Lasers*

Fast decay

Pump
Transition

Laser
Transition

Fast decay

* Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation

The Ruby Laser

1960

1965

THE LARGEST LASER IN THE WORLD

National Ignition Facility
192 beams,
4 MJ per pulse

SINGLE ATOM LASER

"Experimental realization of a one-atom laser in the
regime of strong coupling," J. McKeever, A. Boca, A.
D. Boozer, J. R. Buck and H. J. Kimble, Nature 425,
268 (2003).

NANOLASERS The first room temperature UV nanowire lasers

Zinc oxide wires on a sapphire substrate self organized nano-wire forest

Pumped by 266 nm beamed at a slight angle laser wavelength 385 nm
P. Yang, UC Berkeley 2001

Courtesy A. Siegman

Charles Townes (and Mrs Townes) - 2006

Interaction of light with excited media

Excited media? Matter which has energy in excited energy levels
Process of excitations
Eexcited
Excitation
Absorption

De-excitation
Emission

Eg
Energy levels

Assumptions - quantized energy levels - electronic, vibrational rotational

Limitations Optical processes only

Emission and Absorption Basic ideas

Restrict ourselves to two level system

N2

E2 E1 = hn = hc/l

excited state
temporary state

N1

E1
ground state
rest state

Number of atoms (or molecules) / unit volume

N = number density N = N1 + N2
N1,2 = population of levels 1 & 2
Three basic processes
E

E1
Absorption

E1
Spontaneous
Emission

E1
Stimulated
Emission

Spontaneous emission
N2
Probability that the process occurs can be defined by
Rate of decay of the upper state population

N1

dN 2

AN 2
dt sp
rate of spontaneous decay (units = 1/ time)

1
sp
A

Note:

Einstein A Coefficient

= spontaneous emission lifetime ( radiative lifetime)

Rate of spontaneous decay defined for a specific transition

E1

Absorption and Stimulated Emission

We can write the rate of change of population

dN 2

W21N 2
dt st
However, now the rate of stimulated emission
is dependent on the intensity of the EM wave

W21 21F

N2

E
2

N1

E1

Stimulated
Emission

Photon flux
stimulated emission (number of photons/ unit area/unit time)
cross-section (units = area)
Similarly for Absorption

dN1

W12 N1
dt ab

W12 12F
absorption cross-section

N2

E2

N1

E1
Absorption

Stimulated emission leads to a chain

reaction and laser emission.
If a medium has many excited molecules, one photon can become
many.
Excited medium

This is the essence of the laser. The factor by which an input beam is
amplified by a medium is called the gain and is represented by G.

The Laser
A laser is a medium that stores energy, surrounded by two mirrors.
A partially reflecting output mirror lets some light out.

I0

R = 100%

I3

I1
Laser medium
with gain, G

I2

R < 100%

A laser will lase if the beam increases in intensity during a round trip:
that is, if I 3 I 0
Usually, additional losses in intensity occur, such as absorption, scattering, and reflections. In general, the laser will lase if, in a round trip:
Gain > Loss

This called achieving Threshold.

Calculating the gain:

Einstein A and B coefficients

In 1916, Einstein considered the various transition rates between

molecular states (say, 1 and 2) involving light of irradiance, I:

Absorption rate = B N1 I

Spontaneous emission rate = A N2

Stimulated emission rate = B N2 I

Laser medium

Laser gain

I(0)

Neglecting spontaneous emission:

dI
dI
c
BN 2 I - BN1I
dt
dz
B N 2 - N1 I

I(L)
0

[Stimulated emission minus absorption]

The solution is:

Proportionality constant is the

absorption/gain cross-section,

I ( z ) I (0) exp N2 N1 z
There can be exponential gain or loss in irradiance.
Normally, N2 < N1, and there is loss (absorption). But if N2 > N1,
theres gain, and we define the gain, G:

G exp N2 N1 L

If N2 > N1:

g N2 N1

If N2 < N1 :

N1 N2

Inversion
In order to achieve G > 1, that is, stimulated emission must exceed
absorption:

B N2 I > B N1 I

Inversion

N2 > N1
This condition is called inversion.
It does not occur naturally. It is
inherently a non-equilibrium state.

Energy

Or, equivalently,
Negative
temperature

Molecules

In order to achieve inversion, we must hit the laser medium very

hard in some way and choose our medium correctly.

Achieving inversion:
Pumping the laser medium
Now let I be the intensity of (flash lamp) light used to pump energy
into the laser medium:

I
I0

R = 100%

I3

I1
Laser medium

I2

R < 100%

Will this intensity be sufficient to achieve inversion, N2 > N1?

Itll depend on the laser mediums energy level system.

Rate equations for a

two-level system

N2

Pump

Laser

N1

Rate equations for the densities of the two states:

Absorption

Stimulated emission

Spontaneous
emission

dN 2
BI ( N1 N 2 ) AN 2
dt

If the total number

of molecules is N:

Pump intensity

N N1 N2

dN1
BI ( N 2 N1 ) AN 2
dt
d N

2 BI N 2 AN 2
dt

N N1 N2

2 N 2 ( N1 N 2 ) ( N1 N 2 )

d N

2 BI N AN AN
dt

N N

Why inversion is impossible

in a two-level system
d N
2 BI N AN AN
dt
In steady-state:
0 2BI N AN AN

Laser

( A 2BI )N AN
N AN /( A 2BI )
N N /(1 2BI / A)

N
N
1 I / I sat

where:

N2

I sat A / 2B

Isat is the saturation intensity.

N is always positive, no matter how high I is!

Its impossible to achieve an inversion in a two-level system!

N1

Rate equations for a

three-level system
Assume we pump to a state 3 that
rapidly decays to level 2.
Spontaneous
emission

dN 2
BIN1 AN 2
dt

Absorption

dN1
BIN1 AN 2
dt
d N
2 BIN1 2 AN 2
dt

3
2

Fast decay

Pump
Transition

Laser
Transition

The total number

of molecules is N:

N N1 N2
N N1 N2
2N2 N N
2N1 N N

d N

BIN BI N AN AN
dt

Level 3
decays
fast and
so is zero.

Why inversion is possible

in a three-level system

3
2

Fast decay

Pump
Transition

Laser
Transition

d N
1
BIN BI N AN AN
dt
In steady-state: 0 BIN BI N AN AN
( A BI )N ( A BI ) N
N N ( A BI ) /( A BI )

1 I / I sat
N N
1 I / I sat

where:

I sat A / B

Isat is the saturation intensity.

Now if I > Isat, N is negative!

Rate equations for a

four-level system
Now assume the lower laser level 1
also rapidly decays to a ground level 0.
As before:

3
Fast decay

2
Pump
Transition

dN 2
BIN 0 AN 2
dt

dN 2
BI ( N N 2 ) AN 2
dt
Because

N1 0,

N N2

d N

BIN BI N AN
dt
At steady state:

0 BIN BI N AN

1
0

Laser
Transition

Fast decay

The total number

of molecules is N :

N N0 N 2
N0 N N 2

Why inversion is easy

in a four-level system
(contd)

3
Fast decay

2
Pump
Transition

0 BIN BI N AN

1
0

( A BI )N BIN

Laser
Transition

Fast decay

N BIN /( A BI )
N ( BIN / A) /(1 BI / A)

I / I sat
N N
1 I / I sat

where:

I sat A / B

Isat is the saturation intensity.

Now, N is negativealways!

What about the

saturation intensity?

Fast decay

2
Pump
Transition

I sat A / B
A is the excited-state relaxation rate: 1/

1
0

Laser
Transition

Fast decay

B is the absorption cross-section, , divided by

the energy per photon, w: / w
Both and
depend on the
molecule, the
frequency, and
the various
states involved.

w ~10-19 J for visible/near IR light

I sat

~10-12 to 10-8 s for molecules

~10-20 to 10-16 cm2 for molecules (on
resonance)

105 to 1013 W/cm2

The saturation intensity plays a key role in laser theory.

Two-, three-, and four-level systems

It took laser physicists a while to realize that four-level systems are
best.
Two-level
system

Three-level
system

Four-level
system
Fast decay

Fast decay
Pump
Transition

Pump
Transition

Laser
Transition
Pump
Transition

At best, you get

equal populations.
No lasing.

Laser
Transition

If you hit it hard,

you get lasing.

Laser
Transition
Fast decay

Lasing is easy!

GAIN IN AN OPTICAL RESONATOR

pumping

R2

R1
l
gain/m = g
Round trip Gain (Loss) = egl R1 egl R2 = R1 R2 e2gl
Threshold R1 R2 e2gl = 1

If round trip gain is > 1, then G = R1 R2 e2gl . Note this is inherently

unstable.it will gain exponentially until ...
Saturation occursgain saturation...

Achieving Laser Threshold

An inversion isnt enough. The laser output and additional losses in
intensity due to absorption, scattering, and reflections, occur.

I0

I1
Laser medium

R = 100%

I3

Gain, G = exp(gL), and

Absorption, A = exp(-L)

The laser will lase if the beam increases

in intensity during a round trip, that is, if:

I2

R < 100%

Gain > Loss

This called achieving Threshold (minimum pump power of a laser

required for laser emission). It means: I3 > I0. Here, it means:

I3 I 0 exp( gL) exp( L) R exp( gL) exp( L) I 0

2( g ) L ln(1/ R) where R R R
1

Example:
Consider that both ends of ruby laser rod of 5 cm length are coated to have
a reflectance of R=0.9. what is the minimum fraction of excited Cr ions
achieving the threshold condition of oscillation? Assume that the
concentration of Cr ions is N 11019 cm 3, the induced-emission cross-section
is 2 1020 cm2 , and the effective loss constant of the rod is 0.011cm 1

1
2 g L ln
R
1
2 g 5 ln
0.21072
0.81
g 0.021072 g 0.021072 0.011 0.032072
0.032072
18
N 2 N1 g /

1
.
6036

10
2 10 20
N 2 N1 N 11019
2 N 2 1.16036 1019 N 2 5.8018 1018
N 2 5.8018 1018

0.58 or 58%
19
N
110

Types of Lasers
Solid-state lasers have lasing material distributed in a solid matrix
(such as ruby or neodymium:yttrium-aluminum garnet "YAG"). Flash
lamps are the most common power source. The Nd:YAG laser
emits infrared light at 1.064 nm.
Semiconductor lasers, sometimes called diode lasers, are pn
junctions. Current is the pump source. Applications: laser printers or
CD players.
Dye lasers use complex organic dyes, such as rhodamine 6G, in liquid
solution or suspension as lasing media. They are tunable over a
broad range of wavelengths.

Gas lasers are pumped by current. Helium-Neon lases in the visible

and IR. Argon lases in the visible and UV. CO2 lasers emit light in
the far-infrared (10.6 mm), and are used for cutting hard materials.
Excimer lasers (from the terms excited and dimers) use reactive
gases, such as chlorine and fluorine, mixed with inert gases such as
argon, krypton, or xenon. When electrically stimulated, a pseudo
molecule (dimer) is produced. Excimers lase in the UV.

Laser light properties:

Laser light has a number of very special properties:

It is usually emitted as a laser beam which can propagate over
long lengths without much divergence and can be focused to
very small spots.
It can have a very narrow bandwidth, while e.g. most lamps emit
light with a very broad spectrum.
It may be emitted continuously, or alternatively in the form of
short or ultrashort pulses, with durations from microseconds
down to a few femtoseconds.

The Ruby Laser

Invented in 1960 by Ted Maiman
at Hughes Research Labs, it was
the first laser.
Ruby is a three-level system, so
you have to hit it hard.

The HeliumNeon Laser

Energetic electrons in a
glow discharge collide with
and excite He atoms,
which then collide with and
transfer the excitation to
Ne atoms, an ideal 4-level
system.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Helium-neon_laser

Carbon Dioxide Laser

The CO2 laser operates analogously. N2 is pumped, transferring
the energy to CO2.

The Helium Cadmium Laser

The population inversion scheme in HeCd is similar to
that in HeNes except that the active medium is
Cd+ ions.
The laser transitions occur in the blue and the
ultraviolet at 442 nm, 354 nm and 325 nm.
The UV lines are useful for applications that require
short wavelength lasers, such as high precision
printing on photosensitive materials. Examples include
lithography of electronic circuitry and making
master copies of compact disks.

The Argon
Ion Laser

Argon lines:
Wavelength
454.6 nm
457.9 nm
465.8 nm
472.7 nm
476.5 nm
488.0 nm
496.5 nm
501.7 nm
514.5 nm
528.7 nm

Relative Power
.03
.06
.03
.05
.12
.32
.12
.07
.40
.07

Absolute Power
.8 W
1.5 W
.8 W
1.3 W
3.0 W
8.0 W
3.0 W
1.8 W
10.0 W
1.8 W

The Krypton Ion Laser

Krypton lines
Wavelength
406.7 nm
413.1 nm
415.4 nm
468.0 nm
476.2 nm
482.5 nm
520.8 nm
530.9 nm
568.2 nm
647.1 nm
676.4 nm

Power
.9 W
1.8 W
.28 W
.5 W
.4 W
.4 W
.7 W
1.5 W
1.1 W
3.5 W
1.2 W

Dye lasers

Dye lasers are an ideal four-level system, and a given dye will lase
over a range of ~100 nm.

A dyes energy levels

The lower laser level can be almost any level in the S0 manifold.

S1: 1st excited

electronic state
manifold
Pump Transition

Laser Transitions

S0: Ground
electronic state
manifold

Dyes are so ideal that its often difficult to stop them from lasing in all
directions!

Dyes cover the visible, near-IR, and

near-UV ranges.

Titanium: Sapphire (Ti:Sapphire)

Absorption and emission
spectra of Ti:Sapphire

Upper level lifetime:

3.2 msec

Al2O3 lattice

oxygen
aluminum

Ti:Sapphire lases from

~700 nm to ~1000 nm.

Diode Lasers

Some everyday applications of diode

lasers

A CD burner

Laser Printer

Laser Safety Classifications

Class I - These lasers are not hazardous.
Class IA - A special designation that applies only to lasers that are
"not intended for viewing," such as a supermarket laser scanner. The
upper power limit of Class IA is 4 mW.
Class II - Low-power visible lasers that emit above Class I levels but at
a radiant power not above 1 mW. The concept is that the human
aversion reaction to bright light will protect a person.
Class IIIA - Intermediate-power lasers (cw: 1-5 mW), which are
hazardous only for intrabeam viewing. Most pen-like pointing lasers
are in this class.
Class IIIB - Moderate-power lasers (~ tens of mW).
Class IV - High-power lasers (cw: 500 mW, pulsed: 10 J/cm2 or the
diffuse reflection limit), which are hazardous to view under any
condition (directly or diffusely scattered), and are a potential fire
hazard and a skin hazard. Significant controls are required of Class IV
laser facilities.