Generator Protection

Figure 2

Assignment of protection equipment to stator, rotor and drive

Protection of the rotor

Protection of
drive (turbine)
reserve power protection
sudden-power-change relays

underfrequency protection

rotor ground -fault protection

load unbalance protection
field-failure protection
load-angle limiter

1. Stator protection
1.1

Rise-in-voltage protection

Generators that supply voltage via transformers to overhead power transmission lines are protected
against external overvoltage, e.g. due to lightning incidence in the lines or in their vicinity, by
means of surge voltage protectors.

Training Program
Generator Protection

If a voltage controller adjusts the excitation of the generator to a maximum, due to an interruption
in the actual-value acquisition system, and if the generator is running in open circuit or in isolated
operation, a terminal voltage overshoot will be the result.

1.2

Overcurrent protection

The classic overcurrent-time protection is a back-up protection that responds also to faults in the
power system. Thus, it must be adjusted to a value 5 to 10 sec above the longest selective time
interval of the power system protection. The current setting is 1.35 In.

1.3

Overload protection

The stator winding temperature is monitored by means of thermocouples. In case of larger

generators, it is additionally possible to use an overload relay for digital measurement of the
thermal image.
Since, due to the method of measurement, the relay allows maximum utilization of the generator, it
causes interruption if the tripping curve has been exceeded.
If an overload alarm is sufficient, this can also be accomplished with an overcurrent-time relay, by
setting these relays to 1.15 In. In this case, the time delay may be 10 sec.

1.4

Differential protection

The differential protection has the task to interrupt within the shortest possible time in case of
interwinding fault or phase-to-phase short circuit. For reasons of reliability, this protective
equipment is designed with three measuring systems. In case of short circuits in the generator set, at
least two systems will respond at the same time, since in Germany, the generator neutral point of
medium-voltage generators is not grounded. Thus, only 2- or 3-pole short circuits are possible.
The differential relay compares the current on the neutral point end and on the terminal lead end
and must therefore be connected to current transformers in the neutral point and on the terminal
lead end of the generator.

Generator Protection

A differential current flows through the relay if the current in the neutral point is different from the
current on the terminal lead end. If the set pickup current - for generators, depending on the
adjustment, 10 to 25% In - is reached, the relay responds immediately.

1.5

Distance or impedance protection

In case of larger generators it is advisable to provide a 3-pole minimum impedance relay as back-up
protection to the differential protection. The relay is connected to current transformers in the neutral
point of the generator and to voltage transformers of the generator leads.
Its pickup impedance is so adjusted that the relay is tripped only by short circuits in the system that
is connected to the generator via a direct conductive connection, and does not respond to faults
beyond the transformers (setting = about half the impedance of the generator transformer). In case
of faults in the generator, the relay does not measure a defined impedance, however it protects 60%
to 80% of the winding length. As a rapid-response back-up to the differential protection, the relay is
set to minimum time, 500 msec.

1.6

Turn-to-turn fault protection

This equipment is no longer used for today's large generators. Since these generators are designed
with two conductors per slot, prior to occurrence of a turn-to-turn fault, occurrence of a ground fault
is more probable.

1.7

Ground-fault protection

This protection system is of crucial importance, since it is able to detect the first insulation puncture
with only a few amperes of ground-fault current and to interrupt the generator and to de-excite it
before fusion welding of the stator lamination occurs. Thus, damage is minimized and the growing
of the fault into an interwinding fault or turn-to-turn fault is avoided.

Generator Protection

Ground-fault protection for unit connection

95% stator ground-fault protection
In case of a ground fault, the voltages between conductor and ground change by the displacement
voltage U0, which is used as criteria for selective ground-fault detection in unit connections.
Conventionally designed ground-fault protection equipment measures the displacement voltage
either at the open-delta-connected secondary winding of a grounding transformer which is
connected to the generator leads, or at the secondary winding of a voltage transformer which is
connected between generator neutral point and ground.
The magnitude of the displacement voltage in case of a ground fault occurring in the stator winding
of the generator depends on the position of the ground fault in the winding. In case of a ground fault
at the generator terminals the full displacement voltage U0 is measured, whereas a ground fault in
the neutral point itself and in its vicinity does not generate a displacement voltage. Thus, it is not
possible to detect ground faults in the neutral point and in its vicinity by means of measuring the
power-frequency displacement voltage. This kind of protection is able to detect ground faults
ranging from 0 to about 95% of the generator winding, calculated from the terminal.
For large generator-transformer units (> 150 MVA), particularly with regard to the high economic
value they represent, it is demanded to protect the stator winding against ground faults up to the
neutral point, i.e. protection covering the whole range from 0 to 100% of the winding length, in
addition to the 95% ground-fault protection described above.
In combination with the 100% protection, the 95% protection is used as back-up protection and as
such it is adjusted to a slightly lower sensitivity, i.e. about 85%.
100% stator ground-fault protection
The introduction of the static protection made it possible to eliminate the influence of powerfrequency interference voltage for the 100% stator ground-fault protection by using non-power
frequency voltages. Due to the so attained high noise-to-signal ratio, only a low displacement
voltage at the generator neutral point is necessary. Use of the lowest possible frequency is useful
since here only low currents flow via the capacitance to ground. Of the two known measuring
principles of this kind, one uses 20 Hz and the other 12.5 Hz.

Generator Protection

The main characteristics of this type of protection are:

Small limited continuous displacement voltage of about 2% of the generator phase voltage.
Such a small voltage displacement does not exert any influence on the aging of the generator
insulation.

Restriction of the damage to a minimum, in case of occurrence of a ground fault, by restricting

the ground-fault current to 5 A in case of terminal ground fault.

No false trippings in case of transient processes and ground faults in the high voltage system.
Thus it is possible to dispense with the ground-fault test at the high-voltage of the generator
transformer during commissioning.

Readiness of the measuring system for operation not only during peak-load operation, shutdown
and normal operation, but also during standstill. The particular advantage - readiness for
operation during standstill - is that the best suitable setting of the protection can be determined
with the generator at standstill. Thus, when the generator is excited, only check measurements
are necessary.

During operation without ground fault, a low current (some mA) flows through the stator winding
capacitances and through the capacitances of the electrically connected circuit to earth. In case of
ground fault, these capacitances get short-circuited and the current rises above the level of ground
fault-free operation. This increase of the current to a maximum of 5 A is used for ground-fault
detection.
Both protection systems - the 0% to 85% protection operating with displacement voltage, as well as
the 0% to 100% protection operating with 20 or 12.5 Hz power frequency - trip after about 0.5 sec.
As already mentioned above, the protection systems are assigned to the different protection groups.

1.8

Mechanical generator protection

Generator cooling (gas, water), generator temperatures (slot thermometer) and sealing oil circuits
are monitored within the scope of the generator equipment protection system which is part of the
scope of supply of the generator manufacturer. The detectors are arranged at the parts to be
monitored and the evaluation (signalling, time delay, logic operation etc.) is performed in cabinets

Generator Protection

particularly provided for this purpose. The OFF commands of these protection devices exert effect
on the turbine emergency tripping. Other switching devices are operated via the tripping system of
the electrical unit protection.
A "Recommendation on Mechanical Generator Protection" published by VDEW lists the protection
measures which may result from exceeding thermal limits, occurrence of leakages and other
functions. The systematic treatment and explanation of the different criteria and the variants for
tripping on faults and the description of an appropriate procedure to select the criteria for special
cases of application may be gathered from these recommendations. They are intended to help assist
the operator and manufacturer during the decision-making process and to help in finding the
technical and economic optimum for different conditions. The recommendations focus on that part
of mechanical monitoring that results in tripping on faults after an alarm signal.

2. Rotor protection
The rotors are primarily exposed to mechanical stress, particularly since they usually rotate at a
speed of 3000 rpm. But also with regard to thermal and electrical conditions, this part of the
generator is highly utilized. With increasing output and changing excitation systems, the importance
of the rotor protection equipment has become even greater.

2.1

Rotor ground-fault protection

A single-pole ground fault in the rotor does not affect normal operation of a generator. However,
quick detection of the ground fault is necessary in any case, since a second ground fault and thus a
short circuit might occur.
Whereas in earlier times the rotor ground-fault relay triggered only an alarm signal, today it causes
stopping of the generator. This became necessary because interuptions occured in the area of d.c.
current supply from the sliprings to the rotor winding, causing severe damage. The electric arc
occurring in case of interruption of the d.c. circuit is connected to ground via the rotor core, thus the
ground-fault relay can detect this fault and stop the generator.
Reliable detection of insulation faults in the rotor circuit has become more difficult - and thus more
technically sophisticated - since the principle of d.c.-excitation was given up. The d.c.-exciter
system supplies a direct current almost free of harmonic waves. Assisted by a low a.c. voltage

Generator Protection

between inductor circuit and ground, it was possible to monitor the insulation for ground faults in
an easy way - by means of a relay which was connected in series with the d.c. power source.
With the introduction of the static excitation additional problems arose from the harmonic wave
content of the direct current and the growing capacity of the rotor against ground. For these cases of
application, protection equipment was designed that works on the basis of low-frequency injection
signals, so that there is a sufficient distance to interference frequencies. This equipment has a twostep design for a separately adjustable alarm (signaling) and tripping. Moreover, there is equipment
which additionally allows digital displaying of the insulation resistance whose value is permanently
inquired.
If the excitation current of the rotor winding is fed via brushes and sliprings, the rotor ground-fault
protection can be taken out of service by a switching device, for the period required for replacing
the brushes, which may be necessary during operation.
In case of excitation systems with rotating rectifiers, sliprings are necessary for connecting the rotor
ground-fault protection to the excitation circuit. Since only a low measuring current of a few mA
flows through the sliprings, special brushes are used to ensure a low brush contact resistance.

2.2

Load unbalance protection

In case of unbalanced operation of the generator, a contra-rotating magnetic field occurs in the air
gap, which induces currents within the rotor with the double frequency, i.e. currents of 100 Hz ,
which due to the skin effect mainly heat up additionally the rotor surface, mainly the rotor end-bells
and the slot wedges.
Due to the high grade of utilization of the rotors of large generators, only shorter periods of load
unbalances are permitted than in the case of smaller generators. Thus, the unbalance protection
becomes more important and also the requirements concerning measuring accuracy rise
accordingly.
Load unbalances are measured using a two step relay which is connected to current transformers in
the generator neutral point. The first step, set to a low load unbalance within the admissible range,
triggers a signal after approximately 5 sec., whereas the second step, set to a value above the
admissible load unbalance, causes interruption after a period of 5 to 15 sec. Since the load

Generator Protection

unbalance protection can also respond in case of asymmetrical short circuits in the power system,
its disconnecting time must be set to a longer time than the longest time setting of the power system
protection, if possible, and provided that the thermal reserve of the rotor makes this possible.

2.3

Underexcitation protection

The underexcitation protection is to avoid operation of the generator in the unstable range. An
underexcitation may arise as a result of failure of the automatic voltage regulator or as a result of
wrong operation of the voltage regulation of generators and transformers or in case that the
generator is operated on a power system with capacitive load. In this case, underexcitation means
that the excitation of the synchronous generator is lower than is necessary for stable operation at a
certain watt output.
In case of a complete failure of excitation, e.g. caused by unintentional opening of the magnetic
field switch or by an interruption in the excitation circuit, turbine generators usually pull out of
synchrony immediately. In case of asynchronous operation a slip frequency arises in the rotor.
Since this slip frequency is very small (e.g. a 1% slip causes a difference of 0.5 Hz), it exerts its
effect deep inside the rotor, i.e. in case of asynchronous operation, the rotor is heated additionally
more in its center (in contrast to the stress caused by load unbalance), e.g. at the slot base, with the
result that the insulation is exposed to increasing temperatures.
The minimum excitation limit can be gathered from the performance curve of the synchronous
generator. This excitation limit is referred to as static stability curve of the generator. If the
excitation is not sufficient for the demanded power output, this stability curve is exceeded and the
generator slips.
In case of failure of the excitation, the generator draws its magnetizing power from the connected
power system. The reactive power can almost reach the dimension of the nominal generator output.
At the same time its own reactive power supply to the power system fails. Suddenly, both reactive
powers have to be provided by other feeding generators of the power system, which thus run the
risk of overloading. In order to avoid the described events or to limit them in time, it is necessary to
detect the cause of the fault by means of underexcitation protection equipment and to quickly stop
the generator.
Today's excitation and voltage regulation systems are provided with different types of excitation
limiters. In cooperation with the voltage controller, they allow optimum utilization of the generator.

Generator Protection

Moreover, they increase the safety of parallel operation. Common to all types of limiters is that they
influence the voltage controller and thus cause a corresponding change of excitation.
The important criterion for the underexcited area is the rotor displacement angle (load angle). The
load-angle limiter must directly interfere by directly increasing the excitation, in order to avoid a
further increase of the rotor displacement angle resulting in the generator's pulling out of
synchrony.
Rotor displacement-angle regulation becomes effective with growing capacitative load.
Capacitative load occurs e.g. during low-load periods in larger cable systems in cities. Also highvoltage lines with low loads, which may arise in case of load shedding of the short-range load, have
a capacitative effect. Wrong operation, failure of the voltage regulator or malfunction of the power
system's variable-ratio transformer result also in heavy underexcitation and a too large rotor
displacement angle of the generator.
Of course, the rotor displacement angle limiter does not replace the generator protection, but is to
avoid the generator protection's response in case of extreme, short-period operating conditions. If
such a limiter is available, it is merely possible to consider whether a signalling step of the
underexcitation protection is necessary. If the rotor displacement-angle limiter interferes, a signal is
issued and transmitted to the control room.

2.4

Rotor overload protection

In order to directly detect thermal overload processes, particularly with regard to the small thermal
time factors of the rotors of large generators, a thermal protection is looped into the excitation
circuit. In case of an excitation equipment with rotating rectifiers, the stator current is fed to the
auxiliary exciter; in case of thyristor-excited (static excitation) generators, the secondary current of
the excitation transformer is fed via current transformers to the relay.
A maximum utilization of the generator rotor is reached by creating a thermal image of the winding
temperature in the relay, which enables the relay to follow even rapid load changes. The thermal
image is created on a digital basis. The rise in temperature in the rotor is reproduced in form of an
e-function in a pulse count store by means of counting up and down. When the adjustable
continuous current is exceeded, a signal is issued to the operating staff in order to eliminate the
overload before the temperature limit of the rotor is reached.

Generator Protection

3. Drive protection (turbine)

3.1

Reverse-power protection

The reverse-power protection protects the prime mover (turbine protection). It has to perform two
important protective tasks:
a) Failure or interruption of the driving power of the turbine is to avoid heating of the turbine
blades by windage. Without driving power, the turbine generator is kept at full (synchronous)
rotation speed by the generator acting as the driving motor instead of the turbine. If this
operating condition - heating of blades by windage - continues, the turbine is exposed to
thermal risks. Thus, the reverse-power relay disconnects the turbine generator from the power
system, with a time delay that is not yet dangerous for the turbine.
b) The reverse-power protection is to avoid dangerous overspeed resulting from insufficient steam
shut-off due to leaking valves, impurities, rust, or salination at the valve cone. This is
implemented by effecting tripping of the power-circuit breaker only when the generator
receives power from the connected power system, i.e. when it has become motor-driven. The
reverse-power criteria is thus used as reliable information that there is no steam quantity left
(residual steam or seepage steam at insufficiently closed shut-off devices), that might accelerate
the turbine generator after disconnection from the power system to a speed exceeding the
nominal rotation speed.
In addition to the protective tasks described above, there is also the demand that the relay perform
the disconnection from the power system within the shortest possible period in case of emergency
stops or tripping of the turbine protection that operates the turbine trip. However, with regard to the
risk of spurious tripping in case of active-power load oscillation, it is recommended to set the delay
time of the rapid step not below 2 sec.
The applicable reverse-power relays are equipped with a power measuring device which may be
designed as a single-phase or a three-phase measuring circuit, and two time steps. In case of failure
of the driving power they are to respond safely. Thus, the setting must not exceed the value of the
motoring power (no-load power) multiplied by 0.7. Gas turbine generators have the highest
motoring power values, large steam turbine generators the lowest. The set value for large steam
turbine generators is about 0.5% of the nominal active power. At this value, the relay must respond

Generator Protection

safely, independently of the reactive power the generator was running with at the moment of
occurrence of the reverse power.
The quick time step (2 sec.) of the relay is released when the emergency tripping valves are closed,
i.e. this step is locked via a contact of the turbine trip gear. The slower time step, set to a period of
10 to 20 sec., trips in case of failure or shut-off of the driving power after the set period has passed.
This step is also used for the operational shutdown of the unit. For this, the control valves are
closed; disconnection from the power system is then effected by the reverse power protection.
By means of this procedure the turbine generator is prevented from accelerating to dangerous
overspeed after separation from the power system, due to insufficient steam shut-off.
In case of active power oscillations of the generator close to the rotor displacement angle = 0,
short reverse-power surges arise. They can be detected neither by the quick-response step (since the
emergency tripping valves are open) nor by the slow-response step (since the set time is too long).
In order to accomplish tripping after passing of the period of the slow-response step, it is necessary
to trip this pulse-type excitation of the relay via a time integrator. For this, the starting information
of the discriminating element is picked up and fed to a cumulative delay-on-release timer. This
timer maintains the information until the next reverse-power surge arrives. The delay-on-release
timer must be adjusted in such a way that it can bridge the time interval between two consecutive
reverse power surges. For today's power system and generator conditions it is recommended to set
the release time to 1.5 sec. However, the release step must never be adjusted to a value equal to or
higher than the quick step, since in this case a reverse power surge of infinitely small duration
would result in disconnection.
In order to avoid unwanted tripping of the reverse-power protection due to insufficient steam
supply, after paralleling the unit with the power system it is useful to signal the response of the
reverse-power protection without delay.
As already mentioned, the reverse-power protection is to avoid dangerous overspeed, for which
interruption of the power-circuit breaker is effected only after the reverse power has been measured.
An exception, however, is made in case of electric faults in the generator or the connected operating
equipment. In case of a fault in the generator, e.g. a short circuit, the fault location has to be
disconnected as fast as possible from the power supply. So, there is no time for proving first that
there is an actual danger of overspeed, i.e. there is not time for waiting until the reverse-power relay
responds. Since there is a multiple protection of the turbine against overspeed, the very small risk of

Generator Protection

overspeed is accepted in order to limit the damage to the generator as much as possible and thus, the
generator differential relay is directly connected to the generator breaker tripping. At the same time
the turbine emergency tripping is tripped. Thus, in case of occurrence of a generator fault, a shutdown safe turbine is always assumed.

3.2

Underfrequency protection turbine/generator

With decreasing frequency of the power system, turbine generators reach rotation speed ranges in
which a safe operation of the unit is no longer possible, e.g. because meeting its own auxiliary
demand is not ensured. Therefore it is necessary to effect disconnection from the power system at
47.5 Hz by means of the underfrequency protection. The generator set is then regulated to a rotation
speed corresponding to its drooping characteristic and continues to supply auxiliary power. Another
underfrequency step, set to 47 Hz, may be used as underspeed protection in order to protect the
rotor and the voltage transformers and transformers connected to the generator leads against
inadmissible heating, in case of a corresponding type of excitation, e.g. thyristor excitation.
The measuring accuracy of the underfrequency protection is independent of the level of measuring
voltage. Below a measuring voltage of about 0.6 UN, the relay is blocked in order to ensure that
there is no tripping command in case of standstill or start-up of the turbine.