MILITARY APPLICATIONS OF G&OLOGY

BY

MAJOR JOSEPH S. C. SMITH

Military Applications of Geology

,.
A paper presented to the Kansas Academy of Science Symposium held
at Kansas State Teachers College, Emporia; Kansas, 1 May 1964 .

'

by

JOSEPH S. C. SMITH, Major

Corps of Engineers
United States Army

Fort Leavenworth, Kansas

1964

. "'--'

';

t;, ,

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PREFACE
This paper was prepar ed by Major Joseph S. C. Smit h, CE,
author- instructor, Department of Division Operati ons, United
States Army Command and General Staff College for presentation
to the Kansas Academy of Science Geology Symposium on 1 May 1964
at Kansas State Teachers College, Emporia, Kansas .

While pre

parea at the direction of the Commandant, Command and General

Staff College, this paper does not necessarily refl ect t he views
of the College; or any other governmental agency.
The writer acknowledges the services rendered by the Office
of the Chief of Engineers, especially MajorS. C. McArthur and
Mr. . s. Greenberg, in providing backgr0und and source

mater~als

for the preparation of this paper, and Mr. M. P. Connaughton who

reviewed the paper before final typing.

The Military Geology

Branch of the U. S. Geological Survey, Department of Interior,

is also acknowledged for its generous assistance.

Two members

of the staff of the Military Geology Branch must be mentioned

especially:

Mrs. E. A. Hol m, who provided source material and

background from personal experience for the writing of the paper;

and Mr. H. H. Hawkins, who reviewed it before final typing .
Major James L. Trayers, Corps of Engineers, Staff and Fac
ul ty, Command and General Staff College., furnished valuable

assistance in editi ng and proofing the manuscript.

ii.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
PREFACE - - - - -

ii

INTRODUOI'ION-

HISTORY OF MILITARY GIDLOGY BEFORE WORLD WAR II

Before World War I -

During World War I

Military geology in the British Army

Military geology in the German Army

Military geology in the United States Army

Military geology in the French Army -

10

M.i litary geology in other armies-

' 11
I

~~i-G~~Y-I~ ~ ~T~_s:A:~ ~-D~N~ ~0~

J~ld

Military Geology in Other Countries During

War II - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

-~

---

_,;..

17

Organizati on of the Military Geology Unit- -

18

St affing the Military Geology Unit - -

21

Work of the Military Geology Unit-

23

Terrain intelligence folios

25

Trafficability studies- - - - -

34

C~nclusions -

- - - - - - -

"'-....-

1~

\2

Bet ween World War I and World War II

. -;

"\ -

Summary of applications of military

during World War. I - - - - -

Formation of the Military Geology Unit

iii

35

. .' .

'

..,. .

...

. .,

Page
MILITARY GIDLOGY IN THE UNITED STATES ARMY AFTER WORLD
WAR I I TO THE PRESENT
The Challenge -

36

36

UsefUl Aspects of Geology-

- - - - -

37

Strategi c terrain intelligence- - - - - -

38

Tactical and combat terrain intelligence-

39

Water

su~ply -

40

- .- -

General construction- -

-'

---

40

Special problems - -

41

Post hostility reconstruction (military

government) - - - - - - - - - - - - -

42

Current Organization for Military Geology- -

42

Military Geology Branch -

42

Terraip detachment - - - - - - -

44

Military Geology Training- - - - -

44

CONCLUSION- - - -

45

LITERATURE CITED

47

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ILLUSTRATIONS
1 . Figure 1 - Organization of the Military Geology
Unit as of January 1945 .- - - - - - - - - - - - - -

22

2 . Figure 2 - Projection from a topographic map

as the first stage in preparing a Terrain Diagram. -

27

3. Figure 3 - Terrain Diagram made from projection

without consulting geologic or topographic maps -

28

4. Figure 4 - Completed Terrain Diagram after study

of geologic and topographic maps. - - - - - - - -

29

iv

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I

INTROOOCTION
During peacetime the United States Army has, for a long
time, applied the science of geology
struction problems.

~o

engineering and con

Geologists are emp!oyed both in the Office

of the Chief of Engineers in Washington, D.

c. ,

and in the Engi

neer Districts throughout the country and overseas.

They provide

the necessary geologic services with respect to the multi -million

dol lar civil and military constructi on programs carried out by
the Army each year.

The .d esign of major construction projects is

not started without this geologic service .

On the other hand, it took two World Wars t .o realize the
full value of applying the science of geology to military prob
lems in the Theater of Operations.

In order for an army to be

victorious it must control the land; and , in order to control the

land, it must take advantage of all available information concern
ing the land.

Geology provides military planners with information

concerning the properties of the ground over which the army must
move , shoot, and communicate.
The purpose of this paper is to discuss various direct
applications of geol ogy to the solution of military problems.
Greatest emphasis is pl aced on the use of geology during World
War II; for it was in this war that t'he science .o f geology gained
a permanent place as a useful tool in military operations .

brief history of military geology is included as background to

portray the evol ution . of military
of- the - art.

g~ology

to the present state

I
I

2.

HISTORY OF MILITARY GEOLOGY BEFORE WORLD WAR II

. Before Worid War I.
In the years preceding World War I there are scant
t

references to the value of applying geology to military problems.

\

This was because geology was still a relatively new science and
was neither ful ly appreciated nor being extensively applied by
the engineering sciences.

Major General J. E. Portluck of the

British Royal Engineers , appears to be the first professional

soldier to recognize that a knowledge of geoiogy woul d be an aid
in war. 1

General Portluck p~blished a rudimentary treatise on

geology in 1868, discussing the various ~pplications of the

science to military problems.
Major A. Marga, a French engineer officer, published a
treatise in 1885 in which he recognized the influence of geology
in the matter of controlling troop movements by its determination
of the physical character of .soil.

He recognized that:

"The

character of the soil, which is known by the geology, greatly inf l uei_l.ces the passability of a region and the.r efore indicates the
difficulties which armies must overcome in their marches." 2
Another French engineer officer, Major 0 . Barre, an eminent
geologist,

e~aborately

presented the physiographic phase of the

military geography of France and of many other European countries

lAlfred H. Brooks, The Use of Geology on the Western Front,

(USGS Professional Paper 128-D, September 20, 1920), p. 88 .

\
.

in his lectures between 1897-1908 at the school of Application of

Artillery and Engineers at Fontainbleau.3 Barr~ placed a great
deal of emphasis on geology in his physiographic treatment of to
pography.

His principal work predicted with a remarkable degree

of accuracy the control exercised by physiography on the military

operations of World War I.
During the decades prior to World War I the French clearly
established themselves as the leaders in the fields of military
topography, the relationships between topography and geology, and
the influence of topography on strategy and tactics - particularly
in Central Europe.
Although geology received little recognition in military
textbooks it was by no means ignored in the training of officers.
Geology was stil l an embryonic science when it was introduced into
the curriculum at the United States Militar y Academy in 1823, the
Academy being one of the f i rst educational institutions in this
country to introduce a formal course of instruction in geology.
(Unpublished manuscr ipt, Geology Applied to Military Intelligence
in Time of War , Charles B. Hunt, January, 1949, p. 150.)

This

course was apparently given for the purpose of general culture,

with .little or no re9ognition of its application to war.

Both

British and French officers received instruction in geology i n

their respective military school s .
I

'
j

.(

3Ibid, p. 90 .

Between 1886 and 1898,

4'

Lt Colonel Charles Cooper King gave a course in military geology

to British officers at the Camberly Staff College.4
course was offered at the Chatham Engineer School .

Another
Both of these

courses were abandoned many years befors Worl d War I.

Colonel

King seems to be tpe first professional soldier to recognize the

wide application of geology in military problems - except in the
f i eld of military topography.

Little attention was paid, however,

' .

to his pioneer work in the field.

The first practical use of geology in direct connection with
military operations dates from. the Russo -Japanese War (1904 -1905),
in which the Russian Army used a number of geologists primaril y as
advisers in constructing fortifications.5

Duri ng this same war

Japan made a geologic survey of Korea and it is believed likely

that some of the results may have been ~ut to immediate use . 6
Another earl y application of geology to military problems
was made by the French military geographers or mil itary topog
raphers.7

The definite systematic relationship between the to

pography and geologic

structur~

of France coupled with numerous

wars throughout the centuries, provided the French military stu

dents with many examples of the control of military movement by
the

highlands~

scarps, and water courses of France.

These ex

amples represented a trend toward the type of terrai n analysi s

5Frartk C. Whitmore, Jr., Military Geology, (The Military Engineer,

Vol XLVI, No 311, May-June 1954 ) , p. 212.

~rooks, p. 91 .

7Whitmore, The Military Engineer, p . 212.

-:;

1.\

presently used in planning wars of movement.

But this trend was

abruptly altered by the position or trench warfare of World War I .

Shortly before the outbreak of World War I Captain Wal ther

Kranz, of t he Corps of Fortification Engineers of the German Army, .

call ed attention to the use of geology in war .

Captain Kranz, who

was himself a trained geol ogist, briefly sketched several fields

of usefulness of military geology in an article which he published
in Berlin in 1913.B Kranz advocated that military geology be rec
ognized as a special profession, and that selected officers be
special~y

trained as professional military geology officers.

Kranz ' s recommendations attract.e d l ittl e attention until after the

outb~eak

of World War I.

Then such c9ntroversi es arose as to the

best military use of geology that public discussion i n technical

journals and the press was stopped by mil itar y censorship in 1916.
During World War I.
Although geol ogy was

definit~ly

recognized by the principal

contending armies during World War I, its full usefulness was by

no means realized.9

Relatively few officers in the hi gh command

of the armies t hat employed geologists appreciated their valuable

services.

Consequently, they failed to seek the advice of the

geologist on problems that clearly lay within his field.

S:srooks, p. 91 .

'

, 9Ib.;d,
...
p. 86

Geology

6 .

was regarded by many as a speculative and abstract, rather than as

a practical and concrete science.10

In the early part of the war

there are numerous examples of projects

or.oper~tions

involving

'great loss of time., energy, and life whi'ch could have been avoided
by the application of a basic knowledge of geology.
During the great Battle of Verdun, an order was given for a
body of troops to "dig in" on the high plateau of the Cotes de
Meuse which ended in disaster and needless loss of life.

A casual

glance at the available geologic map would have shown that the
plateau was underlain by hard limestone with less than a foot of
soil cover.

The material could not be excavated with the light

tools furnished or even with proper equipment in the time

available. ll
Front line dugouts and trenches, located without any con
sideration of the ground water conditions, were rendered useless
by filling with water.

Numerous tunnels for attack galleries were

started only to be abandoned after a great expenditure of time and

labor when crossed by hard igneous rocks or hard sandstone.

Road

metal was transported from England to France in ignorance of the

fact that a geologist was able to designate readily accessible
sources in the Theater of Operations.

The witch-hazel stick was

being used to locate sources of ground water and hundreds of wells

were driven that provided no water.

Hospitals and

airfield~

were

<:;

~\

lLl.
Ib d, P

87

i
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-~,

.J

"

"~

.,,

located without any definite knowledge of the source' of needed

12
water. Many other similar mistakes could be cited that clearly
emphasized the need for basic geologic

intellig~nce

on or near

the front.
As the war progressed and stabilized into static trench war
fare greater use was made of the geologic information available .
The geologic staffs of the various armies were increased; and, in
certain of the

a~ies,

'

particular operations were not undertaken

without first consulting the staff geologist.

Military geology in the British Army.

In

May~

1915, the

British called into service W. B. R. King, member of the British

Geological Survey with the rank of Captain.

He was attached to

the staff of the Chief Engineer to determine ground water re

sources.

Captain King, _so far as is known, was thf first geolo

gist to receive a military assignment for 'lo{ork in bis own profes

sion. 1 3

'

In May, 1916, other geologists were added to the head

quarters of the British Expeditionary Force as advisers on under

ground mine warfare to the Army .engineers, and later at General
Headquarters.

The British geologic staff at no time exceeded five

officers; but this was not a handicap for among the mining compan
ies many of the officers were trained geologists.

The success of

the British in gaining control of the underground situation stemmed

12 .
Ibid.

l3Ibid, p . 93.

from thei r geologists ' interpretations of geologic studies.

Brigadier General R. N. Harvey, who commanded the Brit ish mining
t r oops, offered this statement:

"The first requisite for success

in military mining .is to secure the serVices of experienced geol o

gists.

I wish I had known that at the start. ul 4

, Military geology in the German Army.

geologi~ts

Although the use of

in the German Army had been advocated before the out

break of war, Germany entered World War I with no geologic staff

'

or any definite pol icy for using geologists . 1 5 The development of

military geology in that army began in the summer of 1915; by
February the staff had increased to

twe~ty ~eologists. 1 6 The Ger

man Army geologists were organized as a part of the department of

military surveys controlled by an officer of the general staf f.

At each army headquarters in the field there was a survey staff
that included a geologist who was in charge of geologic investi
gations and surveys.

The geologists were divided into small

sections and assigned as needed.

In addi tion to thi s organi

zation there were three geologic intelligence sections or infer

mation bureaus in base areas which furnished the field geologists
with geologic information.
services was much more

14
Ibid, p . 87.
1

ftid, P 95

16
Ibid.

The German organization of geologic

a~vanced

than that of the Allies and during

the course of World War I, about 250 army geologists were assigned
to all fronts, some with offices just behind the front lines.l7
One of the first duties of the German geologist detailed to
the St. Mihiel sector was to collect data on the results achieved
by the witch-hazel stick in locating sources of ground water .
This was done to destroy the confidence of the authorities in the
witch-hazel stick.l8
Military geology in the United States Army.

The American

Expeditionary Force was able to profit by the experience of the

Allies and organized geologic work from the start. 19

The geologic

section was established as a part of the Office of the Chief

Engineer in September, 1917.2 To supervise the geologic section,
the American Expeditionary Force was fortunate in having one of
the most broadly trained American geologists, Alfred H. Brooks,
of the U. S. Geological Survey.

He was commissioned a captain in

the Corps of Engineers and later promoted ~o lieutenant c~lonel

. 21
I.
\

......

;;.

1 7Whitmore, The Military Engineer, p. 212.

18
Brooks, p. 87.

".J

l9Ibid, p. 88.
20Ibid, p. 94 .

'

'

2lWhitman Cross, Geology in the World War and After, (Bulletin of

the Geological Society of America, Vol 30, pp. 165 -188, ~arch 31,
1919), p. 170.
.

10

At first the geologic section was made a part of the division of

front~ine

engineering and later the section was transferred to the

division of engineering intelligence.

At still a later date the

chief geologist reported directly to the'Assistant Chief Engineer

at General Headquarters (GHQ) .
_In July, 1918, plans were approved to provide five geologic
officers for each Army allowing one for each corps .

Provision was

also made for two geologic officers in the line of communications.

The chief geologist at GHQ was given technical supervision over
all geologic work in the American Expeditionary Force and the
Headquarters Section was called upon to serve both the engineers
and the Intelligence Section of the General Staff.

A total of

18 geologic officers had been authorized; but, at the time of

the signing of the Armistice there were only nine geologic of

ficers assigned to the American Expeditionary Force, five at
GHQ, two with First Army, one with Second Army, and one with the
22
water supply section.
Military geology in the French Army.

The French did not

organize a geologic staff, as such, during the war and gave but
little definite recognition to the military applications of the
science. 2 3 There was, on the other hand, probably a greater use

22Brooks, p.

94 .

2 3Ibid, p. 92.

11 .

of geologic maps by the French officers than by those offfcers of

any other Allied Army.

The geologic map of France had been com

pleted many years before the war, and French engineers had long
been trained to use it for certain

of information .

kind~

Also,

since the French were fighting on their own land and were
thoroughly familiar with its physical features, the services of
geolpgists were less important to them than to their allies.
Although the French gave no recognition to the use of professional
geologists, they by no means ignored the application of geology
to military problems.

They were the first to issue a map showing

the passability of the country as governed by the physical charac

ter of the surrounding formations .

"Tank Maps"

the forerunner

to our present day Cross-Country Movement Map - were prepared dur

ing the summer of 1918 which took cognizance of the physical con
ditions imposed by surface conditions.24
Military geology in other armies.
military applications of geology by
the war.

t~e

Less is known of the

other belligerents during

The Russian Army, late in the war, organized a techni

cal department using consulting geologists in the search for con

struction materials and fuel, and on blasting problems.

Geolo

gists were attached to the Austrian Army and this action probably
closely paralleled the organization of the geologic corps in
the German Army.

24rb.;d

... ' p. 93

The Chief of Engineers of the Belgian Army,

12 .

who was also secretary of the Geologic Society of Belgium,

full use of his intimate knowledge of the

geolo~ \ of

the

mat~e

coun~~. 25

Summary of applications of military geolog.y"during World _)

War I.

As pointed out earlier there were numerou~ examples where

'

the failure to consider the geology of an area resulted in the

failure of the task undertaken.

As the war progressed, however,

the value of geologic services became more apparent in solving

certain military problems.

The principal contributions of the

military geologists during the war were the provision of engineer

intelligence pertaining to water supply, military mining (attack
galleries), siting of field fortifications, and locating sources
of construction materials - principally road metal.

Although the

employment of geology at the time was by no means developed to

its fullest usefulness, its contributions were widely recognized.
After the war the Chiefs of Engineers of both the British and
American Armies suggested the advisability of a special develop
ment of this line of work in f uture campaigns.
Between World War I and World War II.
During the years between World War I and World War II, the
Germans and Russians appear to have given the most thought to the
future employment and training of military geologists.26

25Ibid.
26Ernest F. Fox, The Use of Military Geologists in the Corps of
Enfineers, (Preliminary Study for the Chief of Engineers, June

19 9), p. 3

13

In Germany it was believed that the lack of understanding of

geology in military circles, and the lack of understanding of
military problems in geologic circles, had limited the use of
geol~gy

in World War I.

It was proposea that for the future there

should be a specially trained body of professional military geolo

gists who would have broad responsibilities in many phases of
military operations .

Plans for a comprehensive training program

were developed to make military geology a part or the regular

university training of all geology students.

Those students

specializtng in military geology would receive military training

in the Cotps
of Engineers after which they would be commissioned.
!
Training in geology was also to be included in. the curricula of
all military

ac~demies

and officer training schools .

It is be

lieved that this plan was implemented, at least in part, prior

to the mobilization of the new German Army that entered World
War II. 27
Between 1932 and 1939 many papers on military geology were
written by German scholars, but despite this interest the govern
ing concept of military geology continued to be that of static
warfare conceived during World War I . 28 This attitude prevailed
among military geologists until as late as 1941.

Even though the

military geologic thinking lacked progressiveness, the German's

27Ibid .
.
28wbitmore, The Military Engineer, p. 212.

14

continued interest in the subject led to the re - establishment, in

1935, of the 11Wehrgeologie 11 or German Arm.y geologic organization.29
In the USSR, geologywas made a part of the regular education
of army officers .

Functions of military geology were performed by

geologists organized into

11

hydrotechnical divisions, " operating

under the Army General Staff .

These divisions were given respon

sibility f?r all matters pertaining to water supply and sanitation,

and construction of maps showing geology,

hydr~logy,

road and

'

transport routes, deposits of road metal and ball ast, and the re
sults of seismic surveys . 3
The application of geology to the military arts and science
did not fare too well in the United States during this period.
This should not be too disconcerting, however, for it only reflects
the general attitude that prevailed toward the military profes
sion.

Who could think about geology when the Army was conducting

maneuvers as late as 1939 with wooden rifles and mock tanks?

We

were extremely fortunate in another sense, however, for great

strides were made in the practical applications of geology to all
other branches of engineering, and geology came to be widely recog
nized as a concrete and practical science . 31

29Ibid, p . 213.

3Fox, Preli minary Study for the Chief of Engineers, p. 3.

31 Ibid.

15 .

It should be speculated that mi.l itary geology was considered

by other countries and in particular by Japan .

For a long time

the Japanese were open- handed with geologic data on their home
land; but in 1937, they stopped exchangirlg this data with other
countries .

Japan's pride in its botanical accomplishments, how

ever, tended to defeat this censorship in geology.

They invited

botanists from many countries to visit their islands to observe

their botanical feats.

The botanical information thus obtained

proved important in geologic warfare; for plants can be a guide

to ground conditions.32
MILITARY GEOLOGY IN TRE UNITED STATES ARMY DURING WORLD WAR II
Up to this point this paper has covered a very general ,his
torical evolution of military geology, not only as applied to
U. S. military operations , but also t o the military operations of
other countries.

The remaining sections will apply principally

to the military use of geology by the United States Army during

and after World War II, with only passing reference to the use of
geology by other major belligerents during World War II.
Military Geology in Other Countries During World War II .
It is known that in World War II considerable use was made
of geologically trained personnel in the British, Russian, and

32Martin Sonnners (1945), The Army's Pet Prophets, Saturday

Evening Post, March 24, p. 98.

16 .

German Armies .

Each of these armies not only had its own organic

military geology units but employed civilian geologists as well.

It may be stated that the German Army excelled
to their military operations .

i~

applying geology

Our

own intelligence reports are

replete with examples o f skillful use of terrain by the Germans.

Captured German documents clearly reveal that German geologists
played .a major role in assembling terrain and engineering intelli
gence data for all levels of planning (Hunt, unpublished manu
script) .

Records indicate that the number of trained mi.l itary

geologists in Germany at any one time in World War II reached a

I

maximum of about 250 with an estimated 1600 assisting personriel.33

From the very beginning of the war the Russian~
'
employed
great body of geology specialists to serve the

ront;

a,

Ge~ <;
I

intelligence sources reported that over 15,000

p\~ons

were

employed in military geology in the USSR during the war years.34""

"
!

Most of the British effort in military geology was\ centralized

\
in the Geological Section of t he Inter- Service Topogr~phical
Department in the United Kingdom, and in the Strategic ~r~~ch of

',

the geological survey of India.

33Fox, p. 4.
34Ibid.

,,;

'

17

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'

Formation of the Military Geology Unit .

Despite the recommendations of the Chief of Engineers based
on our World War I experience concerning the

i~portance

of geology

' entered World War II

to military operations, the United States
with no provision for including military geologists as an organic
part of an:y troop unit or staff structure.

The awareness among

the armed forces of the potential military use of geology and

the geologist was almost nonexistent.

Shortly after the United

States entered the war it became apparent to the Chief of Engi

neers, U.

s.

Army, that the Army was not equipped to fUrnish

the geologic information necessary concerning prospective areas

of military operations.

World War II had developed into a war of

movement in contrast to the position warfare of World War I.

Information pertaining to water supply sources, landing beaches,
airfield sites, trafficability of soils, and sources of con
struction materials - just to name a few of the geologic require
ments - was drastically needed.

Although the Corps of Engineers

had a small staff of consulting geologists for civil and military

construction projects within the United States, its organization
could not tackle the gigantic problem of providing the required
geologic information for the theaters.

There was not sufficient

time available for the Corps of Engineers to build a geologic

staff and reference library of the requisite size to conduct the
needed geologic investigations.

The means by which this problem

was solve.d exhibits an outstanding example of cooperation between

two different departments of our Federal Government.

.,

'I,

'f

18

In late spring 1942, representatives of t e Corps of Engineers

.
'
called on the Chief Geologist of the United

Stal~s Geological~

Survey (USGS), Department of the Interior, to sJ icit assistand~

in providing the geologic information required b , the Army.

a matter of coincidence, certain factions within
been attemPting for months to find a

w~

to get

. t o ac t10n 1n
. the war 35 There was
. +~~ 1n
geo1 og1s
. !

standing Qf the problem involved and an

~

minds .

~he

t~e

USGS had
nations' s

~ common

under

immediat~ : meeting

-~ -

As

of

~,

The Military Geology Unit (MGU) of the usdp! which was

formally established by means of an agreement between the Survey

and the Corps of Engineers in June of 1942, was commissio~ed to
make geologic studies of areas of strategic military importance.

36

Organization of the Military Geology Unit .

The initial staff of 10 geologists established in Washington,
D. C. in 1942, gradually increased to about 60 geologists and
soils scientists in 1943.

During this time the MGU prepared

reports on strategically significant European Countries and

North Africa.

In July 1943, an urgent request was made for the

~ 5 Sommers, Saturday Evening Post, p. 98.

36
-=---=-' U. s . Geological Survey and Corps of Engineers U. s.
Army, The Military Geology Unit, (Geol. Soc . Am.,'Dec 1945),
p. 2, (hereafter cited~) .

19

.
'MGU to prepare a report on the terrain and water supply in Sicily.
The MGU originated a new type of report which marked a turning
point in the application of geology to

u.

S. military operations .

This folio report could be used for tactical field problems as

well as problems of broad strategic planning.

The practical

value of the Sicily report so firmly established the reputation

of the MGU in military circles that the unit was all but over

whelmed with new assigments.

37

The staff of MGU was then rapid

ly increased to include 88 geologists, 26 other specialists, and

43 sub-professionals.
In the spring of 1944, a new field was opened up for the

MGU.

Teams from MGU in Washington were sent to the various war

theaters to work on detailed plans for operations and to provide

consulting services.3

The first field team went to the Southwest Pacific in May

1944 in response to a request by the Chief Engineer of the
Theater and was detailed to the Research and Reports Sub
Eng1neer
.
I nt e 1~~1gence

DlVlSlon
. 39 The team con
.
sect 1on,
sisted of one soils scientist and four geologists, who were

specialists in ground water, engineering geology, beach con

,..

ditions, and land forms.

In June 1945, in preparation for

the invasion of Japan, the Sub- Section was in reased

37Ibid, p. 3 .
38Ibid.

39Fox, Preliminary Study for the Chief of Engine9\

"'

, :p. 7 .

'-.

'

20

to 22 military and civilian personnel and elevated to Branch

status . 40

The military personnel were drawn from qualified

officers and enlisted men who were on duty in the theater.

A second field team from the GU was sent to the Central
Pacific Theater in November, 1944, at the request of the Joint
Intelligence Center, Pacific Ocean Areas .

This unit was desig

nated an Engineer and Terrain Intelligence Team (ETIT) , and was

attached to the Intelligence Division of the Theater Engineer
where it worked on detailed terrain reports until the end of
hostilities . 41

The ETIT cooperated closely with the Engineer

Base Topographic Battalion.

The strength of the team on V-J Day

was 16 and included 12 geologists, 2 soils scientists, a road

engineer, and a river and harbor specialist.

Other small teams were sent to the European Theater of

Operations (ETO) during the last year of the war and were
assigned to the Inter- Service Topographical Department in the
United Kingdom (ISTD-UK),to the Combined Intelligence Objectives
Section of the Combined Chiefs of Staff, and to the Engineer
Intelligence Division of the Chief Engineer, ET0. 42
In addition to the work at their respective headquarters,
geologists from the teams were periodically

4oibid.
4libid.

~ssigned

~
'
I

42Ibid.

to army

\\

'

'

~, ,

21

and corps headquarters, and detailed temporarily to Engineer

Construction Battalions and other engineer units to provide
consulting services .
t

Org~ni -

Figure l (Hunt, unpublished manuscript) shows the

zation of the Military Geology Unit as of January 1945.

~
~

Staffing the Military Geology Unit.

As

th~

"

program of the Military Geology Un t expanded it was

no longer possible for the U. S. Geological

staffing requirements.

Su~~

to fill the\

A nation-wide search was made for , qual~~

1 sources with
fied individuals; workers were recruited from maclr
colleges and universities leading the list.

'!

'

Besid\s geologists,

the unit included other professionals such as soils

"scie~ists

and, for part of the time, a forester and a sanitary engineer.43

1
1

Other governmental agencies, notably the Division of Soil Survey

in the Department of Agriculture, cooperated with the unit by
lending some of their most qualified men.

Besides having a

sound geologic background, the geologist was required to have

wide field experience; for it was this combination that consti
tuted the foundation of the entire research program.

Other

requirements included field experience in critical foreign

countries and an ability to read two foreign languages.

The

practice of encouraging the geologist or soils scientist to be

43Charles B. Hunt, Military Geology, (Geo Soc Am, Engineering

Geology (Berkey) Volume l950), p. 320.

22

1 -

GEOLOGIST IN CHARGE
I

RESEARCH
SUPERVISORS

CHIEF EDITOR
CHIEF ILLUSTRATOR

'

RE~IEWING

OF~ ICE

I JVERSEAS

'\
I

BIBLIOGRAPHERS

PHOTOGRAPHERS

'

TEAMS

'
SOUTHWEST Pt\ CIFIC
AREA I
\

'

"
CENTRAL PACIFIC " "'
'
AREA
\

PHOTO
PROCUREMENT

PROJECT TEAMS

...

TERRAIN
SPECIALISTS

ILLUSTRATORS

EDITORS

...

TYPISTS

EUROPEAN THEATER
OF OPERATIONS

INTERSERVICE TOPOGRAPHIC
DEPARTMENT

- - - -- - - - -- - -

Figure 1.

Organization of the Military

Geology Unit as of January 1945.

(Maj. J . S. c. Smi th , U. S. Army Command and General Staff

College - Transactions, K. A. S.)

'I

.I
I
23

able to study the source literature and maps mi nimized errors

and saved valuable time.

Some of the studies prepared by the

MGU could not have been completed in the time

~vailable

unit had been forced to depend on transiators. 44

if the

In addition

to the professional staff, a staff of assistants which included

bibliographers, photographers, illustrators, editors, and
typists was organized, and comprised about 20 percent of the
total strength of the unit.
Work of the Military Geology Unit .
The primary function of the MGU in Washington, during the
war, was the preparation of studies of foreign areas for broad
strategic and operational planning.

The studies were prepared

principally for the Corps of Engineer's, the Army General Staff,

the Army Air Forces, the Quartermaster Corps, and the Office
of Strategic Services.
intelligence.

The work covered all aspects of terrain

The following di fferent types and numbers of

strategic reports were completed:45

Major strategic reports completed:
Ter~ain Intelligence Folios (for Military
Intelligence, Corps of Engineers) - - -------
Special Intelligence reports (for Engineer
and Air Corps Intelligence) ---------------
Commodity reports (for Air Forces and
Quar.termasters) --------- ------------- -----
Bomb Target Reports (for Air Forces) --------
TOTAL---------- -------- -

140

24

44Ibid, p. 323.
\

4 5Ibid, p . 308 .
.

.....

A "'~
I

,
I

24

Minor strategic reports completed:

For various Army and Navy Intelligence
Units -------------------------- -- ---------- 100
For Board of Economic Warfare- --------------31 .
TOTAL--- --------- -------- 131

These reports contain approximately 3500 large maps, 1500 small

I
maps , 4000 photographs and figures, 140 terrain diagrams, 'ar,d
\

2500 large tables of text to accompany the rna s .

;
tl '

In addition to the strategic reports prep

in Washington,
I

a considerable volume of data was furnished to

tactical

planners in the theaters by the overseas teams of the MGU,-

\
Th(.j

\
.I

primary function of these teams was essentially \ he same as

I

l'
1

that of the unit in Washington, but their studies 'were made . in

'

the field for Theater Headquarters and lower echelons and their
"-.

work was, therefore, of a tactical nature.

areas studied by the

fi~ld

The size of the '

teams covered tens of square miles

compared to the thousands of square miles covered by the stra

l:.

tegic folios .
The considerable contribution of the Military Geology Unit
was possible largely because its staff consisted of highly com

petent professional scientists who, because of their association

with the U. S. Geological Survey, were familiar with the standard
I

"1

operating procedures of government agencies .

Also, thi s staff

had at its disposal all the facilities of the U. S. Geological

Survey including its great wealth of reference material and the
advice and services of other specialists within the Survey.

25

Terrain Intelligence Folios .46

It is difficult to say which

,.

one area of work accomplished by the MGU was the most important
to the war effort.

The Terrain Intelligence

t

have the broadest application; therefore , a

of their' .
I

contents seems appropriate .

The scope of the folios differed considerably depending on '

the parameters of the planning level for which the~ were intended, '
the amount of information available, and the time available for
preparation.
At the beginning of each folio are a summary of the terrain
situation, a listing of the principal sources of information,
a statement of the method of compilation, terrain diagrams, and
the reliability of the data.

The reliability rating expressed

the degree of confidence the authors had in their statements .

Terrain diagrams depict the topography in some form of
apparent perspective and are a marked aid in map interpretation .
They convey at a glance a clearer idea of topography than maps
even after extensive study.

Terrain diagrams are not a map

substitute as the effect of perspective is obtained by distor

tion of the map scale.

A good example of their use is related

in the Allied bombing of the Romanian oil center of Ploesti. 47

The oil center had been so well camouflaged that the Allied

46rhid, pp. 310- 320

47MGU, p. 6

26 .

bombers had failed to find it.

terrain diagram showing the

oil fields in relation to the neighboring land forms, which of

course, could not be camouflaged, was given to the air forces .

On the second attempt the bombers located the target and

de

stroyed the Ploesti oil center .

Figures 2 through 4 depict the construction of a terrain
diagram . 48

Figure 2 is a projection made mechanically with an

isometrograph from a topographic map as the first stage in

preparing terrain diagrams.

Figure 3 is a terrain diagram

made by filling in the framework of the projection, without

consulting the geologic map of the area or the top9graphic map
from which the projection was made .

Figure 4 is the finished

terrain diagram made after study of the geologic and topographic

maps and shows the improvement in definition of the terrain
features .
In the section of the folio on Terrain Appreciation a
concise and complete picture of the terrain i s presented which
will assist the commander to make a more accurate estimate of
the tactical situation.

The approach. to the appraisal is funda -

mentally geologic; but, soils and vegetation are also essential .

Topographic maps are indispensable to the appraisal, and would
alone furnish the basis for a fairly good study.

However, know

ing the geology makes it possible to interpolate details of

4~ngineer Intelligence Guide No . 33, Preparation of Terrain

Diagrams, (Army Map Service, June 1960), P 3

.~

I
'

-I
\

'

Figure 2 . Projection fro~ a topographic map

as the first stage in preparing a
Terrain Diagr am .

(Maj . J . S. C. Smith, U. S. Army Command and General Staff

College - Transactions, K. A. S. )

'

28

I
I'I
I

Figure 3. Terrain Diagram made from projection

without consulting geologic or topo
graphic maps.

(Maj. J. S.C . Smith, U. S. Army Command and General Staff

College - Transactions, K. A. S. )

29

'

Figure

4. Completed Terrain Diagram after

study of geologic and topographic
maps.

(Maj. J. S. c. Smith} U. S. Army Command and General Staff

College - Transactions, K. A. S. )

30

relief that are not shown on topographic maps , to estimate conditions on stream banks and bottoms, and to predict ground con
ditions that will affect movement and excavation .

Charles B.

Hunt, in his treatise on Military Geology in the Berkey Volume

of the Geological Society of America, presents an excellent
discussion on interpreting from geologic maps.
The area on the Terrain Appreciation map is divided into
terrain units and an accompanying table describes the affect
the topography will have on the movement, cover, and concealment
of troops.

Climate and vegetation are described in general

terms sufficient to emphasize only those elements significant

I

I
1

1
I

to ter.r ain

appreciation ~

Vegetation is important from the

standpoint of concealment and as an obstacle to movement.

In

future wars vegetation will be of particular importance be

cause of obstacles to movement that may be created from tree
blow- down caused by nuclear weapons .

The duration of the

.I

I
I

seasons, frequency of freezes or of very wet weather, and

seasonal distribution of the amount of annual rainfall are
the principal climatic factors .

Streams are treated on a

separate sheet ; a general summary of their fordabLlity and a

description of the valleys through which they flow are included
under terrain appreciation .

Details about built- up areas are

included because of their effect on movement, observation,

cover, and concealment .

31

of

A separate section of the folio deals with problems

water supply.

This section summarizes -the quantity and

~ua~.ity

of the water in the area and includes not on~. the existing ..

supplies but also the potential sourceS that

by engineer units .

~ld be develo~~O

Recommendations were inclu~e~ as to the

method most feasible for obtaining dependable supplies of

I

.t

potable water .

The water supply sheets prepared '\by geologists

proved so useful t hat the office of the Surgeon G~neral re

quested that the Chief of Engineers authorize the Military
Geology Unit to extend water-supply studies to cover problems
pertaining to sanitary engineering.

Later studies included

a discussion of municipal water systems.

The problem of finding water for drinking and for con
struction increased greatly in magnitude during World War II.
Water mi ght have been a serious problem in Sicily, for in
stance' if geologic assistance had not been readily available .
The Sicily folio was the unit ' s first big job for direct use
in the field, and fortunately, there were sufficient data availa
ble for an exhaustive study.

Army personnel who were unfamiliar

with geologic methods reported with amazement that the Terrain

Intelligence Folio had unerringly led them to good water.
Another section of the folio dealing with construction
considered the problems of road and airfield -construction and
maintenance.

In road construction such factors as t he necessity

for steep grades and curves, kind of hillside cut, fording or

...
~
32

bridging requirements, suitability of natural formation for

subgrades, susceptibility to frost heaving, and drainage and
subdrainage problems were considered .
The selection of possible sites for airfields is a major
problem in which geology has much to offer in the way of solu
tion.

The selecti on of actual sites was possible where de

tailed and accurate geologic, topographic, and soils maps were

avail able.

Aerial photographs materially assisted in the

location and selection of possible airfield sites.

In select

ing sites, the folio i ncluded a discussion of topographic

hazards in the approach zone, gradi ng and grubbing required,
nature of the ground including its stability, the availabi lity
of local construction materials and water, and the accessibility
of the possible sit es.

P1'oblems affect ing runway construction

were summarized i n much the same way as were the problems re

lated to road

construction ~

An unexpected use was made of the map showing airfield

the sl Cl1y Fo1 lO
49 In sl Cl1 y , th e rw1
~~- erlcan

1lnes
Slt es ln
were being bombed by planes from a hidden German airfield which
the Allied planes were unable to find .

As a last resort, air

intelligence officers turned to the Terrain Intelligence Folio

prepared for the invasion of Sicily which had the possible
airfield sites neatly indicated.

After checking the known

fields against possible sites, the Luftwaffe hide - out was pin
pointed and destroyed.

49sommers, Saturday Evening Post, p. 19.

33

Construction material maps were included in the folio with

a table describing each type of material and its suitability for
concrete, road metal, bal.l ast or other construction purposes.
The distribution of the various kinds of'construction materials
in a given area can be shown by redrawing the geologic map so
as to combine rock types that have similar engineering prop
erties.
A section on geology was included with the folio as a
professional guide to the civilian geologist accompanying the
troops to the area of operations.

Other special sheets were

prepared for some areas in order to treat specialized problems

like trafficability for tank units, suitability of the ground
for use of magnetic mine detectors, suitability of terrain for
cave warfare , or_vulnerability of railroad tunnels.
A Terrain Intelligence Folio may include the following
maps:

Terrain Diagram, Terrain Appreciation, Rivers, Pictorial

Views, Routes of Movement (Roads and Railroads), Water Supply,

Airfield Sites, Soils, Construction Materials,

Fue~s,

Vegetation,

Climate, and Geology.

Several references have been made previously to the Terrain
Intelligence Folio on Eastern Sicily.

The Unit was al.l otted

only lO days to make the study and assemble it in form suitable

for printing.5 This report covered 6000 square miles and was

5%unt, Military Geology, p. 308.

-'

assembled in 16 quadrangles on a scale of 1 : 100,000 .

It included

data on most subjects normally reported on in terrain intelligence

studies and included 57 maps, 2 terrain diagrams, 36 large tables
of text, and 39 photographic views.

This report proved exceed

ingly valuable both in planning and executing military operations

in spite of the handicap of being prepared so hastily .

Some of

the maps of the folio were reproduced by field units and issued
to troops .

The official critique on the engineering phases of

the operation states that these maps "proved to be accurate and

complete, were at times indispensable, and in many cases pos
sessed more information than the natives themselves."5 1
Trafficability studies .

As mechanized forces came to be

used in increasing numbers during the war, a need arose for

more exact, advance information on all features ?f the terrain
that would affect movement across country.5 2

To meet this

need, one phase of terrain appreciation was expanded into

trafficability studies which show in detail the conditions
that affect the travel of tracked vehicles.

These -studies

present in detail the effects of soil, slope, . vegetation, drain

age, weather, and natural or man-made obstacles on movement .
These studies offer an outstanding illustration of the value
of cooperation between geologists and soil scientists.

51 rbid, p. 309.

52MGU,

p.

13.

35

The trafficability studies used the same sources of data

as terrain appreciation .

Detailed information on soils was

desired in prepari ng these studies but was often lacking .

I

j'

This difficulty was well met, however, by the soils scientist .

He could predict with a great deal of accuracy the soil type
in a given area from the data supplied by the geologist on
lithology and topography together with information on climate
and vegetation .
Trafficability studies played a very important part i n
the final push into Germany and were the basis for another
rush job by the Military Geology Unit in January 1945.

I
I

On

January 16, 1945, the unit received a request ~om the Euro-

pean Theater of Operations asking for l/100, 000 trafficability

maps covering 65 quadrangles in Germany with the first 18 to
be delivered in Paris on January 21 .

Only five days were

available to make the studies, prepare the copy, and deliver

it to the Theater.

Again, an almost impossible task was

performed by the unit and delivery was made on time.

Conclusions .
During World War II geology gained a permanent posi tion
as an important scientific implement, both in the planning
and the conduct of military operations by the United States
Army.

This advancement of geology in military science was

.I

due to the increased appreciation on the part of our military

leaders and scientists alike as to the usefulness of geology

'I

36

in the solution of a large variety of practical problems .

Yne

civilian make -up of the Military Geology Unit does not appear
to have been a great handicap to the successful completion of
its mission .

H~wever,

a basic understanding of military sci

ence and military engineering problems by the members of its

staff would have facilitated the work of the unit.

From our

wartime experience evolved, however, a fundamental requirement

for geologically trained officers in the Corps of Engineers
to give military direction to our civilian military geology
organization.

Also, it was made apparent that a regular

Engineer Table of Organization and Equipment Unit which

would include a military geologist should be organized within

the Army structure to serve in the Theater of Operations to

provide geologic services .
:r.ITLITARY GEOLOGY IN THE UNITED STATES ARMY
AFTER WORLD WAR II TO THE PRESENT
The Challenge.
The application of geology to military problems was not
forgotten after World War II as it was during the period fol
lowing World War I.

There have been major organizational

changes in our military structure but the basic mi litary

functions have remained - including the function of provid
ing geologic information for planning and operations .

In

fact, our need for geologic services is more pronounced due

to the increased scope of our overseas deployments since
World War II.

37

United States overseas commitments since World War II have

included, in addition to those land areas with which

vre

were

already familiar, new and relatively unknown areas .

We are

faced with an aggressor who strikes in unexpected places taking

advantage of every opportunity to subvert and convert weak or
faltering nations into the communist sphere of influence.

We

have been confronted with this enemy in Korea, Viet Nam, Laos,
Cuba, Berlin, the Congo, Greece and Venezuela - just to mention
a few of the locales involved.

To be able to counteract the

communist influence, we must study countries which may be af

fected and among the knowledge which we must possess is the
geology of the areas .

Another aspect of our commitments is

that in the not too distant future our involvements will no

longer be earthbound.

As the first stepping stone into outer

space, the National Aeronautics and Space Administration is

feverishly working toward our first manned space flight to
the moon.

The U. S. Geological Survey has already prepared

a geologic map of the moon for the U. S. Army Corps of En

gineers who are planning for the construction of shelters
and for obtaining water on the moon for our space men.
Useful Aspects of Geology.
In our experiences gained in both World War I and World
War II, we have been able to clearly identify those aspects
of geology which are most useful to military planning and
operations and those military problems which can best be

handled .by geologists .

The military problems involved fa l l

generall y into five categories:

(l) strategic terrain intelli

gence, (2) tactical and combat terrain intellig~nce, (3) water

supply, (4) general construction, and ()) special problems.53
The title, scope and extent of the studies which include
geologic tnformation will vary, depending on the level of
planning and type of operations.

Geologic information is in -

eluded in National Intelligence Surveys, Strategic Engineering

Studies, Area Analyses, Cross Country Movement Studies, Engineer
ing Geology Studies, and Intelligence Estimates - just to men
tion a few of the formats .
Strategic terrain intelligence .

In the field of strategic

intelli gence, which is a basic requirement for policy planning

at the highest level , that part of the broader field of geo
graphical intelligence whi ch comes under terrain intelligence,
has been provided almost exclusively by geologist and allied
earth science specialists.

Subjects covered by strategic ter

tain intell igence based on existing maps, reports 1 photographs,

and other recorded information which are made the topics of
broad general studies are included in the following outline :
1.

Terrain Appreciation (in light of climate, vegetation,

land use, etc.).

(a)

Analysis and classification of topography.

53Fox, Preliminary Study for the Chief of Engineers, pp . 10- 15 .

39 .

(b)

Analysis and classification of surface and near

surface formations (soils, cinders, rock, etc.) .

(c)

Study of rivers.

(d)

Study of coasts to determine suitability for

amphibious operations.
2.

Water Supply Studies .

3.

Construction Possibilities.

4.

Basic Data which includes terrain diagrams, and special

maps on Topography, Geology, Soils, Trafficability, Transport

routes, Vegetation, and Others .
Tactical and combat terrain intelligence.

Tactical and

combat terrain intelligence is a basic requirement for planning

and operating i n an active theater .

The subjects covered may

include any or all of the subjects listed above under strategic

terr ain intelligence, depending on the nature of the theater
and its lines of communication.

The intelligence provided will

contain much greater detail than the strategic intel ligence re

ports and cover much smaller areas.

Aerial photography and

ground reconnaissance play an important part in these studies.

Combat intelligence further requires an estimate of the enemies
capabilities and methods for using terrain.

It may be expected

that enemy forces will consult military geol ogists before oc

cupying positions in the field .

Some countries use geologic

features instinctively, like the Japanese who turned to caves

during World War II .

Prepared enemy positions will be influenced

40

by geologic features requiring geologic counterintelligence to

determine his most likely dispositions .
Water supply.

In both world wars one of the most important

services rendered by geologists was locating sources of potable

water for our troops in the field .

Furnishing an adequate

water supply is always a major responsibility of the Engineers

and in most regions the water supply provided for civilian
consumption is not sufficient for military needs .

When wat er

cannot be obtained from surface sources , it is a primary duty

of the geologist to locate sources of ground water from sub

surface water bearing strata that can be obtained at feasible
depths from new wells and bore holes .
Our military forces presently deployed overseas have won
much favorable comment in helping certain emerging nations

develop sources of potable water

In areas like the Greenland ice .cap, unique methods have
been devised to provide water.

One of the most productive

methods is to drill many feet into the ice cap and use steam
to melt the ice .

The resultant water is then pumped to the

surface for subsequent use .

The water obtained is reported to

be as pure as distilled water purchased from the corner drug

store .
General construction.

Construction problems which can

best be handled by military geologists include:

1.

The selection of favorable sites for airfields .

4l

2.

The selection of favorable routes of communication

(roads and rail ways).

'3

The location of sheltered harbors and morrings

4. The inspection of mines and the selection of other

favorable sites for the construction of subsurface structures
for hangers, munition dumps) storage, etc .

5.

The selection of favorable sites for fortifications,

gun emplacements, and other heavy structures .

6. The location and rehabilitation of existing . quarries,

and the location and development of accessible new deposits of
building stone, gravel, road metal, and sand for use in general
construction work .

7. The study of drainage problems with a view to the con

struction of dams, levees, and canals for the purpose of either
drainage or flooding to create obstacles.
8pecial problems .

Military geologists are frequently

called in as consultants on a variety of engineering and scien

tific problems which affect military operations.

Some of these

special problems include the following :

1.

Reports on the distribution and effect of magnetic

ironbearing rocks on compasses and other direction finding

stations, radio propagation, mine
2.

de~ecting,

etc .

Selection of key mineral and fuel oil production cen

ters in enemy territory which are vulnerable to bombing.

3. Evaluation of mineral and oil deposits in occupied

territory which may be of use to occupying forces.

42

4.

The pinpointing of bombing targets (tunnels, deep road

cuts, dams, etc . ) which make enemy lines of communication vul

nerable to destruction by landslides or floods.

Selection of "analagous areas"' for pre - invasion train

ing and testing of equipment.

6. Reports on volcanic and earthquake dangers pertaining

to the location, construction or protection of bases.

7 The study of permafrost, and its bearing on engineering

construction in polar regions.
Post hostility reconstruction (Military Government).

Mili

tary geologists have contributed immeasura'::>ly in t he reconstruc

tion .of defeated nations by making surveys for, acting as con
sultants in, and directing the development of new and the rehabil
itation of old mineral industries and construction programs .
They have also worked closely with indigenous geologists in re
habilitating the ir professional activities.
Current Organization for Military Geology.
The civilian Military Geology Unit which provided the Army
with geologic services during World War II is continuing to
provide those services.

In addition, the recommendation that

the Army have organic units with the capability of providing

geologic services i n the field has resulted in the organization
of such a unit.
Mi litary Geology Branch .

The Military Geology Unit which

saw service in World Har II has continued .to work in the post
war years on geologic studies for the Army .

Some of the studies

prepared b y the unit during the war were hampered by shortcomings

in geologic and so.i ls data in foreign areas 1 especially some of
the areas in the Pacific .

Immediately after the war the overseas

teams in occupied areas conducted field ' sur.veys to evaluate the

accuracy of the studies prepared by the unit.
An example of thiS type of work was the Report of Recon

naissance of "Coronet Operation" Area, 1-2 March 1946.54 One

year after "Operation Coronet, 11 the code name for the invasion
of Japan, was to have taken place, a reconnaissance of the
proposed landing beaches was made.

~nis

reconnaissance was

to compare the intelligence upon which plans for the landings

were based with actual conditions vThich would have confron:ted
tb e invasion forces .

It was found that the sand on one of the

beaches contained sufficient magnetite to destroy the effec

tiveness of magnetic mine detectors .
not been mentioned in the study.

This characteristic had

I t was further found that on

another of the beaches the grain size and moisture content of

the sand would have made vehicular traffic from the water's
edge to the first road i nland difficult or impossible.
I n September 1948, as the result of a reorganization
within the U. S. Geological Survey,_ the Military Geology Unit
was upgraded to section status and a few months later VTas ele
vated to branch level .

The official name is now the Military

54 , Report of Reconnaissance of "Coronet Operation" Area,

1-2 March 1946. (Office of the Engineer, General Headquarters
Far East Command. )

44

Geology Branch.
Branch includes

The current organization of the Military Geology

geolog~sts

and botanists, and, in addition, soils

scientists and climatologists whose services

ar~

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obtained under

contractual arrangement with the Depart~ent of Agriculture .

special section has been established for studies of terrai n and

permafrost in Alaska.

In addition, consulting services for the

Army in the Pacific area and in Europe are still being provided.
Terrain detachment.

The Army has organized a terrain de

tachment under Table of Organization 5-500 C which includes a

geologist with the rank of major.

Several of these detachments

are presently operating in the Far East and in Europe.

It is

intended that these detachments perform many of the servi ces

that were provided by the overseas teams from the Military
Geology Unit during World War II.
Military Geology Training .
Since World War II the traini ng of military personnel in
the applications of geology to military problems has been
increased .
The U. S. Army Engineer School at Fort Belvoir, Virgini a,
provides a course in Military Geology as part of the program of
instructi on of the Engineer Officers Advanced Course .

The

basi s of this instruction is Army Technical Manual, TM 5-545,

Geology and Its Military Applications, which was prepared for
the Army by the Military Geology Branch of the U. S. Geological
Survey.

As previousl y mentioned the Uni ted States Military Academy

was one of our first educational instit utions to provide a
c ourse i n geology; but, that course, whi ch was discontinued in

1917, was primarily cultural .

From then until about 1960 there

was very little mention of geology in the curri cu l um at the

Academy except for guest lecturer presentations .

In 1960 there

was a broad curriculum re - eval uation at the Academy which re

sulted in new subjects such as physical geography, world geog
raphy, astronomy, and astronautics being added to the curriculum .
The Academy now has a 30 hour course in physical geogr aphy which
includes geology and related earth sciences .

The applications

of these sciences to military probl ems is stressed.

Many Corps of Engineers officers pursue graduate studies
at civi l ian coll eges and uni versi ties for the purpose of ob
taining advanced degrees .

Geology is among the subjects studied

at s9me of these institutions which further increases the Army ' s

base of geologic knowl edge.

Many more officer s have become

aware of how the application of geology can be a valuable aid

in solving certain of our mil itary problems.
CONCIDSION
Geology has been firmly established as a useful tool in
providing superior i nformation concerning the terrain on which
military operations are conducted and in solvi ng numerous
pr oblems of military planners in whi ch a technical knowledge
of the earth is required .

Although the usefulness of geology

was made apparent i n the Fi rst Wor ld War, it was necessary to

46

relearn the lesson during World War II.

The reliance on a

civilian organization to provide the Army with the greatest

portion of the geologic information required has not been any
great hinderance in the provision of this servi'c e but empha
sizes the feasibility of cooperation between the various
governmental agencies.

It is expected that this type of _

cooperation will further increase with the application of

nuclear power and weapons and our advancements into space.
The requirement for the Army to have organic units capable of
providing geologic services in the field is also apparent and
such units have been organized and are presently operating in
the field .
The Army has also emphasized the need for geologic train ing of its personnel not only in its own mi l itary schools but
in civilian institutions as well.

A course in Military Geology,

offered as a part of the regular undergraduate instruction open

to all geology students in our leading universities, would
further extend the awareness in this important field.

greater understanding on the part of geologists and military

men alike will go far in improving future applications of
geology to the military science .

Only the history of the

future can relate the as yet unforeseen applications of geol

ogy to the military science.

'

47

LITERATURE CITED

Brooks, A. H., The Use of Geology on t he Western Front , (U.

s.

Geol. Survey, Prof. Paper 128-D, September 1920) .

Cross, Whitman, Geology In The World \.Jar and After, (Geol. Soc .

Am . , Bull . , Vol. 30, pp. 165-188, March 31, 1919).

Fox, Ernest F. , The Use of Military Geologists in the Corps of
Engineers, (Preliminary Study for the Chief of Engineers,
June 1949).
Hunt, C. B., Military Geology, (Geol . Soc. Am., Engr . Geo . ;
Berkey Vol . , 1950).
Sommers, Martin, The Army 1 s Pet Prophets, (Saturday Evening Post,
March 24, 1945).
Whitmore, F. C. , Jr . , Military Geology, (The Military Engineer,
Yol. XLVI, No . 3;Ll, May - June 1954) .
The Military Geology Unit, U. S. Geological Survey and
Corps_of Engineers U. S. Army, (Informal statement prepared
by members of the staff of MGU for distribution at the
Pittsburg meeting of Geol. Soc. Am., 1945).

48

Preparation of Terrain Diagrams, (Engineer Intelligence

Guide No. 33, Army Map Service, June 1960) .

----,

Report of Reconnaissance of "Coronet Operation" Area

1- 2 March 1946, (Office of the Engineer, General Headquarters,

Far East Command).

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