Abstract

In 1995, the Indonesian Government launched a project called the Mega Rice Project
(MRP) in Central Kalimantan to support the national food program. This project was a
project that called for the conversion of natural peatland areas into paddy fields in both
modern and integrated agricultural areas. However, due to some pressures by several
international foundations and considering some investigations carried out by some
government institutions related to the carbon emission from peatland areas, the
government had stopped the project in 1999. However, thousands kilometer of channel
have been developed and thousands hectare of peatlands have already changed into
dried peatland and potentially caused carbon emission and wildfire. Following the
collapse of the Mega Rice Project, a major peatland restoration project was initiated in
Central Kalimantan peatland areas. The Government of Indonesia, together with many
world foundations and institutions, launched peatlands restoration project in order to
save peatland areas in ex-MRP area of Central Kalimantan.
Of global wetland restoration, hydrology restoration requires an understanding of the
hydraulic connections between wetlands and their various hydrological aspects such as
rainfall, runoff, groundwater, and weather condition. Hydrologic conditions directly
affect various processes governing hydro-period conditions in the wetland area.
Environmental change such as the change of weather pattern and weather anomalies as
well as other factors arising from human activities, such as deforestation and land use
change, potentially affect the hydrological characteristics of the area. This study
contains research with the most intensive data and monitoring systems to investigate the
characteristics of hydrology and to model the relationship between land and water in
tropical peatland area. The main objective of this study is to introduce and recommend
some technical aspects for hydrological restoration of tropical peatland area of Central
Kalimantan Indonesia based on the some parameters invented in the study.
The research on characteristic of hydrology of tropical peatland area of Central
Kalimantan indicates that ENSO events affect the amount of rainfall in observed area,
especially during the dry season. The research also demonstrates that El Nino events
had a stronger impact on hydrological performance than La Nina events in the peatland
areas observed. Specifically, El Nino events increased the number of days with less
than 1 mm of rainfall in the dry season. In addition to ENSO events, another unrelated
factor may have decreased rainfall in the study area the effect of deforestation that has
been occurring for over 30 years in Central Kalimantan and has gradually decreased the
forest cover.
Water balance model has been developed to simulate surface/ground water level
fluctuation, to find the soil hydraulic properties of the peat soil, and to examine the

relationship between them. The model is quite successful in imitating the behavior of
ground water level on observed area indicated by its criteria design value. The model
represents vertical water balance that drives the ground water level fluctuation in the
area and also explains the role of each hydrological factor in the groundwater flow
mechanism in the observed area. Ground water level model applied in this research can
be used as a reference in the research on groundwater resource in the wetland areas,
especially the peatland areas.
In this study the criteria of fire risk in set for the region observed. Criteria for fire risk
are divided into 3 sections. The fire risk status of the area is declared safe if
groundwater level is < 25 cm below ground level. If the ground water level is between
25 cm to 40 cm below ground level, the fire risk status of the area is declared as fire
alerts. The fire risk status of the area is declared danger if groundwater level is > 40
cm below ground level. Based on the simulation in the model, safe status happened if
the rainfall of the year is normal or above normal rain (rain with probability < 50%).
The status of fire alerts happened if the rainfall of the year is between normal and
slightly below normal rain (rain with probability between 50% and 60%). If the rainfall
of the year is between below normal (rain with probability > 60%) then the status of the
area is in danger status.
The study also found that canal blocking is the most appropriate method in hidrological
peatland restoration in areas of Central Kalimantan. Although it is quite costly, canal
blocking must be developed to restore the hydrology of the peat soil into its natural state.
Several studies have shown that canal blocking is able to stabilize the water level in the
dammed area and encourage stability groundwater levels in the vicinity.
In the peatland restoration in Central Kalimantan, there are several things that must be
considered and prioritized to accelerate the restoration process. The use of telemetry is
absolutely necessary to facilitate the process of data collection and monitoring.
Conservative approach is sometimes not effective and possibly slow down the process
of restoration. Innovation referring to the rules of environment protection will be very
useful in speeding the process of hidrological restoration.

ii

TABLE OF CONTENT

Abstract

Table of Contents

iii

List of Figures

vi

List of Figures

viii

CHAPTER

INTRODUCTION

1.1. General background

1.2. Statement of the problem

1.3. Objectives

1.4. Thesis outline

1.5. References

CHAPTER

LITERATURE REVIEWS

2.1. Study site

2.1.1. Location

2.1.2.

Climate and Hydrology

2.1.3.

Soil and Topography

2.2. Tropical peat environment

2.2.1.

The origin and characteristics of tropical peat soil

2.2.2.

Distribution of Tropical Peatland in Indonesia

13

2.2.3.

Studies related to the tropical peatland of Central Kalimantan

15

2.3. Groundwater modeling

19

2.3.1.

Division of groundwater models based on the purpose of modeling

2.3.2.

Division of groundwater models based on the method of

20

calculation

21

2.3.3.

Division of groundwater models based on dimension of the model

22

2.3.4.

Philosophy of groundwater modeling used in this research

22

2.4. References

25

iii

CHAPTER 3 HYDROLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS IN

TROPICAL PEATLAND AREAS OF CENTRAL KALIMANTAN

THE

3.1. Introduction

30

3.2. Hydrological data

30

3.3. ENSO effects on rainfall characteristics

32

3.4. Results and discussions of the study

34

3.5. Conclusions

41

3.6. References

42

CHAPTER 4 MODELING GROUNDWATER RESPONSES

TOWARDS HYDROLOGICAL EVENTS IN TROPICAL PEATLAND
AREA
4.1. Introduction

45

4.2. Preliminary study

45

4.2.1.

Research Methodology

46

4.2.2.

Results and Discussions

48

4.3. Modeling Shallow Groundwater Fluctuation in the Tropical Peatland

of Central Kalimantan

49

4.3.1.

Research Methodology

49

4.3.2.

Results and discussions

53

4.4. Conclusion

56

4.5. References

56

CHAPTER 5 EVALUATION OF FIRE RISK BASED ON

GROUNDWATER LEVEL FLUCTUATION
5.1. Introduction

67

5.2. Vertical water balance in peatland area of Central Kalimantan

67

5.3. Fire risk estimation based on groundwater level fluctuation

69

5.4. Conclusion

72

5.5. References

73

iv

CHAPTER 6 EFFORTS IN HYDROLOGICAL RESTORATION IN

CENTRAL KALIMANTAN PEATLAND AREA
6.1. Introduction

76

6.2. The effect of Canal Damming on the Surface Water Level Stability

77

6.3. Some recommendations for hydrological restoration

83

6.4. Conclusion

86

6.5. References

86

CHAPTER

CONCLUSIONS

7.1. Hydrological characteristics of peatland area observed

88

7.2. Surface/ground water behavior in the peatland area observed

88

7.3. Fire risk based on surface/ground water level behavior

89

7.4. Evaluation for existing methods and some recommendations for

hydrological restoration

89

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1.

Location of the study

Figure 2.2.

Average annual precipitation for the period 19782004

(top) and average monthly precipitation (bottom)

Long section and the illustration of peat dome of Kalampangan

Canal

Figure 2.3.

Figure 2.4.

Distribution of peatland areas in Indonesia

14

Figure 2.5.

Philosophy of Tank model (Sugawara, 1974)

24

Figure 2.6.

The philosophy of Tank model adopted for groundwater

model of groundwater fluctuation in the peatland area
of Central Kalimantan.

24

Study area and location of the climatic station where rainfall

data were collected. Shaded area is the ex-MRP area. Hydrological
data was recorded at climatic station located at Tjilik Riwut Airport,
Palangkaraya which about 10 km from the area of study.

31

Figure 3.1.

Figure 3.2.

Annual rainfall amounts collected at the Palangkaraya Station Central

Kalimantan, Indonesia.
31

Figure 3.3.

The trend in annual rainfall during the dry and rainy seasons at the
Palangkaraya station in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. Data along
the y-axis is the annual sum of rainfall in a given season.

35

Correlation coefficients between annual average SOI and monthly

rainfall at Palangkaraya station in Central Kalimantan, Indonesia,
between 19782008.

35

Figure 3.4.

Figure 3.5.

The comparison between the average rainfall of El Nino years,

La Nina years, and ordinary years (years of non El Nino and La Nina
years) for dry season and rainy season.
36

Figure 3.6.

The number of days with less than 1 mm of rainfall between 1978-2008.

White bars denote the number of days with less than 1 mm of rainfall
during El Nino events while black bars and shaded bars illustrate the
ones during La Nina events and non-ENSO years.
37

Figure 3.7.

Dynamic slopes formed by the segmented regression for m = 7 (ak,7)

using data spanning the years 1978-2008. The upper line is the trend
line group for the dry season. Another one is for rainy season.

vi

39

Figure 3.8.

Intercepts derived from the segmented regression for m = 5, m = 7,

and m = 9. The upper data series is rainy season data and the other
group is dry season data.

39

Location of the study and point of ground water measurement.

The bog or sphagnum area, transitional area, and sasa area are
presented by the points of E, W, and W, respectively.

47

Figure 4.2.

The philosophy of groundwater level modeling

47

Figure 4.3.

Study area of modeling shallow groundwater fluctuation in

the tropical peatland of Central Kalimantan

50

Figure 4.4.

Diagram of GWL fluctuation mechanism used in the model

51

Figure 4.5.

The best fit values of Kc and Sy for shallow groundwater

well simulations

54

Figure 4.6.

Boundary condition of Q, Kc, and Sy in the model

55

Figure 5.1.

Graphical presentation of monthly vertical water balance of Block-C

area of ex-MRP, Central Kalimantan
68

Figure 5.2.

Simulated groundwater level for year 1991 1995 of Swtr2

at Block-C area. GWL at initial condition of simulation is
determined + 0.1m above the ground level.

69

Graphical presentation of the relationship between monthly rainfall

and the chance occurrence in Block-C ex-MRP.

70

Figure 4.1.

Figure 5.3.

Figure 5.4.

Graphical presentation of the status of daily groundwater level based

on daily rainfall and the chance occurrence in Block-C of ex-MRP.
In the initial condition of the model, water level is assumed at
position 0.1 m above the ground level.
72

Figure 6.1.

Location of the study. Lg 1 until Lg 11 is surface water

level meter measuring devices and loggers. White triangular is
the symbol of the dam set to stabilize groundwater table in
surrounding areas.

78

Figure 6.2.

Illustration of canal blocking/dam construction in Kalampangan Canal 79

Figure 6.3.

The range of normal water level of every station

79

Figure 6.4.

Flow regimes in Kalampangan Canal and Taruna Canal

82

vii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1.

Dynamic slopes and their regression coefficients for the ak,m series
formed by the segmented regression for m = 5, m = 7, and m = 9
for the years 1983, 1993, and 2003.

38

Table 4.1.

The best fit model of each year of simulation

48

Table 4.2.

Location of each observation wells and their characteristics

50

Table 4.3.

The best fit values of simulation and the testing criteria

values of the model

54

The relationship between monthly rainfall and the chance

occurrence in Block-C ex-MRP.

71

Normal water level range of Taruna Canal and Kalampangan Canal.

All values are in m unit.

80

Correlation analysis results for water levels of two stations

81

Table 5.1.

Table 6.1.

Table 6.2.

viii