Archaeology

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For the magazine about archaeology, see Archaeology (magazine). For the album by
the pastiche/parody Beatles band, see The Rutles Archaeology.
Roman ruins, Lausanne, Switzerland.
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v t e
Archaeology, or archeology,[1] is the study of human activity in the past, prima
rily through the recovery and analysis of material culture. The archaeological r
ecord consists of artifacts, architecture, biofacts or ecofacts, and cultural la
ndscapes. Archaeology can be considered both a social science and a branch of th
e humanities.[2] In North America, archaeology is considered a sub-field of anth
ropology,[3] while in Europe archaeology is often viewed as either a discipline
in its own right or a sub-field of other disciplines, such history in the United
Kingdom or geology in France.
Archaeologists study human prehistory and history, from the development of the f
irst stone tools at Lomekwi, eastern Africa, 3.3 million years ago up until rece
nt decades. Archaeology as a field is distinct from the discipline of paleontolo
gy, the study of fossil remains. Archaeology is particularly important for learn
ing about prehistoric societies, for whom there may be no written records to stu
dy. Prehistory includes over 99% of the human past, from the Paleolithic until t
he advent of literacy in societies across the world.[2] Archaeology has various
goals, which range from understanding culture history to reconstructing past lif

eways to documenting and explaining changes in human societies through time.

The discipline involves surveying, excavation and eventually analysis of data co
llected to learn more about the past. In broad scope, archaeology relies on cros
s-disciplinary research. It draws upon anthropology, history, art history, class
ics, ethnology, geography, geology, linguistics, semiology, physics, information
sciences, chemistry, statistics, paleoecology, paleontology, paleozoology, pale
oethnobotany, and paleobotany.
Archaeology developed out of antiquarianism in Europe during the 19th century, a
nd has since become a discipline practiced across the world. Since its early dev
elopment, various specific sub-disciplines of archaeology have developed, includ
ing maritime archaeology, feminist archaeology and archaeoastronomy, and numerou
s different scientific techniques have been developed to aid archaeological inve
stigation. Nonetheless, today, archaeologists face many problems, such as dealin
g with pseudoarchaeology, the looting of artifacts, a lack of public interest, a
nd opposition to the excavation of human remains.

Contents
1
History
1.1
Antiquarians
1.2
First excavations
1.3
Development of archaeological method
2
Purpose
2.1
Theory
3
Methods
3.1
Remote sensing
3.2
Field survey
3.3
Excavation
3.4
Analysis
3.5
Computational and virtual archaeology
3.6
Drones
4
Academic sub-disciplines
4.1
Historical archaeology
4.2
Ethnoarchaeology
4.3
Experimental archaeology
4.4
Archaeometry
4.5
Cultural resources management
5
Popular views of archaeology
6
Current issues and controversy
6.1
Public archaeology
6.2
Pseudoarchaeology
6.3
Looting
6.4
Descendant peoples
6.4.1 Repatriation
7
See also
8
References
9
Bibliography
10
Further reading
11
External links
History[edit]
Main article: History of archaeology
Antiquarians[edit]
Main article: Antiquarian
The science of archaeology (from Greek ,
h  f
m ,
kh s, " n
)[4] 
ew ut f the de
mut-dspn
y study knwn s ntqu
 nsm. Ant
qu
 ns studed hst
y wth p
tu
ttentn t nent
tef ts nd m n
us
pts, s we s hst
  stes. Antqu
 nsm fused n the emp
  e
vdene th t exsted f
the unde
st ndn f the p st, en psu ted n the mtt
 f the 18th-entu
y ntqu
y, S
Rh
d Ct H
e, "We spe k f
m f ts n

t the
y". Tent tve steps tw
ds the system tz tn f
h ey s sen
e tk p e du
n the Enhtenment e
n Eu
pe n the 17th nd 18th entu

es.[5]
In Eu
pe, phsph  nte
est n the
em ns f G
e-Rm n vs tn nd
the
edsve
y f  ss  utu
e be n n the  te Mdde Ae. F v Bnd
 n It  n Ren ss ne hum nst hst
 n 
e ted system t ude t the
u
ns nd tp
phy f nent Rme n the e
y 15th entu
y f
whh he h s be
en  ed n e
y funde
f
h ey. Antqu
 ns, nudn Jhn Le nd
nd W m C mden, nduted su
veys f the Ensh unt
ysde, d
wn, des

bn nd nte
p
etn the mnuments th t they enunte
ed.
F
st ex v tns[edt]
An e
y pht
ph f Stnehene t ken Juy 1877
One f the f
st stes t unde

h e  ex v tn w s Stnehene nd 
the
me th mnuments n En nd. Jhn Aub
ey w s pnee

h est wh

e
ded nume
us me th nd the
fed mnuments n suthe
n En nd. He
w s s he d f hs tme n the n yss f hs fndns. He ttempted t h

t the h
n  styst evutn f h ndw
tn, medev 
htetu
e,
stume, nd shed-sh pes.[6]
Ex v tns we
e s 

ed ut n the nent twns f Pmpe nd He
u neu
m, bth f whh h d been ve
ed by sh du
n the E
uptn f Munt Vesuvus 
n AD 79. These ex v tns be n n 1748 n Pmpe, whe n He
u neum they b
e n n 1738. The dsve
y f ent
e twns, mpete wth utenss nd even hum
n sh pes, s we the une
thn f nent f
ess, h d b mp t th
uhu
t Eu
pe.
Hweve
, p

t the devepment f mde
n tehnques, ex v tns tended t be
h ph z
d; the mp
t ne f nepts suh s st
tf tn nd ntext we
e 
ve
ked.[7]
Devepment f
h e  methd[edt]
A
tf ts dsve
ed t the 1808 Bush B

w ex v tn by S
Rh
d Ct H

e nd W m Cunnntn.
The f the
f
h e  ex v tn w s W m Cunnntn (17541810). He und
e
tk ex v tns n Wtsh
e f
m
und 1798,[8] funded by S
Rh
d Ct
H
e. Cunnntn m de metuus
e
dns f neth nd B
nze Ae b

ws
, nd the te
ms he used t  te
se nd des
be them
e st used by
h e
sts td y.[9]
One f the m j
hevements f 19th entu
y
h ey w s the devepment f
st
t
phy. The de f ve
 ppn st
t t
n b k t suessve pe
ds
w s b

wed f
m the new e  nd p  ent  w
k f sh
s ke
W m Smth, J mes Huttn nd Ch
es Lye. The pp tn f st
t
phy
t
h ey f
st tk p e wth the ex v tns f p
ehst
  nd B
nze
Ae stes. In the th
d nd fu
th de des f the 19th entu
y,
h ests
ke J ques Buhe
de Pe
thes nd Ch
st n J
ensen Thmsen be n t put the

tf ts they h d fund n h
n  
de
.
A m j
fu
e n the devepment f
h ey nt


us sene w s the

my ffe
nd ethnst, Auustus Ptt Rve
s,[10] wh be n ex v tns 
n hs  nd n En nd n the 1880s. Hs pp
 h w s hhy methd  by the st
nd
ds f the tme, nd he s wdey
e
ded s the f
st sentf
h e
st. He

ned hs
tef ts by type 
"typ y, nd wthn types by d
te 
"h
n y". Ths stye f

nement, desned t hhht the e
vutn
y t
ends n hum n
tef ts, w s f en
mus snf ne f
the u

te d tn f the bjets. Hs mst mp
t nt methd  nnv tn w s hs

nsstene th t 
tef ts, nt just be utfu 
unque nes, be eted

nd  t ued.[11]
W m Fnde
s Pet
e s nthe
m n wh m y etm tey be  ed the F the

f A
h ey. Hs p nst kn
e
dn nd study f
tef ts, bth n Eypt
nd  te
n P estne,  d dwn m ny f the de s behnd mde
n
h e

e
dn; he
em
ked th t "I beeve the t
ue ne f
ese
h es n the n
tn nd mp
sn f the sm est det s." Pet
e deveped the system f d
tn  ye
s b sed n ptte
y nd e
m fndns, whh
evutnzed the h

n  b ss f Eypty. Pet
e w s the f
st t sentf y nvest t
e the G
e t Py
md n Eypt du
n the 1880s.[12] He w s s
espnsbe f
m
ent
n nd t
nn
whe ene
tn f Eyptsts, nudn Hw
d C
t
e
wh went n t heve f me wth the dsve
y f the tmb f 14th-entu
y BC
ph
h Tut nkh mun.
M
tme
Wheee
pnee
ed system t ex v tn n the e
y 20th entu
y. Pt
u
ed,
e hs ex v tns t M den C ste, D
set, n Otbe
1937.
The f
st st
t
ph ex v tn t
e h wde ppu
ty wth pub w s th t
f Hss
k, n the ste f nent T
y, 

ed ut by Hen
h Shem nn,
F
nk C ve
t, Whem D
pfed nd C
 Been n the 1870s. These sh
s ndv
du ted nne dffe
ent tes th t h d ve
 pped wth ne nthe
, f
m p
ehst

y t the Heenst pe
d.[13] Me nwhe, the w
k f S
A
thu
Ev ns t Kn
sss n C
ete
eve ed the nent exstene f n equ y dv ned Mn n v
z tn.[14]
The next m j
fu
e n the devepment f
h ey w s S
M
tme
Wheee

, whse hhy dspned pp
 h t ex v tn nd system t ve
e n the
1920s nd 1930s b
uht the sene n swfty. Wheee
deveped the 
d syst
em f ex v tn, whh w s fu
the
mp
ved by hs student K theen Kenyn.
A
h ey be me
p
fessn  tvty n the f
st h f f the 20th entu
y
, nd t be me pssbe t study
h ey s subjet n unve
stes nd e
ven shs. By the end f the 20th entu
y ne
y  p
fessn 
h es
ts, t e st n deveped unt
es, we
e 
du tes. Fu
the
d pt tn nd nn
v tn n
h ey ntnued n ths pe
d, when m
tme
h ey nd u

b n
h ey be me m
e p
ev ent nd
esue
h ey w s deveped s

esut f n
e sn mme
  devepment.[15]
Pu
pse[edt]
C st f the sku f the T un hd, unve
ed n Suth Af
 . The Chd w s
n nf nt f the Aust
ptheus f
 nus spees, n e
y f
m f hmnn
The pu
pse f
h ey s t e
n m
e but p st setes nd the devep
ment f the hum n
e. Ove
99% f the devepment f hum nty h s u

ed wt
hn p
ehst
 utu
es, wh dd nt m ke use f w
tn, the
eby nt e vn w

tten
e
ds f themseves th t  n be studed td y. Wthut suh w
tten su

es, the ny w y t e
n but p
ehst
 setes s t use
h ey. B
e use
h ey s the study f p st hum n tvty, t st
ethes b k t b
ut 2.5 mn ye
s  when we fnd the f
st stne ts - The Odw n Indust

y. M ny mp
t nt devepments n hum n hst
y u

ed du
n p
ehst
y, su
h s the evutn f hum nty du
n the P eth pe
d, when the hmnns
deveped f
m the ust
pthenes n Af
 nd eventu y nt mde
n Hm
s pens. A
h ey s sheds ht n m ny f hum nty's tehn  dv n
es, f
nst ne the bty t use f
e, the devepment f stne ts, the d
sve
y f met u
y, the bennns f
en nd the 
e tn f 
utu

e. Wthut
h ey, we wud knw tte 
nthn but the use f m te

 utu
e by hum nty th t p
e-d tes w
tn.[16]
Hweve
, t s nt ny p
ehst
, p
e-te
te utu
es th t  n be studed u

sn
h ey but hst
, te
te utu
es s we, th
uh the sub-dsp
ne f hst
 
h ey. F
m ny te
te utu
es, suh s Anent G
ee
e nd Mespt m , the
su
vvn
e
ds
e ften nmpete nd b sed t s
me extent. In m ny setes, te
y w s
est
ted t the ete  sses, su
h s the e
y 
the bu
e u
y f u
t 
tempe. The te
y even f
s
t
ts h s smetmes been
est
ted t deeds nd nt
ts. The nte
ests nd
w
d-vew f etes
e ften qute dffe
ent f
m the ves nd nte
ests f t
he ppu e. W
tns th t we
e p
dued by pepe m
e
ep
esent tve f the e
ne
 ppu tn we
e unkey t fnd the
w y nt b

es nd be p
ese
ved
the
e f
pste
ty. Thus, w
tten
e
ds tend t
efet the b ses, ssumpt
ns, utu
 v ues nd pssby deeptns f
mted
ne f ndvdu s,
usu y sm  f
tn f the 
e
ppu tn. Hene, w
tten
e
ds  nnt
be t
usted s se su
e. The m te
 
e
d m y be se
t
f 

ep
es
ent tn f sety, thuh t s subjet t ts wn b ses, suh s s mpn b
s nd dffe
ent  p
ese
v tn.[17]
The
y[edt]
M n
te: A
h e  the
y
Sn t Lubbk L ke L ndm
k n Lubbk, Tex s
The
e s n ne snu
pp
 h t
h e  the
y th t h s been dhe
ed
t by 
h ests. When
h ey deveped n the  te 19th entu
y,
the f
st pp
 h t
h e  the
y t be p
ted w s th t f utu

-hst
y
h ey, whh hed the   f exp nn why utu
es h ned nd
d pted
the
th n just hhhtn the f t th t they dd, the
ef
e emph s
zn hst
  p
tu
sm.[18] In the e
y 20th entu
y, m ny
h est
s wh studed p st setes wth d
et ntnun nks t exstn nes (suh
s thse f N tve Ame
 ns, Sbe
 ns, Mes me
 ns et.) fwed the d
e
t hst
  pp
 h, mp
ed the ntnuty between the p st nd ntemp

y
ethn nd utu
 
ups.[18] In the 1960s, n
h e  mvement 
e
y ed by Ame
 n
h ests ke Lews Bnf
d nd Kent F nne
y
se th t

ebeed  nst the est bshed utu
-hst
y
h ey.[19][20] They p

psed "New A
h ey", whh wud be m
e "sentf" nd " nth
p 
", wth hypthess testn nd the sentf methd ve
y mp
t nt p
ts f wh
t be me knwn s p
essu 
h ey.[18]
In the 1980s, new pstmde
n mvement
se ed by the B
tsh
h ests
Mh e Sh nks,[21][22][23][24] Ch
stphe
Tey,[25] D ne Me
,[26][27]
nd I n Hdde
,[28][29][30][31][32][33] whh h s beme knwn s pst-p
essu 

h ey. It questned p
essu sm's ppe s t sentf pstvsm nd
mp
t ty, nd emph szed the mp
t ne f m
e sef-
t  the
et 

efexvty.[t tn needed] Hweve
, ths pp
 h h s been 
tzed by p

essu sts s  kn sentf

, nd the v dty f bth p
essu sm
nd pst-p
essu sm s st unde
deb te. Me nwhe, nthe
the
y, knwn
s hst
  p
essu sm h s eme
ed seekn t n
p
te
fus n p
ess
nd pst-p
essu 
h ey's emph ss f
efexvty nd hst
y.[34]
A
h e  the
y nw b

ws f
m wde
ne f nfuenes, nudn ne
-evutn
y thuht,[35] phenmeny, pstmde
nsm, eny the
y, ntv
e sene, st
utu
 funtn sm, ende
-b sed nd femnst
h ey, nd
systems the
y.
Methds[edt]
An
h e  nvest tn usu y nvves seve
 dstnt ph ses, e h 
f whh empys ts wn v
ety f methds. Bef
e ny p
t  w
k  n ben,
hweve
, e
bjetve s t wh t the
h ests
e kn t heve
must be 
eed upn. Ths dne, ste s su
veyed t fnd ut s muh s pss
be but t nd the su

undn
e . Send, n ex v tn m y t ke p e t u
nve
ny
h e  fe tu
es bu
ed unde
the 
und. And, th
d, the d t
eted f
m the ex v tn s studed nd ev u ted n n ttempt t heve

the 
n 
ese
h bjetves f the
h ests. It s then nsde
ed 
d p
te f
the nf
m tn t be pubshed s th t t s v  be t the


h ests nd hst
 ns, thuh ths s smetmes neeted.[36]
Remte sensn[edt]
Bef
e tu y st
tn t d n
 tn,
emte sensn  n be used t 
k whe
e stes
e  ted wthn 
e
e 
p
vde m
e nf
m tn but
stes 

ens. The
e
e tw types f
emte sensn nst
umentsp ssve nd 
tve. P ssve nst
uments detet n tu
 ene
y th t s
efeted 
emtted f

m the bse
ved sene. P ssve nst
uments sense ny
d tn emtted by the b
jet ben vewed 

efeted by the bjet f
m su
e the
th n the nst
u
ment. Atve nst
uments emt ene
y nd
e
d wh t s
efeted. S tete m
e
y s n ex mpe f p ssve
emte sensn. He
e
e tw tve
emte sensn
nst
uments:
Ld
(Lht Detetn nd R nn) A d
uses  se
(ht mpf tn by
stmu ted emssn f
d tn) t t
nsmt ht puse nd
eeve
wth
senstve detet
s t me su
e the b ks tte
ed 

efeted ht. Dst ne t
 the bjet s dete
mned by
e
dn the tme between the t
nsmtted nd b 
ks tte
ed puses nd usn the speed f ht t  u te the dst ne t
vee
d. Ld
s  n dete
mne tmsphe
 p
fes f e
ss, uds, nd the
ns
ttuents f the tmsphe
e.
L se
Atmete
A  se
tmete
uses d
(see bve) t me su
e the heht
f the nst
ument p tf
m bve the su
f e. By ndependenty knwn the he
ht f the p tf
m wth
espet t the me n E
th's su
f e, the tp
phy f t
he unde
yn su
f e  n be dete
mned. [37]
Fed su
vey[edt]
M n
te: A
h e  su
vey
Mnte Ab n
h e  ste
The
h e  p
jet then ntnues (
te
n tvey, bens) wth
fe
d su
vey. Ren  su
vey s the ttempt t system t y  te p
evusy unk
nwn stes n
en. Ste su
vey s the ttempt t system t y  te fe t
u
es f nte
est, suh s huses nd mddens, wthn ste. E h f these tw 
 s m y be mpshed wth 
ey the s me methds.
Su
vey w s nt wdey p
ted n the e
y d ys f
h ey. Cutu
 hst

 ns nd p


ese
he
s we
e usu y ntent wth dsve
n the  tns
f mnument  stes f
m the   ppu e, nd ex v tn ny the p ny vs
be fe tu
es the
e. G
dn Wey pnee
ed the tehnque f
en  settemen
t p tte
n su
vey n 1949 n the V
u V ey f  st  Pe
u,[38][39] nd su
vey
f  eves be me p
mnent wth the
se f p
essu 
h ey sme ye

s  te
.[40]
Su
vey w
k h s m ny benefts f pe
f
med s p
emn
y exe
se t, 
even
n p e f, ex v tn. It
equ
es
e tvey tte tme nd expense, be us
e t des nt
equ
e p
essn 
e vumes f s t se
h ut
tf ts.
(Neve
theess, su
veyn

e
en 
ste  n be expensve, s
h e
sts ften empy s mpn methds.)[41] As wth the
f
ms f nn-dest
utve

h ey, su
vey vds eth  ssues (f p
tu
ne
n t desend nt pe
ste th
uh ex v tn. It s the ny w y
pes) ss ted wth dest
yn
t  the
sme f
ms f nf
m tn, suh s settement p tte
ns nd settement
st
utu
e. Su
vey d t
e mmny ssembed nt m ps, whh m y shw su
f e
fe tu
es nd/

tf t dst
butn.
Inve
ted kte e
  pht f n ex v tn f
etbu
y n Gueste
sh
e.

Rm n budn

t Nesey ne
T

The smpest su
vey tehnque s su
f e su
vey. It nvves mbn n
e , us

u y n ft but smetmes wth the use f meh nzed t
nsp
t, t se
h f

fe tu
es 

tf ts vsbe n the su
f e. Su
f e su
vey  nnt detet stes

fe tu
es th t
e mpetey bu
ed unde
e
th, 
ve

wn wth veet t
n. Su
f e su
vey m y s nude mn-ex v tn tehnques suh s ue
s, 

e
s, nd shve test pts. If n m te
 s
e fund, the
e su
veyed s deem
ed ste
e.
Ae
  su
vey s nduted usn  me
s tt hed t 
p nes, b ns, UAVs,

even Ktes.[42] A b
d's-eye vew s usefu f
quk m ppn f 
e 
m
pex stes. Ae
  pht
phs
e used t dument the st tus f the
h e
  d. Ae
  m n  n s detet m ny thns nt vsbe f
m the su
f 
e. P nts 
wn bve
bu
ed m n m de st
utu
e, suh s stne w , w
devep m
e swy, whe thse bve the
types f fe tu
es (suh s mddens)
m y devep m
e
pdy. Pht
phs f
penn 
n, whh h nes u


pdy t m tu
tn, h ve
eve ed bu
ed st
utu
es wth 
e t p
esn. Ae

 pht
phs t ken t dffe
ent tmes f d y w hep shw the utnes f st

utu
es by h nes n sh dws. Ae
  su
vey s empys ut
vet, nf

ed
, 
und-penet
tn
d
w veenths, LDAR nd the
m
phy.[43]
Gephys  su
vey  n be the mst effetve w y t see bene th the 
und. M n
etmete
s detet mnute dev tns n the E
th's m net fed  used by 
n

tf ts, kns, sme types f stne st
utu
es, nd even dthes nd mddens.
Deves th t me su
e the eet
 
esstvty f the s
e s wdey used
. A
h e  fe tu
es whse eet
 
esstvty nt
sts wth th t f su


undn ss  n be deteted nd m pped. Sme
h e  fe tu
es (suh
s thse mpsed f stne 
b
k) h ve hhe

esstvty th n typ  ss,
whe the
s (suh s 
 n depsts 
unf
ed  y) tend t h ve we

ess
tvty.
Athuh sme
h ests nsde
the use f met  detet
s t be t nt mun
t t t
e su
e huntn, the
s deem them n effetve t n
h e  su
v
eyn. Ex mpes f f
m 
h e  use f met  detet
s nude musketb
 dst
butn n yss n Ensh Cv W
b ttefeds, met  dst
butn
n yss p

t ex v tn f 19th-entu
y shp w
ek, nd se
ve  be 
tn du
n ev u tn. Met  detet
sts h ve s nt
buted t
h ey
whe
e they h ve m de det ed
e
ds f the

esuts nd
ef
ned f
m
sn

tf ts f
m the

h e  ntext. In the UK, met  detet
sts h v
e been sted f
nvvement n the P
t be Antqutes Sheme.
Ren  su
vey n unde
w te

h ey uses ephys  

emte sensn dev
es suh s m
ne m netmete
, sde-s n sn
, 
sub-bttm sn
.[44]
Ex v tn[edt]
M n
te: Ex v tn (
h ey)
Ex v tns t the 3800-ye
-d Edew te
P
k Ste, Iw
A
h e  ex v tn th t dsve
ed p
ehst
  ves n V (Innsb
uk),
Aust

An
h est sftn f
POW
em ns n W ke Is nd.
A
h e  ex v tn exsted even when the fed w s st the dm n f m
teu
s, nd t
em ns the su
e f the m j
ty f d t
eve
ed n mst fe
d p
jets. It  n
eve  seve
 types f nf
m tn usu y nt essbe t
su
vey, suh s st
t
phy, th
ee-dmensn  st
utu
e, nd ve
f by p
m

y ntext.
Mde
n ex v tn tehnques
equ
e th t the p
ese  tns f bjets nd f
e tu
es, knwn s the
p
ven ne 
p
venene, be
e
ded. Ths w ys nv

ves dete
mnn the
h
znt   tns, nd smetmes ve
t  pstn s

we ( s see P
m
y L ws f A
h ey). Lkewse, the
ss tn, 

e
tnshp wth ne
by bjets nd fe tu
es, needs t be
e
ded f
 te
n y
ss. Ths ws the
h est t dedue whh
tf ts nd fe tu
es we
e 
key used tethe
nd whh m y be f
m dffe
ent ph ses f tvty. F
ex m
pe, ex v tn f ste
eve s ts st
t
phy; f ste w s uped by
suessn f dstnt utu
es,
tf ts f
m m
e
eent utu
es w e b
ve thse f
m m
e nent utu
es.
Ex v tn s the mst expensve ph se f
h e 
ese
h, n
e tve t
e
ms. As, s dest
utve p
ess, t 

es eth  ne
ns. As
esut,
ve
y few stes
e ex v ted n the
ent
ety. A n the pe
ent e f ste e
x v ted depends 
e ty n the unt
y nd "methd st tement" ssued. S mpn
s even m
e mp
t nt n ex v tn th n n su
vey.Smetmes 
e meh n  e
qupment, suh s b khes (JCBs), s used n ex v tn, espe y t
emve t
he tps (ve
bu
den), thuh ths methd s n
e sny used wth 
e t  ut
n. Fwn ths
the
d
m t step, the expsed
e s usu y h nd-e n
ed wth t
wes 
hes t ensu
e th t  fe tu
es
e pp
ent.
The next t sk s t f
m ste p n nd then use t t hep dede the methd 
f ex v tn. Fe tu
es du nt the n tu
 subs
e n
m y ex v ted n p

tns t p
due vsbe
h e  setn f

e
dn. A fe tu
e, f

ex mpe pt 

dth, nssts f tw p
ts: the ut nd the f. The ut
des
bes the ede f the fe tu
e, whe
e the fe tu
e meets the n tu
 s. It
s the fe tu
e's bund
y. The f s wh t the fe tu
e s fed wth, nd w
ften ppe
qute dstnt f
m the n tu
 s. The ut nd f
e ven 
nseutve numbe
s f

e
dn pu
pses. S ed p ns nd setns f ndvdu
 fe tu
es
e  d
wn n ste, b k nd whte nd u
pht
phs f the
m
e t ken, nd
e
dn sheets
e fed n des
bn the ntext f e h.
A ths nf
m tn se
ves s pe
m nent
e
d f the nw-dest
yed
h e
y nd s used n des
bn nd nte
p
etn the ste.
An yss[edt]
M n
te: Pst-ex v tn n yss
One
tf ts nd st
utu
es h ve been ex v ted, 
eted f
m su
f e su

veys, t s neess
y t p
pe
y study them. Ths p
ess s knwn s pst-ex
v tn n yss, nd s usu y the mst tme-nsumn p
t f n
h e
 nvest tn. It s nt unmmn f
fn  ex v tn
ep
ts f
m j
stes
t t ke ye
s t be pubshed.
At
b s eve f n yss,
tf ts fund
e e ned,  t ed nd mp
e
d t pubshed etns. Ths mp
sn p
ess ften nvves  ssfyn t
hem typ y nd dentfyn the
stes wth sm

tf t ssemb es.
Hweve
, muh m
e mp
ehensve
ne f n yt  tehnques
e v  be
th
uh
h e  sene, me nn th t
tf ts  n be d ted nd the

mpstns ex mned. Bnes, p nts, nd pen eted f
m ste  n  be
n yzed usn the methds f z
h ey, p eethnbt ny, nd p yny)
, whe ny texts  n usu y be dephe
ed.
These tehnques f
equenty p
vde nf
m tn th t wud nt the
wse be knw
n, nd the
ef
e they nt
bute 
e ty t the unde
st ndn f
ste.
Cmput tn  nd v
tu 
h ey[edt]
M n
te: Cmput tn 
h ey
M n
te: V
tu 
h ey
Cmpute

phs
e nw used t bud v
tu  3D mdes f stes, suh s the
th
ne
m f n Assy
 n p  e 
nent Rme.[45] Pht
mmet
y s s us
ed s n n yt  t, nd dt  tp
ph  mdes h ve been mbned w
th st
nm   u tns t ve
fy whethe

nt e
t n st
utu
es (suh
s p
s) we
e ned wth st
nm  events suh s the sun's pstn t

sste.[45] Aent-b sed mden nd smu tn  n be used t bette
unde
st

nd p st s  dyn ms nd utmes.
D
nes[edt]
A
h ests
und the w
d use d
nes t speed up su
vey w
k nd p
tet s
tes f
m squ tte
s, bude
s nd mne
s. In Pe
u, sm  d
nes heped
ese
he

s p
due th
ee-dmensn  mdes f Pe
uv n stes nste d f the usu  f t
m ps nd n d ys nd weeks nste d f mnths nd ye
s.[46]
D
nes stn s tte s 650 h ve p
ven usefu. In 2013, d
nes h ve fwn v
e
t e st sx Pe
uv n
h e  stes, nudn the n  Ande n tw
n M hu L t 4,000 met
es (13,000 ft) bve se eve. The d
nes ntnue t
h ve ttude p
bems n the Andes, e dn t p ns t m ke d
ne bmp, emp
yn pen su
e sftw
e.[46]
Jeff
ey Qute
, n
h est wth H
v
d Unve
sty s d, "Yu  n  up t
h
ee met
es nd pht
ph
m, 300 met
es nd pht
ph ste, 
yu  n
 up 3,000 met
es nd pht
ph the ent
e v ey."[46]
In Septembe
2014 d
nes wehn but 5 k (11 b) we
e used f
3D m ppn f
the bve-
und
uns f the G
eek ty f Aph
ds s. The d t s ben n 
ysed by the Aust
 n A
h e  Insttute n Venn .[47]
A dem sub-dspnes[edt]
M n
te: A
h e  sub-dspnes
As wth mst  dem dspnes, the
e
e ve
y 
e numbe
f
h e
 sub-dspnes h
te
sed by spef methd 
type f m te
  (e..,
th n yss, mus,
h ebt ny), e
ph  
h
n  fus (e.
. Ne
E ste
n
h ey, Is m
h ey, Medev 
h ey), the
t
hem t ne
n (e.. m
tme
h ey,  nds pe
h ey, b ttefed
spef
h e  utu
e 
vz tn (e.. Eypt

h ey), 

y, Indy, Sny).
Hst
 
h ey[edt]
M n
te: Hst
 
h ey
Hst
 
h ey s the study f utu
es wth sme f
m f w
tn.
In En nd,
h ests h ve unve
ed  yuts f 14th entu
y medev  v
es, b ndned fte

ses suh s the B k De th.[t tn needed] In dwntw
n New Y
k Cty,
h ests h ve exhumed the 18th entu
y
em ns f the Af

 n Bu
  G
und.
Ethn
h ey[edt]
M n
te: Ethn
h ey
Ethn
h ey s the ethn
ph study f vn pepe, desned t d n
u
nte
p
et tn f the
h e 
e
d.[48][49][50][51][52][53] The pp

 h f
st  ned p
mnene du
n the p
essu  mvement f the 1960s, nd 
ntnues t be vb
nt mpnent f pst-p
essu  nd the
u

ent
h e
  pp
 hes.[35][54][55][56][57] E
y ethn
h e 
ese
h fuse
d n hunte
- the
e

f
n setes; td y ethn
h e 
ese
h e
nmp sses muh wde

ne f hum n beh v
.
Expe
ment 
h ey[edt]
M n
te: Expe
ment 
h ey
Expe
ment 
h ey
ep
esents the pp tn f the expe
ment  methd t
 devep m
e hhy nt
ed bse
v tns f p
esses th t 
e te nd mp 
t the
h e 
e
d.[58][59][60][61][62] In the ntext f the   p
stvsm f p
essu sm wth ts  s f mp
vn the sentf

f

h e  epstemes the expe
ment  methd  ned mp
t ne. Expe
me
nt  tehnques
em n 
u  mpnent t mp
vn the nfe
ent  f
mew

ks f
nte
p
etn the
h e 
e
d.

A
h emet
y[edt]
M n
te: A
h e  sene
A
h emet
y ms t system tze
h e  me su
ement. It emph szes the
pp tn f n yt  tehnques f
m physs, hemst
y, nd ennee
n. It
s fed f
ese
h th t f
equenty fuses n the defntn f the hem
 mpstn f
h e 
em ns f
su
e n yss.[63] A
h emet
y 
s nvest tes dffe
ent sp t  h
te
sts f fe tu
es, empyn methds
suh s sp e synt x tehnques nd edesy s we s mpute
-b sed ts su
h s e
ph nf
m tn system tehny.[64] R
e e
th eements p tte
ns
m y s be used.[65] A
e tvey n sent subfed s th t f
h e  m
te
 s, desned t enh ne unde
st ndn f p
ehst
 nd nn-ndust
  u
tu
e th
uh sentf n yss f the st
utu
e nd p
pe
tes f m te
 s s
s ted wth hum n tvty.[66]
Cutu

esu
es m n ement[edt]
M n
te: Cutu

esu
es m n ement
Ths setn pssby nt ns 
n 
ese
h. Pe se mp
ve t by ve
fyn
the  ms m de nd ddn nne t tns. St tements nsstn ny f 

n 
ese
h shud be
emved. (M
h 2014)
A
h ey  n be
subsd
y tvty wthn Cutu

esu
es m n ement (C
RM), s  ed he
t e m n ement n the Unted Kndm.[67] CRM
h es
ts f
equenty ex mne
h e  stes th t
e th
e tened by devepment. T
d y, CRM unts f
mst f the
h e 
ese
h dne n the Unted St
tes nd muh f th t n weste
n Eu
pe s we. In the US, CRM
h ey h s
been 
wn ne
n sne the p ss e f the N tn  Hst
 P
ese
v tn A
t (NHPA) f 1966, nd mst t xp ye
s, sh
s, nd pt ns beeve th t CR
M h s heped p
ese
ve muh f th t n tn's hst
y nd p
ehst
y th t wud h
ve the
wse been st n the exp nsn f tes, d ms, nd hhw ys. An wt
h the
st tutes, the NHPA m nd tes th t p
jets n fede
  nd 
nvvn f
ede
 funds 
pe
mts nsde
the effets f the p
jet n e h
h e
 ste.
The pp tn f CRM n the Unted Kndm s nt mted t ve
nment-funded
p
jets. Sne 1990 PPG 16[68] h s
equ
ed p nne
s t nsde

h ey
s m te
  nsde
tn n dete
mnn pp tns f
new devepment. As

esut, nume
us
h e  
 nz tns unde
t ke mt tn w
k n dv
ne f (
du
n) nst
utn w
k n
h e y senstve
e s, t the
devepe
's expense.
In En nd, utm te
espnsbty f 
e f
the hst
 env
nment
ests w
th the Dep
tment f
Cutu
e, Med nd Sp
t[69] n ss tn wth Ensh
He
t e.[70] In St nd, W es nd N
the
n I
e nd, the s me
espnsbtes
e wth Hst
 St nd,[71] C dw[72] nd the N
the
n I
e nd Env
nment A
eny[73]
espetvey.
Amn the  s f CRM
e the dentf tn, p
ese
v tn, nd m nten ne f
utu
 stes n pub nd p
v te  nds, nd the
emv  f utu
y v u b
e m te
 s f
m
e s whe
e they wud the
wse be dest
yed by hum n tvt
y, suh s p
psed nst
utn. Ths study nvves t e st u
s
y ex mn
tn t dete
mne whethe

nt ny snf nt
h e  stes
e p
esen
t n the
e
ffeted by the p
psed nst
utn. If these d exst, tme nd
mney must be tted f
the
ex v tn. If nt  su
vey nd/
test ex
v tns nd te the p
esene f n ext

dn
y v u be ste, the nst
ut
n m y be p
hbted ent
ey.
Cutu

esu
es m n ement h s, hweve
, been 
tzed. CRM s nduted by
p
v te mp nes th t bd f
p
jets by submttn p
ps s utnn the w


k t be dne nd n expeted budet. It s nt unhe
d-f f
the eny
esp
nsbe f
the nst
utn t smpy hse the p
ps  th t sks f
the e s
t fundn. CRM
h ests f e nsde
be tme p
essu
e, ften ben f
e
d t mpete the
w
k n
f
tn f the tme th t mht be tted f

pu
ey sh
y ende v
. Cmpundn the tme p
essu
e s the vettn p
ess
f ste
ep
ts th t
e
equ
ed (n the US) t be submtted by CRM f
ms t th
e pp
p
 te St te Hst
 P
ese
v tn Offe (SHPO). F
m the SHPO's pe
spe
tve the
e s t be n dffe
ene between
ep
t submtted by CRM f
m pe

tn unde

de dne, nd mut-ye
 dem p
jet. The end
esut s th t
f

Cutu
 Resu
e M n ement
h est t be suessfu, they must be
be t p
due  dem qu ty duments t 
p
te w
d p e.
The nnu 
t f pen  dem
h ey pstns (nusve f pst-d,
temp

y, nd nn- tenu
e t
k ppntments) t the nnu  numbe
f
h e
y MA/MS nd PhD students s dsp
p
tn te. Cutu
 Resu
e M n ement, n
e nsde
ed n nteetu  b kw te
f
ndvdu s wth "st
n b ks nd w
e k mnds,"[74] h s tt
ted these 
du tes, nd CRM ffes
e thus n
e s
ny st ffed by dv ne de
eed ndvdu s wth t
k
e
d f p
dun sh

y
tes but wh s h ve extensve CRM fed expe
ene.
Ppu
vews f
h ey[edt]
Extensve ex v tns

t Bet She' n, Is
e

Pe
m nent exhbtn n Ge
m n mut-st
ey 
p
k, exp nn the
h e
  dsve
es m de du
n the nst
utn f ths budn
E
y
h ey w s 
ey n ttempt t unve
spet u

tf ts nd fe
tu
es, 
t exp
e v st nd myste
us b ndned tes. E
y
h ey w
s msty dne by uppe
 ss, sh
y men. Ths ene
z tn  d the fund
tn f
the mde
n ppu
vew f
h ey nd
h ests. Ths ene

z tn h s been wth weste
n utu
e f

n tme. Anthe
ppu
thuht t
h t d tes b k t ths e
s th t
h ey s mnet
y u
tve. A 
e
m j
ty f the ene
 pub s unde
the mp
essn th t ex v tns
e unde

t ken f
mney nd nt hst
  d t .[t tn needed] It s e sy f
the e
ne
 pub t hd ths ntn f
th t s wh t s p
esented t them th
uh 
ene
 med , nd h s been f
m ny de des.
The m j
ty f the pub vew
h ey s ben smethn ny v  be t
n

w dem
ph. The jb f
h est s depted s "
m nt dven
tu
st up tn".[75] T ene
ze, the pub vews
h ey s f nt s
zed hbby m
e th n
jb n the sentf mmunty. The udene m y nt t ke
w y sentf methds f
m ppu
nem but they d f
m ntn f "wh

h ests
e, why they d wh t they d, nd hw
e tnshps t the p st

e nsttuted".[75] The mde
n deptn f
h ey s sens tn zed s m
uh th t t h s n

ety f
med the pub's pe
eptn f wh t
h ey 
s. The pub s ften unde
the mp
essn th t 
h ey t kes p e n
dst nt nd f
en  nd, ny t et mnet
y 
sp
tu y p
eess

tf ts.
Muh th
uh nd p
dutve
ese
h h s ndeed been nduted n d
m t 
es suh s Cpn nd the V ey f the Kns, but the buk f tvtes nd fnd
s f mde
n
h ey
e nt s sens tn . A
h e  dventu
e st
es
tend t n
e the p nst kn w
k nvved n 

yn ut mde
n su
veys, ex
 v tns, nd d t p
essn. Sme
h ests
efe
t suh ff-the-m
k p

t
y s s "pseud
h ey".[76] A
h ests
e s ve
y muh
e nt
n pub supp
t; the questn f ex ty wh they
e dn the
w
k f
s
ften dsussed.[77]
Cu

ent ssues nd nt
ve
sy[edt]
Pub
h ey[edt]

Ex v tns t the ste f G
n Dn , n the At pue
 Munt ns, Sp n, 2008
Mtv ted by des
e t h t tn, u
b pseud
h ey, nd t hep p
ese

ve
h e  stes th
uh edu tn nd fste
n pub pp
e tn f

the mp
t ne f
h e  he
t e,
h ests
e muntn pub-
ut
e h  mp ns.[78] They seek t stp tn by mb ttn pepe wh e
y t ke
tf ts f
m p
teted stes, nd by e
tn pepe wh ve ne


h e  stes f the th
e t f tn. Cmmn methds f pub ut
e h 
nude p
ess
ee ses, nd the enu
ement f sh fed t
ps t stes unde

ex v tn by p
fessn 
h ests.[t tn needed] Pub pp
e t
n f the snf ne f
h ey nd
h e  stes ften e ds t mp

ved p
tetn f
m en
 hn devepment 
the
th
e ts.
One udene f

h ests' w
k s the pub. They n
e sny
e ze t
h t the
w
k  n beneft nn-  dem nd nn-
h e  udenes, nd th
t they h ve
espnsbty t edu te nd nf
m the pub but
h ey
. L  he
t e w
eness s med t n
e sn v nd ndvdu  p
de th

uh p
jets suh s mmunty ex v tn p
jets, nd bette
pub p
esent t
ns f
h e  stes nd knwede.[t tn needed] The U.S.Dept. f A

utu
e, F
est Se
ve (USFS) pe
tes vuntee

h ey nd hst
 p

ese
v tn p

m  ed the P ssp
t n Tme (PIT). Vuntee
s w
k wth p
f
essn  USFS
h ests nd hst
 ns n n tn  f
ests th
uhut the U
.S. Vuntee
s
e nvved n  spets f p
fessn 
h ey unde
exp
e
t supe
vsn.[79]
In the UK, ppu

h ey p

ms suh s Tme Te m nd Meet the Anest
s
h ve
esuted n
hue upsu
e n pub nte
est.[t tn needed] Whe
e pss
be,
h ests nw m ke m
e p
vsns f
pub nvvement nd ut
e 
h n 
e
p
jets th n they ne dd, nd m ny  
h e  
 nz t
ns pe
te wthn the Cmmunty
h ey f
mew
k t exp nd pub nvve
ment n sm e
-s e, m
e   p
jets. A
h e  ex v tn, hweve
,
s best unde
t ken by we-t
ned st ff th t  n w
k quky nd u
tey. O
ften ths
equ
es bse
vn the neess
y he th nd s fety nd ndemnty nsu

ne ssues nvved n w
kn n mde
n budn ste wth tht de dnes.
Ce
t n h
tes nd   ve
nment bdes smetmes ffe
p es n
ese
h
p
jets ethe
s p
t f  dem w
k 
s defned mmunty p
jet.[t
tn needed] The
e s s
fu
shn ndust
y sen p es n mme
 
t
nn ex v tns nd
h e  hd y tu
s.[t tn needed]
A
h

h

e
b
h ve

ests p
ze   knwede nd ften  se wth   hst
  nd

e  setes, whh s ne
e sn why Cmmunty
h ey p
jets
st
tn t beme m
e mmn. Often
h ests
e sssted by the pu
n the  tn f
h e  stes, whh p
fessn 
h ests
nethe
the fundn, n
the tme t d.

The A
h e  Le y Insttute (ALI), sef-des
bed s " n ndependent, n

np
ft, t x-exempt (501[][3])", s
ese
h nd edu tn 
p
tn
est
e
ed n O
en n 1999. The ALI funded n nne A
h ey Ch nne t supp
t
the 
 nz tn's mssn "t devep w ys t m ke
h ey m
e effetve
bth n  the
n mp
t nt nf
m tn but p st hum n few ys nd n deve

n th t nf
m tn t the pub nd the p
fessn."[80]
Pseud
h ey[edt]
M n
te: Pseud
h ey
Pseud
h ey s n umb
e te
m f
 tvtes th t f sey  m t b
e
h e  but n f t v te mmny epted nd sentf
h e
  p
tes. It nudes muh ftn 
h e  w
k (dsussed bve)
, s we s sme tu  tvty. M ny nn-ftn uth
s h ve n
ed the s
entf methds f p
essu 
h ey, 
the spef 
tques f t nt
ned n pst-p
essu sm.

An ex mpe f ths type s the w
tn f E
h vn Dnken. Hs 1968 bk, Ch

ts f the Gds?, tethe
wth m ny subsequent esse
-knwn w
ks, expunds
th
e
y f nent nt ts between hum n vs tn n E
th nd m
e tehn
 y dv ned ext
te

est
  vs tns. Ths the
y, knwn s p  ent
t the
y, 
Anent st
n ut the
y, s nt exusvey Dnken's, n
dd the
de 
n te wth hm. W
ks f ths n tu
e
e usu y m
ked by the
enun
tn f we-est bshed the
es n the b ss f mted evdene, nd the nte

p
et tn f evdene wth p
eneved the
y n mnd.
Ltn[edt]
A te
's pt n the m
nn fwn ts ex v tn, t ken t Rnty, Hu u

V ey, Pe
u n June 2007. Seve
 sm  hes eft by te
s' p
spetn p
b
es  n be seen, s we s the
ftp
nts.
Ste f kn n med Ad d-N

. Objet sten f
m the I
q N tn  Museum 
n the tn n nnetn wth the I
q w
f 2003.
Ltn f
h e  stes s n nent p
bem. F
nst ne, m ny f the
tmbs f the Eypt n ph
hs we
e ted du
n ntquty.[81] A
h ey st
mu tes nte
est n nent bjets, nd pepe n se
h f
tf ts 
t
e s
u
e  use d m e t
h e  stes. The mme
  nd  dem dem nd f


tf ts unf
tun tey nt
butes d
ety t the t ntqutes t
de.
Smun f ntqutes b
 d t p
v te et
s h s  used 
e t utu

nd enm d m e n m ny unt
es whse ve
nments  k the
esu
es nd 

the w t dete
t. Lte
s d m e nd dest
y
h e  stes, denyn
futu
e ene
tns nf
m tn but the
ethn nd utu
 he
t e. Inde
nus pepes espe y se ess t nd nt
 ve
the
'utu

esu
e
s', utm tey denyn them the pp
tunty t knw the
p st.[82]
In 1937 W. F. Hde the D
et
f the Suthwest Museum
ee sed st tement th
t the museum wud n ne
pu
h se 
ept etns f
m ted ntext
s.[83] The f
st nvtn f the t
nsp
t f
tf ts e y
emved f
m
p
v te p
pe
ty unde
the A
h e  Resu
es P
tetn At (ARPA; Pub
 L w 96-95; 93 St tute 721; 16 U.S.C. 470 mm) w s n 1992 n the St te f Ind
n .[84]
A
h ests t
yn t p
tet
tf ts m y be p ed n d ne
by te
s 

 s t
yn t p
tet the
tf ts f
m
h ests wh
e vewed s 
te
s by the  s.[85]
Desend nt pepes[edt]
In the Unted St tes, ex mpes suh s the  se f Kennewk M n h ve ust
te
d the tensns between N tve Ame
 ns nd
h ests, whh  n be summ

zed s nft between need t
em n
espetfu tw
d s 
ed bu
  stes
nd the  dem beneft f
m studyn them. F
ye
s, Ame
 n
h ests
du n Ind n bu
  
unds nd the
p es nsde
ed s 
ed,
emvn
tf
ts nd hum n
em ns t st
e f tes f
fu
the
study. In sme  ses hu
m n
em ns we
e nt even th
uhy studed but nste d
hved
the
th n
e
bu
ed. Fu
the
m
e, Weste
n
h ests' vews f the p st ften dffe
f
m
thse f t
b  pepes. The West vews tme s ne
; f
m ny n tves, t s
y. F
m Weste
n pe
spetve, the p st s n-ne; f
m n tve pe
spe
tve, dstu
bn the p st  n h ve d
e nsequenes n the p
esent.
As
nsequene f ths, Ame
 n Ind ns ttempted t p
event
h e  e
x v tn f stes nh bted by the
nest
s, whe Ame
 n
h ests b
eeved th t the dv nement f sentf knwede w s v d
e sn t nt
nue the
studes. Ths nt
dt
y stu tn w s dd
essed by the N tve Ame

 n G
ves P
tetn nd Rep t
 tn At (NAGPRA, 1990), whh suht t
e 
h mp
mse by mtn the
ht f
ese
h nsttutns t pssess hum n

em ns. Due n p
t t the sp
t f pstp
essu sm, sme
h ests h ve

beun t tvey enst the ssst ne f ndenus pepes key t be des
ended f
m thse unde
study.
A
h ests h ve s been bed t
e-ex mne wh t nsttutes n
h e
  ste n vew f wh t n tve pepes beeve t nsttute s 
ed sp e. T
 m ny n tve pepes, n tu
 fe tu
es suh s  kes, munt ns 
even ndvd
u  t
ees h ve utu
 snf ne. Aust
 n
h ests espe y h ve
exp
ed ths ssue nd ttempted t su
vey these stes t ve them sme p
te
tn f
m ben deveped. Suh w
k
equ
es se nks nd t
ust between
h
ests nd the pepe they
e t
yn t hep nd t the s me tme study.
Whe ths pe
tn p
esents
new set f h enes nd hu
des t fedw
k
, t h s benefts f
 p
tes nvved. T
b  ede
s pe
tn wth
h
ests  n p
event the ex v tn f
e s f stes th t they nsde
s 
ed
, whe the
h ests  n the ede
s' d n nte
p
etn the
fnds. The

e h ve s been tve eff
ts t
e
ut b
n  pepes d
ety nt the

h e  p
fessn.
Rep t
 tn[edt]
See Rep t
 tn nd
ebu
  f hum n
em ns
A new t
end n the he ted nt
ve
sy between F
st N tns 
ups nd sentst
s s the
ep t
 tn f n tve
tf ts t the 
n  desend nts. An ex mp
e f ths u

ed June 21, 2005, when mmunty membe
s nd ede
s f
m numbe

f the 10 Anqu n n tns n the Ott w
e nvened n the Kt n Zb

ese
v tn ne
M nw k, Quebe, t nte
nest
 hum n
em ns nd bu
  
ds sme d tn b k 6,000 ye
s. It w s nt dete
mned, hweve
, f the
em ns
we
e d
ety
e ted t the Anqun pepe wh nw nh bt the
en. The

em ns m y be f I
qu n nest
y, sne I
qu n pepe nh bted the
e b
ef
e the Anqun. M
eve
, the dest f these
em ns mht h ve n
e t
n t  t the Anqun 
I
qus, nd ben t n e
e
utu
e wh p
ev
usy nh bted the
e .
The
em ns nd
tf ts, nudn jewe
y, ts nd we pns, we
e 
n y
ex v ted f
m v
us stes n the Ott w V ey, nudn M

sn nd the A
umette Is nds. They h d been p
t f the C n d n Museum f Cvz tn's
e
se
h etn f
de des, sme sne the  te 19th entu
y. Ede
s f
m v

us Anqun mmuntes nfe

ed n n pp
p
 te
ebu
 , eventu y de
dn n t
dtn 
eded
nd b
hb
k bxes ned wth
eded
hps, musk

t nd be ve
pets.
An nnspuus
k mund m
ks the
ebu
  ste whe
e se t 80 bxes f v

us szes
e bu
ed. Be use f ths
ebu
 , n fu
the
sentf study 
s pssbe. Athuh net tns we
e t tmes tense between the Kt n Zb 
mmunty nd museum, they we
e be t
e h 
eement.[86]
Kennewk M n s nthe

ep t
 tn  ndd te th t h s been the su
e f he t
ed deb te.
See s[edt]
Outne f
h ey
A
h e usts
A
h e st
nmy
A
h eby
A
h ey nd nm tn
A
h ey f
en nd
tu 
A
e f
h e  ptent 
Bb 
h ey
D tn methdes

Dump dn
GIS n
h ey
G
ve
bbe
y
H

s m t
x
Inteetu  P
pe
ty Issues n
Cutu
 He
t e p
jet (IPnCH)
Lst ty
P  e nth
py
Lsts
A
h e  pe
ds
A
h e  stes by unt
y
A
h ests
P eethnbt nsts
Refe
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^ b Renf
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^ H v nd et . 2010, p. 7,14
^ "
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^ Bwden, M
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^ http://e
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