AP EH CHAPTER 22 NOTES: AN AGE OF NATIONALISM AND REALISM (1850-1871)

I.

THE FRANCE OF NAPOLEON III

A. Louis Napoleon: Toward the Second Empire
1. Charles Louis Napoleon Bonaparte was elected President of France in
December, 1848
2. many of his contemporaries dismissed the new President, the nephew of
Napoleon Bonaparte, as a nonentity whose success was due only to his
name
3. Louis Napoleon turned out to be a clever politician who was astute at
understanding popular forces of his day
4. for three years he persevered in winning support of the French people
while using governmental favors to gain the loyalty of the army and the
Catholic church
5. he faced considerable opposition from the National Assembly, which had a
conservative-monarchists majority after the May elections of 1849
6. when the assembly voted to deprive 3 million men of the right to vote,
Louis Napoleon achieved even more popular favor by posing as the savior
of universal male suffrage
7. on December 1, 1851, troops loyal to the president seized the major
administrative buildings and arrested opposition leaders when the
assembly refused to let him stand for re-election
8. after restoring universal manhood suffrage, Louis Napoleon asked the
citizens of France to elect him president for a ten year term (7.5 million to
650,000 was the vote in favor)
9. late the next year, he asked for the people to restore the empire (97% of the
voters voted in favor of bringing back the monarchy with Louis Napoleon
as their king)
B. The Second Napoleonic Empire
1. Louis Napoleon was crowned Napoleon III on December 2, 1852
2. Napoleon III kept the image of the republic, while ruling absolutely
a. the Legislative Corps gave an appearance of representative
government since its members were elected to six-year terms (couldnt
introduce legislation or affect the budget)
b. as chief of state, Napoleon III:
1. led the armed forces
2. controlled the police
3. controlled the civil service
4. had his government ministers answer only to him
5. was the only person who could introduce legislation
6. was the only person who could declare war
3. the first five years of Napoleon IIIs reign were a spectacular success as he
reaped the benefits of worldwide economic prosperity as well as some of
his own economic policies
4. in economic matters, Napoleon III believed strongly in using government
resources to stimulate the national economy and promote industrial growth
5. he promoted the expansion of credit by backing the formation of
new investment banks which provided long-term loans for industrial,
commercial, and agricultural expansion
6. government subsidies were used to foster the rapid construction of
railroads as well as harbors, roads, and canals
7. iron production tripled
8. the king provided hospitals and free medicine for the workers
9. among Napoleon IIIs great domestic projects was a vast reconstruction of
Paris with broad boulevards, public squares, and new municipal utilities

II.

10. although free speech was not permitted, through public opinion polling
done by his underlings, Napoleon III began liberalizing his regime to stem
growing unrest with some of his policies
a. legalized trade unions
b. allowed workers the right to strike
c. allowed opposition candidates for the first time under his regime the
freedom to campaign
d. gave the Legislative Corps more say in affairs of state including the
right to debate on budgetary issues
C. Foreign Policy: The Crimean War
1. as heir to the Napoleonic Empire, Napoleon III was motivated by the desire
to free France from the restrictions of peace settlements of 1814-1815 and
make France the chief arbiter of Europe
2. the Crimean War erupted between Russia and the steadily declining
Ottoman Empire in 1853 when the Russians demanded the right to protect
Christian shrines in Palestine and the Ottomans refused (this privilege had
already been extended to the French)
3. concern over the prospect of an upset in the balance of power in Europe
led France and Great Britain to side with the Ottomans against the
Russians
4. the Crimean War was poorly planned and poorly fought
a. Britain and France attacked the Russians on the Crimean Peninsula in
the Black Sea
b. after a long and bloody siege, the main Russian fortress of Sevastopol
fell in September 1855, six months after the death of Czar Nicholas I
c. shortly after Sevastopol, the new Russian Czar, Alexander II, sued for
peace
d. altogether, 250,000 soldiers died in the war (60% due to disease)
e. Treaty of Paris (1856) officially ended the war with the provisions that
Russia was forced to give up Bessarabia and accept the neutrality of
the Black Sea (in addition, Moldavia and Walachia were placed under
the protection of the Great Powers)
5. the Crimean war broke up long-standing European power relationships and
effectively destroyed the Concert of Europe
6. only Napoleon III seemed to have gained in prestige from the Crimean War
NATIONAL UNIFICATION: ITALY AND GERMANY
A. The Unification of Italy
1. the breakdown of the Concert of Europe opened the way for the Italians
and the Germans to establish national states
2. the Italians were the first people to benefit from the breakdown of the
Concert of Europe
3. after the failure of Mazzini and the republicans in 1849, advocates of
unification focused on the northern Italian state of Piedmont as their best
bet to achieve their goal
4. the royal house of Savoy ruled the kingdom of Piedmont, which also
included the island of Sardinia
5. Victor Emmanuel II (1849-1878) took over Piedmont and appointed the able
Count Camillo di Cavour his prime minister
6. Cavour was a moderate who favored a constitutional government
7. after becoming prime minister, Cavour pursued a very successful policy
of economic expansion for Piedmont which gave the government the
revenues to pour into its military
8. Cavour then set out to organize the Italian unification movement
9. Austria was the dominant foreign power in Italy prior to unification
10. Cavour realized that his army could not defeat the Austrians alone, and he
turned to the French for assistance

11. after cutting a deal with the French that would give the French Nice and
Savoy and a kingdom in Central Italy for Napoleon IIIs cousin in return for
French support, Piedmont provoked an attack from Austria
12. in the initial stages of fighting, it was the French who were largely
responsible for defeating the Austrians in two major battles at Magenta and
Solferino
13. France, fearing Prussian involvement on the side of Austria, quickly
negotiated a peace with the Austrians in July, 1859 leaving Cavour far short
of his goals
14. Piedmont gained only Lombardy as a result of this conflict
15. soon after the war with Austria had begun, the northern Italian states of
Parma, Modena, Tuscany, and part of the Papal states were taken over
by nationalists who agreed to become part of Piedmont (France gave its
blessing in return for Nice and Savoy)
16. Cavour, who had no preconceived policy as to how Italian unification
would be achieved, may have been satisfied for the time being if it wasnt
for the efforts of Italian patriot, Giuseppe Garibaldi and his Red Shirts
17. Garibaldi, who was considered little more than an annoyance to Cavour
early on, was an able military leader well indoctrinated in guerrilla warfare
18. Garibaldi and his outnumbered force was able to subdue the Kingdom
of the Two Sicilies and had began to march up the Italian mainland when
Cavour convinced him to stand down to Piedmonts own unification
aspirations
19. the newly unified Italian state acquired Venetia because of Italys alliance
with a victorious Prussia in the Austro-Prussian War of 1866
20. the final act of Italian unification occurred in 1870 when Rome became the
capital city following the withdrawal of French troops following Frances
defeat in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870
B. The Unification of Germany
1. after the failure of the Frankfurt Assembly to achieve German unification in
1848-1849, German nationalists focused on Austria and Prussia as the only
two states powerful enough to dominate German affairs
2. Prussia had formed the Zollverein, a German customs union including all
German states except Austria which eliminated tolls on rivers and roads
among member states
3. in 1848, Prussia had framed a constitution that at least had the appearance
of a constitutional monarchy in that it established a bicameral legislature
with the lower house elected by universal male suffrage
4. Prussia was characterized by a complex voting system where male
suffrage was determined by taxable wealth
5. in 1861, Kaiser Frederich Wilhelm IV died and was succeeded by his
brother Kaiser Wilhelm I (1861-1888)
6. frustrated by liberals in parliament who rejected his military budget and
reform package, the Kaiser appointed a new prime minister, Count Otto von
Bismarck (1815-1898) of the Junker nobility
7. Otto von Bismarck
a. conservative statesman that dominated German and European politics
from 1862-1890
b. practiced Realpolitik, politics of reality, in conducting domestic and
foreign policy
c. the emergence of a true parliamentary system in Prussia was blocked
by the kaiser's overwhelming executive power (Bismarck called the
shots and answered only to the kaiser)
d. Bismarck under Wilhelm I's direction made extensive reforms and
modernization to the Prussian army

8.

9.

10.

11.

12.

e. Bismarck largely bypassed the parliament in pursuing his political

goals of Prussian military modernization
f. as a statesman, Bismarck can best be appreciated as a consummate
politician and opportunist capitalizing on unexpected events and
manipulating affairs to his favor
Austro-Prussian War of 1866
a. Bismarck made agreements with Russia, France, and Italy to keep them
from siding with the Austrians
b. with Austria isolated, Bismarck used the joint occupation of SchleswigHolstein to goad the Austrians into a war on June 14, 1866
c. Austria and Europe expected a quick Austrian victory
d. Reasons for Prussian Victory over the Austrians
1. the Prussian breech-loading needle gun had a much faster rate of
fire than the Austrian muzzle-loader
2. Prussia had a superior network of railroads which allowed them to
mass troops quickly
3. superior military leadership as displayed at their victory at
Koniggratz
Bismarck refused to create a hostile enemy by burdening Austria with a
harsh peace
a. Austria lost no territory except for Venetia to the Prussian ally, Italy
b. Austria was simply excluded from German internal affairs
with his victory over Austria and his creation of the Northern German
Confederation, Bismarck had proved Napoleon III's dictum that nationalism
and authoritarian government could be combined
the new constitution of the Northern German Confederation called for:
a. the Prussian king to be the head of the confederation
b. chancellor (prime minister) was responsible directly to the king
c. army and foreign policy were the responsibilities of the king and his
chancellor
d. divided the German parliament into the Bundesrat, members nominated
by the states, and the Reichstag, elected by universal manhood
suffrage, both being responsible to the Prussian king (Bismarck
actively encouraged the formation of a Reichstag of the German
parliament, elected by universal male suffrage, because he believed
that German peasants and artisans, who made up most of the male
population, would support him by regularly voting conservatively)
e. local government would remain in the hands of the individual states
Franco-Prussian War
a. the immediate origins of the war concerned Bismarcks devious editing
of a telegram from Kaiser Wilhelm I after the French had demanded
an apology and assurance from the Prussians that Leopold, a distant
relative of Wilhelm would never take the Spanish throne
b. the French had barely started its military overhaul when they went to
war with Prussia
c. they proved no match for the better led and organized Prussian forces
with the decisive battle taking place on September 2, 1870 at Sedan
where an entire French army including Napoleon III were captured
d. Paris fell after bitter resistance on January 28, 1871
e. as a consequence of its defeat in the Franco-Prussian War, France had
to pay an indemnity of $5 billion Francs and had to give the eastern
frontier provinces of Alsace and Lorraine to Prussia
f. much to Prussias chagrin, France paid off the indemnity in three years
g. the loss of the Alsace and Lorraine provinces set the French into
revenge mode

III.

13. Even before the war had ended, the south German states had agreed to
enter the North German Confederation
14. On January 18, 1871 in the Hall of Mirrors in the Palace of Versailles,
Wilhelm I was proclaimed the emperor of the Second German Empire
15. Prussian leadership of German unification meant that the triumph
of authoritarian and dangerous militaristic values over liberal and
constitutional values in the development of a new German state
16. in the opinion of senior British politicians, the proclamation of a newly
unified German state ruled by an emperor in 1871 entirely destroyed the
previous European balance of power
NATION BUILDING AND REFORM: THE NATIONAL STATE IN MID-CENTURY
A. The Austrian Empire: Toward a Dual Monarchy
1. after the Hapsburgs, with Russian help, had crushed the revolutions of
1848-1849, they restored centralized, autocratic government to the empire
(serfs were freed from compulsory service in Austria in 1848)
2. in 1851, the revolutionary constitutions were abolished, and a system of
centralized autocracy was imposed on the empire
3. after Austrias defeat in the Italian war in 1859, the Emperor Francis Joseph
(1848-1916) attempted to establish an imperial parliament with a nominated
upper house and an elected lower house (complicated system ensured
a German-speaking majority which alienated the various ethnic groups
within the empire in particular the Hungarians)
4. another military setback forced the Austrians to deal with the Hungarians
once again by setting up the Ausgleich (Compromise) of 1867 which
created the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary
5. the two states were linked only by having the same monarch, a common
army, foreign policy, and system of finances
6. the creation of the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary allowed the Magyars
and German-speaking Austrians to dominate their ethnic minorities
B. Imperial Russia
1. the Russian imperial autocracy, based on soldiers, secret police,
repression, and censorship, had withstood the revolutionary fervor of 1848
and even served as the arsenal of autocracy in crushing revolutions
elsewhere in Europe
2. Czar Alexander II (1855-1881) turned his energies to reforming his beloved
Russia
3. serfdom was the most burdensome problem in czarist Russia
4. recognizing that it was better to abolish it from above the wait for it to be
abolished from below, Czar Alexander II issued an emancipation edict on
March 3, 1861 which abolished serfdom in Russia
a. peasants could now own property
b. peasants could marry as they chose
c. peasants could bring suits in the law courts
d. the government purchased land from the landowners to give to the
peasants but the peasants were expected to repay the state in longterm installments for this land
5. in 1864, the czar instituted a system of zemstvos, or local assemblies, that
provided a moderate degree of self-government (the property-based voting
system gave the nobles a distinct advantage)
6. in 1864, the czar also created a regular system of local courts and
provincial courts and a judicial code that accepted the principle of equality
before the law (pretty successful)
7. Alexanders reform efforts unleashed forces in Russia beyond his control
a. reformers demanded even more rapid change
b. conservatives opposed what they perceived as the czars attempts to
undermine basic institutions of Russian society

IV.

c. some radical groups resorted to violent means in an effort to overthrow

the czarist system in Russia (Peoples Will succeeded in assassinating
Alexander II on March 13, 1881)
8. Alexander III (1881-1894), son of the slain czar, turned against reform and
returned to the traditional methods of repression
C. Great Britain: The Victorian Age
1. the Reform Act of 1832 had opened the door to political representation for
the middle class, and in the 1860s Britains liberal parliamentary system
demonstrated once more its ability to make both social and political
reforms that enabled the country to remain stable and prosperous
2. the British sense of national pride was well reflected in Queen Victoria
(1837-1901), whose self-contentment and sense of moral responsibility
mirrored the attitudes of her age (age known for its pious complacency)
3. Henry John Temple (Lord Palmerston), British prime minister from 1855 to
1865, chauvinistically defended British interests all over the world
4. Conservative Party (Tories)
a. led by Benjamin Disraeli (1804-1881)
b. under Disraelis leadership, passed the Reform Act of 1867 which gave
the right to vote to a large number of urban workers (the number of
voters increased from 1 million to slightly over 2 million)
c. new enfranchised industrial workers helped produce a huge victory for
the opposition party, the Liberals
5. Liberal Party
a. led by William Gladstone (1809-1898)
b. passed a series of reforms including:
1. opening civil service positions to competitive exams rather than
patronage
2. dropping religious requirements for degrees at Oxford and
Cambridge
3. introducing secret ballot voting
4. abolishing the practice of purchasing military commissions
5. passing the Education Act of 1870 which attempted to give all
children access to an elementary education
D. The United States: Civil War and Reunion
1. slavery in the US prior to the Civil War became a major issue of debate with
the push of American settlers past the Mississippi River
2. the American Civil War was a clear precursor of total war in the 20 th
Century because slavery was not only essential to the prosperity of white
southerners, but also permeated all aspects of southern society and had to
be completely destroyed
E. The Emergence of a Canadian Nation
1. in 1867, the British Parliament finally gave in to Canadian demands by
creating the Dominion of Canada which made Canada a self-governing
country with its own constitution
2. foreign affairs still remained under the control of the British government
INDUSTRIALIZATION AND THE MARXIST RESPONSE
A. Industrialization on the Continent
1. the transformation of textile production from hand looms to power looms
had largely been completed in Britain by the 1850s for cotton and 1860s for
wool
2. on the continent, the period from 1850 to 1870 witnessed increased
mechanization of the cotton and textile industries, although continental
countries still remained behind Britain
3. between 1850 and 1870, continental iron industries made the transition
from charcoal iron smelting to coke-blast smelting

V.

4. although policies varied from country to country, continental governments

took a more or less active role in passing laws and initiating actions that
were favorable to the expansion of commerce and industry
5. the continental governments played a crucial role in European
industrialization between 1850 and 1870 by eliminating barriers to
international trade
6. governments also played a role in first allowing and then encouraging the
formation of joint-stock investment banks
7. during this ongoing process of industrialization between 1850 and 1870,
capitalist factory owners remained largely free to hire labor on their own
terms based on market forces
B. Marx and Marxism
1. the beginnings of Marxism can be found in 1848 with the publication of a
short treatise entitled The Communist Manifesto, written by two Germans,
Karl Marx (1818-1883) and Friedrich Engels (1820-1895)
2. The Communist Manifesto based all historical development on class
struggle
3. Karl Marx
a. born into a relatively prosperous middle-class family in western
Germany
b. he descended from a long line of Jewish rabbis although his father, a
lawyer, became a Protestant to keep his job
c. received a Ph.D. in philosophy from the University of Berlin
d. after not getting hired by a university because he was a self-avowed
atheist, Marx took a job as a journalist and eventually became the editor
of the liberal bourgeois newspaper in Cologne in 1842
e. after his paper was suppressed for being too radical, he moved to
Paris where he met his soon-to-be financial patron and lifelong friend,
Friedrich Engels
f. Marx embraced the German philosopher Hegels idea of the dialectic,
meaning all change in history is the result of clashes between directly
antagonistic elements
g. Marx was also influenced by British classical economics and the
political and social theories growing out of the French Revolution
h. Marx believed that political power and class antagonisms will disappear
with the victory of the proletariat
i. Marx believed the final product of the struggle between the bourgeoisie
and the proletariat would be a classless society
j. forced to live in political exile from 1849 on in England
k. finished one volume of his famous Das Kapital before his death
(remaining volumes were edited by Engels)
4. Friedrich Engels
a. son of a wealthy German cotton manufacturer
b. worked in one of his fathers factories in Manchester, England where he
encountered first-hand knowledge of what he called wage slavery of
the British working class
c. wrote damning indictment of industrial life in England with his work,
The Conditions of the Working Class in England (1844)
5. the First International of 1864, formed by British and French trade
unionists, served as a type of umbrella organization for all European labor
interests (eventually failed but would be revived in 1889)
SCIENCE AND CULTURE IN AN AGE OF REALISM
A. A New Age of Science
1. by the mid 19th Century, science was having greater and greater impact on
European life

2. the theoretical discoveries in science in the 19th Century led to all of the
following:
a. technological improvements that affected all Europeans
b. great advances in mathematics and thermodynamics
c. a belief in material reality as the only reality
d. an undermining of spiritual beliefs
B. Charles Darwin and the Theory of Organic Evolution
1. the concept of evolution was not new when Darwin first postulated his
theory in 1859
2. in 1809, the Frenchman Jean-Baptiste Lamarck presented a theory of
evolution that argued that various types of plants and animals exist
because of their efforts to adjust to different environments (largely
discredited by his peers)
3. Geologists argued that the earth evolved over millions of years rather than
the thousands of years postulated by theological analysis of the biblical
account of creation
4. Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
a. raised in an upper-middle-class English family
b. studied theology at Cambridge while pursuing an intense side interest
in geology and biology
c. in 1831, accepted an appointment as a naturalist to study animals and
plants on an official British Royal Navy scientific expedition aboard the
H.M.S. Beagle
d. as a result of his research done on this expedition, Darwin discarded
the notion of a special creation and began to believe that animals
evolved over time and in response to their environment
e. his 1859 work, On the Origins of Species by Means of Natural Selection,
formulated his explanation for evolution in the principle of natural
selection
f. the basic idea of the book was that all plants and animals had evolved
over a long period of time from earlier simpler forms of life, a principle
known as organic evolution
g. the ideas for his work were inspired by:
1. his observations of plant and animal life in the South Pacific
2. Thomas Malthus theory of population
3. the theory of natural selection
h. Darwins 1871 work, The Descent of Man was even more controversial
than the widely challenged On the Origins of Species
i. in Descent, he argued for the animal origins of human beings and
emphasized their survival through a myriad of adaptations to their
environment over time
j. ideas were met with a firestorm of criticism, especially from the clergy
C. A Revolution in Health Care
1. the application of natural science to the field of medicine in the 19 th
Century led to revolutionary breakthroughs in health care
2. Louis Pasteur (1822-1895)
a. French scientist largely responsible for the discovery that
microorganisms, or germs, were the agents causing disease
b. through his experiments on fermentation, he proved that various
microorganisms were responsible for the process of fermentation, thus
launching the science of bacteriology
c. developed a method called pasteurization which was the heating of a
product to destroy the organisms causing disease
d. developed a preventative vaccination for rabies in 1885
3. Joseph Lister (1827-1912)
a. popularized the germ theory of surgery

b. discovered a new disinfectant (carbolic acid) to eliminate infections

during surgery
c. transformed surgery wards as patients no longer fell victim to what was
called hospital gangrene
4. the new scientific developments also had an important impact on the
training of doctors for professional careers in health care
a. in the course of the 19th Century, virtually every Western country
founded new medical schools
b. attempts to impose uniformed standards on them through certifying
bodies met with considerable resistance
c. the establishment of Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine in
1893 provided a new model for medical training that finally became
standard practice in the 20th Century by:
1. four-year graded curriculum
2. clinical training for advanced students
3. the use of laboratories for teaching purposes
d. during most of the 19th Century, medical schools in Europe and the US
were closed to female students
1. Elizabeth Blackwell (1821-1910) became one of the first women in
the US to receive an MD degree in 1849 (eventually opened a clinic
in NYC)
2. by the 1890s, universities in Great Britain, Sweden, Denmark,
Norway, Finland, Russia, and Belgium were admitting women to
medical training practice (Germany and Austria did not do so until
after 1900)
3. women were not given full membership in the American Medical
Association until 1915
5. Science and the Study of Society
a. the importance of science in the 19th Century perhaps made it
inevitable that a scientific approach would be applied to the realm of
human activity
b. Auguste Comte (1798-1857)
1. Frenchman, considered the founder of sociology, who created a
system of positive knowledge based upon the hierarchy of all the
sciences
2. believed that the science of human society was the most important
3. thought that the discovery of general laws of society would have to
be based upon the collection and analysis of data on humans and
their social environment
6. Realism in Literature and Art
a. the belief that the world should be viewed realistically was closely
related to the materialistic outlook of the mid 1800s
b. this was evident in the politics of reality of both Bismarck and Cavour
c. the word Realism was first used in 1850 to describe a new style of
painting and soon spread to literature
d. Realism was the dominant literary and artistic movement in the 1850s
and 1860s
e. the Realistic novel
1. literary realists wanted to deal with ordinary characters from actual
life rather than Romantic heroes in unusual settings
2. realists also sought to avoid flowery and sentimental language by
using careful observation and accurate description
3. realists allowed their characters to speak for themselves
4. Frenchman Gustave Flaubert (1821-1880) was the leading realist
writer of the 19th Century with his Madame Bovary (1857) being a
straightforward description of barren and sordid provincial life in

France
5. William Thackeray (1811-1863), author of Vanity Fair (1848), was
another was another leading realists of the time
6. Charles Dickens (1812-1870) was perhaps the best known Victorian
writer renowned for his vividly realistic descriptions of the urban
poor and the brutalization of human life
f. Realism in art
1. in art, realism became dominant after 1850, although Romanticism
was by no means dead
2. characteristics of artistic Realism are:
a. a desire depict the everyday life of ordinary people
b. an attempt at photographic reality
c. an interest in the natural environment
3. the French were leaders in this movement
4. Gustave Courbet (1819-1877)
a. was the most famous of the Realist school
b. his subjects were factory workers, peasants, and the wives of
saloon keepers
c. The Stonebreakers (1849) was one of his most famous works
which depicted road workers engaged in the deadening work of
breaking stones to build a road
5. Jean-Francois Millet (1814-1875)
a. artist who was preoccupied with scenes from rural life, especially
peasants laboring in the fields
b. work did contain a hint of Romantic sentimentality
c. The Gleaners was a famous painting by him of three women
engaged in the backbreaking work of gathering grain left after the
harvest
g. music: the twilight of Romanticism
1. the mid-19th Century witnessed the development of a new group of
musicians known as the New German School
2. this school emphasized emotional content rather than abstract form
and championed new methods of using music to express literary or
pictorial ideas
3. Franz Liszt (1811-1886)
a. Hungarian born composer who was considered by many to be
the greatest piano virtuoso of latter 19th Century
b. Liszts compositions mainly consisted of piano pieces but he did
produce sacred music as well
c. he invented the term symphonic poem to refer his orchestral
works, which did not strictly obey traditional forms and were
generally based on literary or pictorial ideas
d. father-in-law of Richard Wagner
4. Richard Wagner (1813-1883)
a. built on the advances made by Liszt at the New German School
b. realized the German desire for a truly national opera
c. looked to myth and tales from the past for inspiration
d. was not only a composer, but also a propagandist and writer in
support of his unique conception of dramatic music
e. his music later became associated with Hitlers National Socialist
Party due to Hitlers affinity for the composers music