bac
teria growth Water removed from bacteria, sunlight kill bacteria Ethanol remove
water from bacteria & kill bacteria create hypotonic solution to remove water fr
om bacteria by osmosis High temperature kill bacteria, maintain milk taste (720C
-15sec, 630C-30 min, then 50C) Low temperature prevent bacteria growth High temp
erature kill bacteria (1320C-1sec)
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Chapter 7 Cellular Respiration - Food oxidation to generate energy in body Aerob

ic Respiration Aerobic Respiration - glucose oxidation in oxygen to release ener
gy, CO2 - glucose oxidation in absence of oxygen to release little & water energ
y & lactic acid - energy captured by ADP & fuses with - Vigorous exercise cause
oxygen debt in muscle, More phosphate to form ATP (38) oxygen is used than is in
haled, -ATP can broke down to release energy, - Fermentation by yeast used zymas
e to hydrolyse phosphate & ADP when body required glucose to form ethanol, energ
y & CO2 Occur in mitochondrion & cytoplasm Occur in cytoplasm Similarities 1. Oc
cur in animal & plant cell 2. Cellular respiration that oxidise glucose to produ
ce energy (ATP) with enzyme to catalyse Adaptation of respiratory surface 1. thi
n (one cell thick)- effective gaseous exchange 2. moist gases diffuse in before
diffuse out 3. Large surface area maximise gaseous exchange Protozoa - no respir
atory structure - large (TSA/V) ratio to maximise gaseous exchange Insect 1. Abd
ominal relax & contract to change abdomen volume pressure. 2. Spiracles have val
ves which allow air, go in and out of tracheae which reinforced with chitin ring
s to prevent them from collapsing 3. Trachea split into large number of tracheol
es provides large surface area & thin moist wall to maximise gaseous exchange 4.
Air sacs to speed up gaseous exchange Breathing mechanism (petty) 1. Air inhale
d into buccal cavity. Glottis close & buccal cavity floor lowered to fill buccal
cavity with air. 2. Glottis open, nostril closed & buccal cavity floor raised t
o force air flow into lungs. Gaseous exchange occurs 3. Nostril open & lung musc
le contract to exhale the air
- simple diffusion of gases occur through plasma membrane
Amphibians Adaptation of skin a) thin & moist ( secretion of mucus) - allow fast
& effective gaseous exchange b) blood capillaries network under the skin maximi
se gaseous exchange Adaptation of lungs a) numerous inner partition large surfac
e area-maximise gaseous exchange b) Covered with blood capillaries network maxim
ise gaseous exchange c)thin and moist membrane allow fast & effective gaseous ex
change
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Fish Adaptation of gills: a) Thin lamella membrane - allow fast & effective gase
ous exchange b) Rich of blood capillaries maximise gaseous exchange c) Surrounde
d by water enable respiratory gases to be dissolve d) Large surface area of fila
ments & lamellae maximise gaseous exchange Countercurrent mechanism 1. Deoxygena
ted blood flows in opposite direction of water current through blood capillaries
in the lamellae, encounters higher O2 content water, concentration gradient all
ows the O2 diffuse into the blood 2. When CO2 concemtration in blood is higher t
han in water, CO2 diffused from blood into water
Breathing mechanism 1. Buccal cavity lowered to decrease buccal cavity pressure
2. Water drawn flow into mouth & through lamellae. 3. Oxygen diffuse from water
to lamellae & carbon dioxide diffuse from lamellae to water. 3. Mouth closed & b
uccal cavity raised to increase buccal cavity pressure causing operculum to open
& water to flow out.
Adaptation of Alveoli 1. large number of alveoli - increase surface area for gas
eous exchange 2. One cell thick walls fast & effective gaseous exchange 3. Moist
( wall secrete moisture) fast & effective gaseous exchange 4. Surrounded by blo
od capillaries network maximise gaseous exchange Inhalation External intercostal
muscles contract Internal intercostal muscles relax Rib cage move upwards and o
utwards Diaphragm contracts and flattens Volume of thoracic cavity increase resu
lting in low air pressure in thoracic air cavity Higher atmospheric pressure cau
ses air to flow in Transport of Oxygen Partial oxygen pressure in alveoli higher
than in blood capillary, oxygen diffuses into blood capillary. Oxygen combine w
ith heamoglobin to form oxyheamoglobin Partial oxygen pressure in blood capillar
y higher than in body tissue. Oxyheamoglobin release oxygen that difuses into bo
dy tissue Exhalation External intercostal muscles relax Internal intercostal mus
cles contract Rib cage move downwards and inwards Diaphragm relaxes and returns
to dome-shaped Volume of thoracic cavity decrease resulting in highair pressure
in thoracic air cavity Low atmospheric pressure causes internal air to flow out
Transport of carbon dioxide Partial carbon dioxide pressure in blood capillary l
ower than in body tissue, carbon dioxide diffuses into blood alveoli.Carbon diox
ide 1. dissolved in blood plasma as bicarbonate ions (70%) 2. combines with heam
oglobin to form carbaminoheamoglobin 3. dissolved in blood plasma Partial carbon
dioxide pressure in alveoli lower than in blood capillary. Carbaminoheamoglobin
release carbon dioxide that difuses into alveoli
Regulation respiration mechanism 1. During vigorous exercise, muscles require mo
re O2 and glucose to release energy during cellular respiration, 2. Rate of resp
iration increase, rate of breathing increase, heartbeat increase, 3. More O2 and
glucose can be supplied for cellular respiration and more CO2 removed from the
cells.
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4. Rate of gaseous exchange between alveoli and blood capillaries increase Regul
ation Mechanism of Carbon Dioxide Content 1. During vigorous exercise, more carb
on dioxide produced, blood pH decrease, detect by chemoreceptors in medulla oblo
ngata that sent impulses to intercostal muscle to contract & relax rapidly, brea
thing rate increase, more carbon dioxide eliminated, carbon dioxide concentratio
n & blood pH return to normal Regulation Mechanism of Oxygen Content 1. At high
altitude/Fear, oxygen concentration decrease, detect by chemoreceptors in caroti
ds & aortic bodies that sent impulses to intercostal muscle & diaphragm to contr
act. Breathing rate increase, heartbeat increase, more oxygen inhaled oxygen con
centration level return to normal Good habits to cultivate healthy respiration s
ystem 1. practice healthy diet & breathing exercise 2. do not smoke & avoids bre
athing polluted air Respiration in plant In mitochondrion for cellular respirati
on Photosynthesis light to chemical energy CO2 & H2o is used, glucose & oxygen i
s formed Water decomposed Presence of sunlight Store glucose Involve chloroplast
Chlorophyll pigment needed In green plant only
Respiration chemical to light energy glucose & oxygen is used, CO2 & H2O is form
ed Glucose decomposed All condition Used glucose Involve mitochondrion Chlorophy
ll pigment not needed In all organism
Photosynthesis rate is highest in midday (large amout of CO2 is formed) Respirat
ion rate is highest in midnight (large amout of CO2 is used) Compesation point n
o net exchange of oxygen & carbon dioxide (CO2 is formed = CO2 is used), Photosy
nthesis rate = Respiration rate Plant carries out anaerobic respiration during f
lood & initial stages of germination
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Chapter 8 Components of Environments

Abiotic components (Non-Living components) Light intensity (photosynthesis affec
t growth in plant) Humidity ( High at night, low during day) ( affect rate of wa
ter loss) Temperature (low metabolic activities decrease) topography Region aspe
ct high Altitude- low atmospheric pressure & temperature steep slope soil layer
thinner & drier pH ( affect growth of organism) microclimate ( small habitat cli
mate)
Biotic Components (Living components) Producer (1st trophic level) - Autotrophs
(green plant), use organic substances & sunlight to make food Consumer Heterotro
phs, 1st herbivores, 2nd & 3rd carnivores Decomposer - digest organic substances
& dead organism into humus (used by plant)
Food chain - sequence of one organism feeding upon another Food web - a series i
nterrelated food chains Number pyramid- show number of individuals at each troph
ic level of food chain at a period Energy flows Produce undergoes photosynthesis
that absorb sunlight. 90% energy lost to the environment & 10% is converted int
o food Energy transferred from one trophic level to another in the form of heat
Symbiosis( Interaction between different species) 1. Commensalism - One species
benefits, the the host is not affected a)Epiphyte (plant grows another plant) pigeon orchids False bulb (pseudobulbs) Aerial roots Spongy roots layer sunken s
toma
store water absorbs water vapour from air prevent tissue from drying out reduce
water loss due to evaporation
b) Epizoics - barnacles on crab & remora fish on sharks ( free ride & food) 2. M
utualism - both species of organisms benefit 1. Legumious plant provide food whi
le rhizobium sp convert nitrogen gas into organic compound for plant growth 2. A
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3. Parasitism - one organism benefits from the host a) Ectoparasites feed on the
surface of the host(e.g. ticks and fleas) b) Endoparasites shelter & feed on tis
sue in the host (e.g. tapeworms) Prey-predator An animal is haunted & eaten by a
stronger animal - regulate both organisms populations Saprophytism An organism
lives and feeds on decaying organic matter. Saprophytes (plant) - mushrooms, brea
d mould and bracket fungus. Saprozoites (bacteria) - paramecium sp & amoeba sp Co
mpetition - two organisms to obtain limited basic needs of life living space, wa
ter, minerals, sunlight, food and mates. a) Intraspecific completion ( between s
ame species) b) Interspecific competition (between different species ) colonizat
ion a process where life take place & form a colony in a newly formed area succes
sion - a process where dominant plant replaced by another plant in a habitat (sl
ow & continuous) 1) pioneer species dense root systems- to survive on dry & nutr
ient-poor soil. change habitat into more suitable habitat for another species to
live. 2) dominant species - Grow faster to out-compete pioneers - occurs in sta
ges until stable & matured community equilibrium with environment is formed. (cl
imax community) Colonisation and Succession in a Mangrove Swamp Environmental co
nditions : a) Soft muddy soil b) Waterlogged soil which lacks oxygen c) Seawater
with high salinity (high salt content) d) Strong sunlight & extreme heat. a) Av
icennia sp. (open area)& Sonneratia sp.(shaddy area) - pioneer species - pneumat
ophores (Breathing roots with spongy tissue) - enable respiration of roots & pro
vide support - viviparous seedlings geminate while attached to mother plant, flo
at on water & ensure species survival Joshua Chong Kah Leong 2012 Copyright is r
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b) Rhizophora sp. (successor) - prop / stlit roots - enable respiration of roots

& provide support - viviparous seedlings i) geminate while attached to mother p
lant & ensures seeds get sufficient oxygen, ii) ensure species survival & preven
ts seed from dehydration in the saline sea water, c) Bruguiera sp. (2nd successo
r) - pneumatophores (Breathing roots with spongy tissue) - enable respiration of
roots & provide support - buttress root - provide support - thick cuticle & sun
ken stomata of leaves - reduce transpiration rate due to high temperature d) Nyp
a sp & Pandanus sp (climax community) Sampling technique - to study the populati
on size of an organism. - involves collecting, counting, and observing organism
studied. - random and systematically. i) quadrat sampling technique (plant) - qu
adrat - square frame made of wood, string or metal. (depend on size & density of
organism studied) a)Frequency - number of times a species is found present when
a number of times quadrats is thrown b)Density - mean number of individuals of
a species per unit area. c)Percentage coverage = indication of quadrat area is o
ccupied by a species. (high population) ii) capture-mark-release &recapture tech
nique (animal ) - animal sample is captured and marked with waterproof coloured
ink, paint or nail varnish - done in 3 days & done again in 3 months enough time
for random dispersal of organism - birth rate & death rate due to old age, eate
n by predator or migration Taxonomy Study of identifying, describing & naming or
ganisms. based on similarities in their characteristics. 5 kingdoms. Monera - uni
cellular , no nuclear membrane no tissue formation & muscle Protista - unicellul
ar , have nuclear membrane, no muscle Fungi - multicellular, no chlorophyll, hav
e chitin wall & produce spore Plantae - multicellular, have chlorophyll & produc
e food (photosynthesis) Animalia - multicellular, no chlorophyll & have well-dev
eloped tissue Kingdom , Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species Naming in L
atin Joshua Chong Kah Leong 2012 Copyright is reserved for sharing & individual
purpose
Bacteria Amoeba & Paramecium saprophytes Plant Animals

Genus name (capital) followed by species name ( small letter) Biodiversity Speci
es Population Community Ecosystem Niche Habitat a diverse species of plants & an
imals interacting with one another a group of organism with similar characterist
ic living in the same habitat a group of organism of same species living in the
same habitat at the same time Several population of different species living in
the same habitat in an ecosystem A community of organism interact together & wit
h natural environment Role of an organism environment where organism live
Microorganism - microscopic organisms that cannot be seen by naked eye. Protozoa
sexual & asexual reproduction through cell division, have cilia, pseudopodium &
flagella Fungi visible to naked eye, sexual & asexual reproduction through spor
e formation & budding Bacteria asexual reproduction through binary fission & spo
re formation, visible under light microscope Algae have cell wall made of cellul
ose, have chlorophyll, reproduce through fermentation & spore (Protista) formati
on, Virus smallest microorganism, visible under electron microscope, infest on l
iving cell for nutrition & (Monera) respiration & reproduction. Have protein coa
t & form spore Nitrogen cycle To maintain balance of nitrogen content in the wat
er, soil & atmosphere. a) Nitrogen fixation( conversion of atmospheric nitrogen
is to nitrogen compounds required for growth) Nitrogen fixing bacteria (Nostoe s
p & Rhizobium sp) in root nodules convert atmospheric nitrogen into ammonium com
pounds that converted into plant protein, become animal protein when eaten by an
imal b) Decomposition, Nitrification &Denitrification 1. When the animals and pl
ants die, nitrifying bacteria, convert dead organism & waste matter into nitrite
s(Nitrosomonas sp.) & nitrates(by Nitrobacter sp.). 2. Denitrifying bacteria con
vert nitrates into atmospheric nitrogen & complete the nitrogen cycle Lightning
energy causes oxygen combine with nitrogen to form nitrogen oxide. Combine with
rain drops to form nitric acid, then combines with the soil minerals to form nit
rates & nitrites. Decomposition Saprophytes (putrefying bacteria & fungi) digest
protein in dead organism into ammonium compounds. & nutrient released in the so
il Alimentary canal of termites Protozoa (Trichonympha sp). in alimentary canals
termites secretes the cellulase & enables termite digest cellulose in wood Dige
stive system in humans a) Symbiotic bacteria in colon (caecum) synthesis vitamin
B12 (anaemia) and vitamin K. (blot clotting) Joshua Chong Kah Leong 2012 Copyri
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Chapter 9 Endangered Ecosystem 1. Green House Effect - phenomenon of increasing

temperature of the Earth
- heat is absorbed & trapped in atmosphere by greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide,
methane,CFC & nitrogen dioxide
- Effect: global warming, melting of polar caps & raising sea level, deteriorate
health Factors : increasing concentration of carbon dioxide a) Burning of fuels
in factories b) Forest fires c) Deforestation d) Open burning of rubbish e) Mot
or vehicles 2. Thinning of the ozone layer - located at the stratosphere - absor
bs harmful ultraviolet rays from reaching the Earths surface. - ozone hole - area
with low ozone concentration Factors: increasing levels of chlorofluorocarbon(C
FC) a) Coolants in air conditioners and refrigerators, b) propellants in aerosol
cans Effect : 1. Increase world temperature 2. Change climate & weather pattern
s, wind direction 3. Destroy stomata and chlorophyll in the leaves, Rate of phot
osynthesis decreases 4. Destroy aquatic organisms, disturbs ecological balance.
5. Causes skin cancer, cataract, weakens immune system CLC form chlorine atom un
der UV rays that react with ozone to form chlorine monoxide & oxygen gas. Chlori
ne monoxide react oxygen in atmosphere to form oxygen gas & chlorine atom 3. Eut
rophication Factors : Excess fertilizers in lakes, pond or rivers. 1. high conce
ntration of nitrates & phosphates promote algae bloom, increase algae population
- cover up lake surface, prevents sunlight from reaching submerged plants - aer
obic bacteria decompose more dead plants & reduces oxygen concentration in water
- increase biochemical oxygen demand(B.O.D) & cause death of aquatic organisms.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (B.O.D) - amount of oxygen taken up to decompose orga
nic waste matter in water. measure amount of organic pollutant & water pollution
s level more microorganisms, oxygen content decrease, B.O.D increase, pollution
level increases, Joshua Chong Kah Leong 2012 Copyright is reserved for sharing &
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 Methylene blue solution decolourise when presence of oxygen in water is low Defo
restation Important of rainforest - Permanent removal of trees from forest 1. Ha
bitat of flora & fauna Effect 2. Provide food & 1. soil erosion & landslide medi
cine 2. flash flood 3. Regulate world climate 3. global warming & climax change
4. Water catchment area 4. destroy natural habitat, extinction of species 5. des
troy recreation area
Mining decrease soil nutrient , hydroelectric dam flash flood Burning of fossil
fuel - release carbon dioxide, sulphur dioxide & nitrogen oxide pollute air & ca
use acid rain
Bad Agricultural pratices 1. Use excessive inorganic fertilisers &pesticides 2.
intensive farming Effect 1. pollute water source 2. cause eutrophication & flash
flood 3. Soil structure changed
Air pollution condition where pollutant enter air from various source - cause ha
ze (decrease light penetration, affect photosynthesis) - cause acid rain corrode
s buildings, soil & water acidity increase, leeching of soil nutrient, affect pl
ant growth & cause health problems Water pollution condition where pollutant ent
er water from various source Thermal pollution increasing environmental temperat
ure due to excess heat release Noise pollution unwanted man-made sound disrupts
environment & people health & welfare - factors : aeroplanes, machinery vehicles
, factories machines, piling & drilling in construction area - cause deafness, h
igh blood pressure & headache A) Biological control Method where predator is use
d to control the population of that pest in an area. use prey-predator interacti
on. a) Does not pollute environment (stop use of pesticides.) b) Does not kill o
ther organisms c) Is cheap and safe to use B) Enforcement of Environment Quality
Act - prevent environmental pollution by control licensing & examines disposal
of waste & smoke in industry C) Education - raise awareness & importance of prot
ect healthy environment for society , recycle & less polluting D) Preservation &
Conservation of ecosystem - replant trees after deforestation, restore mining l
and for agricultural, river cleaning, treat toxic & waste before disposal, use u
nleaded petrol, E) Use of renewable energy Joshua Chong Kah Leong 2012 Copyright
is reserved for sharing & individual purpose

- Solar energy, wave energy & tidal energy environment friendly

Joshua Chong Kah Leong 2012 Copyright is reserved for sharing & individual purpo
se