Ch. 13: Conflict and Stress (p.

455-459, 465-481)
13.1 Define interpersonal conflict and review its causes in organizations.
Interpersonal Conflict

Process that occurs when one person, group or organizational subunit

frustrates the goal attainment of another
Involves antagonistic attitudes and behaviours
Can develop negative stereotypes of opposites
Causes
1. Group Identification and Intergroup Bias
People have a tendency to develop a positive view of their own group
and less positive of another group.
Exists because of self-esteem (social solidarity)
Increased emphasis on teams creates more opportunities for this to
occur
Can come from real or perceived differences in power and credentials
2. Interdependence
Occurs when two parties are mutually dependent to achieve their own
goals
i. Both sides must function properly or else neither will achieve
goals
ii. 2 reasons:
1. Necessitates interparty interactions for coordination
2. Interdependence implies there is power for one of the
parties
Does not always lead to conflict, can lead to collaboration. Depends on
the next conditions
3. Differences in Power, Status, Culture
Power:
i. When one party has bargaining power over another
Status
i. Not usually a source of conflict
ii. Can result in conflict when statuses are reversed (e.g. low gives
order to high)
Culture
i. Clash in beliefs and values between two different cultures in an
organization
4. Ambiguity
When goals, jurisdictions, performance criteria are unclear
Hard to accurately assign praise/blame for good/bad outcomes
5. Scarce Resources
Scarcity turns disguised conflict into an overt one
13.2 Explain the types of conflict and the process by which conflict occurs
Relationship Conflict

Interpersonal tensions amongst individuals in terms of their relationships and

not the task at hand

Task Conflict

Disagreements about the nature of the work being done and the goals or
technical matters

Process Conflict

Disagreements about how work should be organized and accomplished.

In groups:

Relationship and process conflict tend to be detrimental to member

satisfaction and team performance
Not all conflict is bad. Its useful in seeing different perspectives

How Conflicts Develop

1. Winning Each side becomes determined to win the conflict rather than
find the solution
2. Concealment Each side hides information from each other
3. Cohesion Each side becomes more cohesive as a group
4. Restriction Each side restricts communications with the other side
5. Stereotyping Each side negatively stereotypes the other
6. Leaders Most aggressive members of each side emerge as leaders
13.3 Discuss the various modes of managing conflict
Competing

Collaborating

Compromise
Avoiding
Up = more assertive, Right = more cooperative

Accommodating

Each style works better in different conditions

Avoiding

Low assertiveness, low cooperation

Short term stress relief. Works best if issue is trivial, does not involve you, or
opponent is very powerful and hostile

Accommodating

Cooperating with the opponents wishes while not asserting ones own
interests
May not bode well for future. Useful for when unsure, not prioritized over
opponent, or good will

Competing

Maximize assertiveness win-lose

Works when you have a lot of power, is very sure of facts, truly a win-lose, or
if no experience with other party

Collaboration

Maximizes cooperation and assertion win-win

Solution can lead to better conditions for both parties, takes time to develop
Also works in emergencies

Compromise

Intermediate cooperation and assertion

No maximization, hope for same outcome for both parties
o Contains seeds for procedural conflict, not the most creative response
o Not useful for resolving power asymmetry
Good for scarce resources and as a fallback

13.6 Distinguish among stressors, stress and stress reactions

Stressor

Environmental conditions that provide the potential for stress

Personality an important factor in determining the progression of stress

Stress

Psychological reaction to the demands in a stressor because the person does

not feel they are capable of handling the demands
Useful in moderate amounts and acts as a stimulant

Stress Reactions

Behavioural, psychological, physiological consequences of stress

Can include passive responses like elevated blood pressure, or active
responses like coping.
Best dealt with using first method, and confronting directly
Can be costly to the organization

13.7 Discuss the role that personality plays in stress

Locus of Control

Externals = more likely to feel luck or fate. More likely to feel anxious in the
face of potential stressors

Type A behaviour

People who have an aggressive, ambitious, competitive, hostile and impatient

personality tends to more affected by stressors
Reactions include hostility, repressed anger

Negative Affectivity

More likely to view world negatively = more pessimistic and more affected by
stressors

13.8 Review the sources of stress encountered by various organizational role

occupants
Executive and Managerial
Role Overload

Too many tasks in too short a time

Occurs more often in open ended managerial jobs

Heavy Responsibility

Important work can create stress for worker

Can experience conflict of interests in responsibilities

Operative
Poor Physical Work Conditions
Poor Job Design

Workers can get bored

Boundary Role Stressors

Boundary role positions where members interact with other groups inside
and outside of the organization
o Conflicting requirements can cause stress
o Emotional labour sometimes required (acting)

Job Demands Resources Model

A model that specifies how job demands cause burnout and how resources
create engagement
o Demands are physical, psychological, social or organizational
o Resources are from the organization and task
o Assumes that high job resources = high engagement, high job reqs =
high exhaustion

Work Engagement

Positive work-related state of mind characterized by vigour, dedication,

absorption
Something the organization should strive for

Burnout

Syndrome of emotional exhaustion, cynicism, reduced self-efficacy, in that

order

Most common for people with high ideals, more likely with women

General Stressors
Interpersonal Conflict
Work-Family Conflict
Job insecurity and Change
Role Ambiguity
Sexual Harassment
13.9 Describe behavioural, psychological, and physiological reactions to stress and
discuss techniques for managing stress.
Behavioural

Overt activities used by the stressed individual to cope with the stress
o Can include problem solving, seeking support, modifying performance,
withdrawal, or use of substances
o Problem Solving
Terminating the stressor or reducing its potency
Mostly undramatic
Strats:
Delegation
Time management
Talking it out
Asking for help
Searching for alternatives
o Seeking Social Support
Social Support having close ties with other people that affect
stress
People with stronger and better social networks cope better
Not all cultures encourage this behaviour
o Performance Changes
Can also stimulate performance with motivation
o Withdrawal
Includes absence, turnover
Does not really tackle the problem
o Use of Substances
Least effective as it makes the employee more vulnerable. More
drugs = more stress

Psychological

Emotional and thought behaviours (covert). Most common is defence

mechanism

Defence Mechanism Psychological attempts to reduce anxiety

associated with stress
Includes:
Rationalization attributing socially acceptable reasons or
motives to ones actions so that they will appear
reasonable and sensible
Projection attributing ones own undesirable ideas and
motives to others so they seem less negative
Displacement directing anger at a safe target rather
than where they could be punished
Reaction formation expressing the opposite of what you
truly feel
Compensation applying ones skills in another area to
make up for failure in an area

Physiological

Increase in stress = increase in heart problems, diseases, bacterial infections,

weaker immune system

Managing Stress in an Organization

Job Redesign
o Reduce stressful characteristics
o Improve stimulation and challenge
Increase autonomy
Family-Friendly Policies
o Reducing Work-Family conflict
More flexible policies
Reasonable workload
Supportive supervision and culture
o Improve organizational support for engagement
Stress management Programs
o Explicit programs that reduce physiological arousal, sleep
disturbances, tension and anxiety
Work-Life Balance/Fitness/Wellness
o Balanced lifestyle reduces stress, counteracts many adverse
physiological effects
o Improves mood, reduces absenteeism, improves satisfaction, better
performance

Ch. 9: Leadership
9.1 Define leadership and discuss the role of formal leadership in organizations
Leadership

The influence a particular individual exerts on the goal achievement of others

in an organizational context
Effective = motivates to achieve organizational goals

Formal Leadership in Organizations

Strategic Leadership: a leaders ability to anticipate, envision, maintain

flexibility, think strategically and work with others to initiate changes that will
create a viable future for the organization
Formal leaders are in a better position to exert influence on other members.
They are expected to do so. Given the authority.
Informal leadership characteristics are needed too. Must be well liked or
perceived as skilled enough to do so.

9.2 Explain and critically evaluate the trait theory of leadership

Trait Theory of Leadership

Leadership depends on the personal qualities or traits of the leader

Research on Leadership Traits

Started during world war 1

Traits individual characteristics such as physical attributes, intellectual
ability and personality
o Mostly focussed on demographics, task competence, interpersonal
attributes
Best Traits:

Intelligence
Energy and Drive
Self Confidence
Dominance
Motivation to Lead
Emotional Stability
Honesty and Integrity
Need for Achievement
Sociability
OCEAN also a major part

Limitations

Correlation does not necessarily mean causation

Does not explain what people do to be successful
Fails to take into account the situation
Can lead to bias and discrimination

Leadership behaviours may have a higher impact than traits

9.3 Describe the following leadership behaviours and their consequences:

consideration, initiating structure, leader reward, and leader punishment
This part goes into the behaviours. Consideration and Structure are related.
Consideration:

The extent to which a leader is approachable and shows personal concern

and respect for employees

Consequences:

Strongly related to follower satisfaction, motivation and leader effectiveness

Initiating Structure:

The degree to which a leader concentrates on group goal attainment. Clearly

defines and organizes his or her role and the roles of followers, stresses
standard procedures, schedules the work to be done, delegate tasks.

Consequences:

Related to leader job performance and group performance

Usage will differ depending on the situation

High pressure
Intrinsically satisfying job
When given a clear and certain job/goal
Lack knowledge or vague goals

Structure
Consideration
Consideration (any additional support is
redundant and unnecessary)
Structure

Leader Reward:

Use of compliments, tangible benefits, and deserved special treatment.

Employees have a clear expectation to strive for, will understand positive
outcomes.

Leader Punishment:

Use of reprimands or unfavourable task assignments and the active

withholding of rewards. Recall punishment from ch2

9.4 Describe and evaluate the following situational theories of leadership: Fielders
contingency theory, cognitive resource theory, and Houses path-goal theory
Fielders Contingency Theory:

Association between leadership orientation and group effectiveness is

contingent on how favourable the situation is for exerting influence. Is an
attitude, not a behaviour

Leadership Orientation determined by least preferred worker.

o Describing LPC favourably = relationship oriented
o Describing LPC unfavourably = task oriented
o Not a measure of consideration or structure
Most favourable when good leader-member relations, high structure, strong
position power. Least favourable in opposite
Leaders can get influenced

Cognitive Resource Theory

Focuses on how a leaders cognitive resources (intelligence, expertise,

experience) contribute to effective leadership
Leadership intelligence is most important when directive, supported by
group, low stress.
Experience more important when in high stress

Houses Path-Goal Theory

Concerned with situations under which behaviours (directive, supportive,

participative, achievement oriented) are most effective
o Behaviours:
Directive: schedule work, maintain standards, create
expectations (same as initiating structure)
Supportive: Friendly, approachable, pleasant interpersonal
relations (identical to consideration)
Participative: Consult employees with work-related matters
and consider their opinions
Achievement-Oriented Behaviour: Encourage employees to
exert a high effort, goal accomplishment
o Situations:
Different types of employees prefer a different method of
management
Effectiveness of leadership behaviour depends on particular
work environment
Good leader forms connection between employee goals and organizational
goals
Behaviour must be satisfactory for employee, must be accepted
To promote effort, rewards must tie with performance

9.5 Discuss participative leadership and how and when to use participative
leadership using the Vroom and Jago model
Participative Leadership

Involving employees in making work-related decisions

Should not be the abdication of leadership
Can be in a group or individual, depending on the situation

Advantages

Disadvantages

Increase motivation
Enhance quality of decisions
Increase acceptance of decision

Increased time and energy for

leader
Loss of power for leader
Lack of receptivity or knowledge
(resenting participation)

Vroom and Jagos Model of Participation

Attempts to capitalize on advantages and avoid pitfalls

Autocratic, Consultative, Group, Individual, II-Group
Most effective strategy depends on situation

AI Made decisions on your own

AII Obtain information from employees, make decision on your own. May or
may not share problem with employees
CI Share problem with individual employees, make decision on your own after
consulting the employees
CII Share problem with employees as a group, make decision on your own
GII Share problem with employees as a group, generate consensus for solution
Ask Meredith about this

Usefulness of participation depends on the constraints of the situation

9.6 Describe and evaluate leader-member exchange (LMX) theory

Leader-Member Exchange Theory

Focuses on the quality of the relationship that develops between a leader and
an employee
Effective results come from high quality social exchange relationships
Requires a high degree of mutual influence; trust, loyalty, open comms,
respect

Social Exchange Theory

Central to LMX
Individuals who are treated favourably by others feel obliged to
reciprocate this feeling by responding positively and returning that
treatment

Higher quality LMX = positive outcomes for everyone

9.7 Describe transactional and transformational leadership and their consequences
Transactional Leadership

Leaders set goals, provide direction and support, employees perform well and
get rewarded
Requires contingent reward behaviour, clarify expectations and rewards
(parts of path-goal)
Management by Exception degree to which leaders take corrective
action on the basis of the results of leader-follower transactions
o Monitor behaviour, anticipate problems, and take corrective actions
before serious problems arise.

Transformational Leadership

Leadership that provides followers with a new vision that instills true
commitment
Good leaders good at transactional aspects of clarifying paths to goals and
rewards
4 key dimensions:
Intellectual Stimulation
o Leader challenges ideas, assumptions, takes risks.
o Creativity and novelty
Individualized Consideration
o Treating employees as distinct individuals, showing concern for their
needs and development. Being a mentor/coach when appropriate
Inspirational Motivation
o Communication of appealing and inspiring visions to followers
o Stimulate enthusiasm, high standards, optimism
Charisma
o Provides the emotional aspect to transformational
o Ability to command strong loyalty and devotion from followers, strong
influence among them
o Includes self-confidence, dominance, strong conviction in ones beliefs

Transformational is strongly related to follower motivation and satisfaction with the

leader/job. Most consistent predictor of effective leadership.
9.8 Discuss global leadership and describe the characteristics of global leaders
Global Leadership

A set of leadership capabilities required to function effectively in different

cultures and the ability to cross language and cultural barriers
Unbridled Inquisitiveness
Personal character 2 parts: emotional connection to people,
uncompromising integrity
Duality handle uncertainty and balance global and local tensions
Savvy Must be business and organizational savvy. Understand local
conditions, new market opportunities
Often have experience living in different cultures, know different languages

9.9 Discuss the new and emerging theories of leadership including empowering
leadership, ethical leadership, authentic leadership, and servant leadership.
Empowering Leadership

Implementing conditions that enable power to be shared with employees

Associated with higher self-efficacy and adaptability

Ethical Leadership

Demonstration of normatively appropriate conduct (honest, open, fair)

through personal actions and interpersonal relationships
o Develop consistent message
o Create and embrace opportunities for everyone to voice ethics
o Ensure consequences for conduct

Authentic Leadership

Being true to oneself

Act on ones own beliefs and help others too
Self-aware of strengths and weaknesses
Relational transparency shares true feelings and thoughts
Balanced processing reviewing all relevant info before making decision
Internalized Moral Perspective have internal moral standards and values
that guide their behaviour and decision making

Servant Leadership

Going beyond ones own self-interests, having a real concern to serve others
and motivate to lead
Empowering and developing employees
Humility
Authenticity
Interpersonal acceptance
Providing direction
Stewardship focus on service rather than control and self-interest
Related to workplace stewardship, increased trust

9.10 Discuss the GLOBE project and explain the role that culture plays in leadership
effectiveness
GLOBE

A project that conducted worldwide research on managers. Identified 9

cultural dimensions.
Citizens in each country have implicit assumptions regarding requisite
leadership qualities
Implicit Leadership Theory individuals hold a set of beliefs about the
kinds of attributes, personality characteristics, skills, and behaviours that
contribute to, or impede, outstanding leadership

9 Dimensions
1. Performance Orientation
2. Assertiveness
3. Future Orientation
4. Humane orientation
5. Institutional Collectivism
6. In-Group Collectivism
7. Gender Egalitarianism
8. Power Distance
9. Uncertainty Avoidance
Culturally Endorsed Implicit Leadership Theory. 6 Leadership Dimensions for
outstanding leadership
1. Charismatic/Value-Based
2. Team-Oriented
3. Participative
4. Humane-Oriented
5. Autonomous
6. Self-Protective

Different cultures scored higher on each dimension

Common leader attributes honest, decisive, motivational, dynamic, desirable
Many similarities between cultures, but still many differences. Good manager must
know what works and what doesnt.
9.11 Describe gender differences in leadership and explain why women are
underrepresented in leadership roles in organizations

Women tend to be more participative or democratic

o Better social skills
o Women wish to avoid gender stereotypes, prevent negative reactions
Women more transformational
o More contingent reward behaviours with transactional as well
Men tend to manage by exception and do laissez-faire leadership
o Laissez-faire involves avoidance or absence of leadership
Aspects where women are better relate to better effectiveness, aspects
where men are better dont relate as well
Glass Ceiling invisible barrier preventing women from advancing to senior
leadership positions in organization
o Vestiges of prejudice
o Resistance to female leadership
Women = less agenic (assertion, control), and more communal
(concern for others)
Males perceived to fit leadership traits
o Issues of leadership style
Difficult for women to find a leadership style
Cant be too agenic (being a bitch), cant be too communal
(weak)
o Demands of Family Life

Women more responsible for domestic and child stuff

Underinvestment in social capital
Less time to socialize and develop social networks
Difficulty in breaking into social networks that are predominantly
male

Ch. 10: Communication

10.1 Define communication and explain why communication by the strict chain of
command is often ineffective
Communication

The process by which information is exchanged between a sender and a

receiver
Sender encodes thoughts, transmits to receiver. Receiver perceives message,
decodes.
Effective Communications: when the right people receive the right info
in a timely manner

Strict Chain of Command

Chain of Command lines of authority and formal reporting relationships

3 forms of communication
o Downward Communication information flowing from top to bottom
o Upward Communication Information flowing from bottom to top
o Horizontal Communication Information flowing between
departments or units usually for coordination
Deficiencies:
o Informal Communication Sticking to a strict formal chain isnt good.
Informal can get things done
o Filtering tendency for a message to be watered down or stopped
during transmission. Can prevent the right people from getting the
right message. Goes both ways
o Slowness Large chain of command can be slow

10.2 Explain the factors that contribute to voice versus silence

Voice speaking up The constructive expression of disagreement or concern
about work unit or organizational practices

Can be directed horizontally, vertically

Silence withholding relevant information

Voice over Silence:

Satisfied employees with conscientiousness and extroversion are more likely

to speak up
Workplace environment also a factor
Must be Psychologically Safe
o A shared belief that it is safe to take social risks
Less stress than silence people

Silence over Voice

Self-censorship

Mum effect tendency to avoid communicating unfavourable news to

others
o Aspiring subordinate employees tend to be mum
o Managers tend to avoid communicating errors that were caused by
themselves

10.3 Explain the organizational grapevine and discuss its main features
Grapevine an organizations informal communication network

Can communicate via word of mouth, notes, emails, fax, etc

Can be gossip
Transmitters depend on the personality of the person
High traffic locations have a better chance of being grapevine transmitters,
likewise with people who move around in the organization a lot
Pros:
o Keeps employees informed of organizational matters
o Can substitute for formal communication
o Can be a testbed of employee reactions without formally committing
Cons:
o Rumour unverified belief in general circulation
o Rumours can develop, but are dangerous because it cannot be verified
Spreads fastest when info is ambiguous

10.4 Review the role of verbal and non-verbal communication at work

Verbal
o Jargon specialized language used by job holders or members of
particular occupations or organizations
o Vocab is different for different groups. Managers must get their teams
on the same page. Can serve as a barrier to communication to those
inside and outside the org.
Non-Verbal transmission of messages by some medium other than speech
or writing
o Body Language non-verbal communications by means of a senders
bodily motions, facial expressions, or physical location
The greater the difference in relaxation between two parties, the
greater the status difference
o Props, Artifacts and Costumes Material stuff and surrounding
details
Dcor and Arrangement of Office communicate things to people
John T Molloy is convinced that clothing sends signals about
competence, seriousness, promotability
Can improve self-esteem and self-confidence

10.5 Discuss gender differences in communication and identify how a failure to

recognize these differences can cause communication problems

Starts in childhood. Boys view conversations to achieve status in groups and

gain independence, girls communicate to build relationships and networks.
o E.g. Female coworker comes up with a great idea, male takes credit
Men more sensitive to power dynamics, women build rapport

Difference
Getting Credit

Men
More likely to boast about
good deeds
Confidence and Boasting
Tend to be more boastful
of capabilities, minimize
doubts
Asking Questions
Do not usually ask for
directions
Apologies
See ritual apologies as
weakness
Feedback
Be more blunt and
straightforward
Compliments
More likely to give
criticism
Ritual opposition
Used to exchange ideas,
challenge ideas, be
argumentative
Managing Up and Down
Tend to spend time
communicating with
superiors and talking
about achievements
Indirectness
Men tend to do the
complete a help
Men and women differ in language. To understand each
learn their opposite styles.

Women
Not as likely
Tend to downplay
certainty
More likely
Sees ritual apologies as
expressing concern
Begin with praise
More likely to give
compliment
Seen as personal attack,
tend to be avoided
Tend to downplay
superiority, try to be
recognized and rewarded
Tend to indirectly help
other better, they must

10.6 Discuss challenges relating to cross-cultural communication and identify useful

strategies to deter miscommunication
Language Differences

Communication is better between individuals or groups who share similar

cultural values
Cultures differ, and so there will be differences even in the same language
Speaking a second language tends to help alleviate this

Non-Verbal Communication Across Cultures

Facial Expressions
Gestures
Gaze
Touch/Proximity
People prefer people who behave to their non-verbal communications

Etiquette and Politeness across Cultures

Saying things figuratively can give the wrong message

Politeness is more modest and excessive in different locations

Social Conventions across Cultures

North Americans tend to get straight to the point, Arabs and Asians tend to
be indirect and vague.
Loudness can also be a factor
Punctuality depends on the culture.

Cultural Context

Cultural information that surrounds a communication episode

East Asia, Latin America, African and Arab people are high-context
High detail = more likely to know you and company
High context = more likely to get to the point
Low context = getting to the point quickly
Low context tend to favour detailed business contracts. High = less emphasis
on lengthy contracts

10.7 Define computer-mediated communication and highlight its strengths and

weaknesses
Information Richness

Potential information-carrying capacity of a communications medium

Face to face = high in richness

Computer Mediated Communication

Forms of communication relying on computer technology to facilitate

informational exchange

Pros

Discussion and decision making without being in the same location, saving
time, money, hassles
Anonymous chat permits shy people to contribute more
o Erases perceived or actual status differences
o Men are 5x more likely to offer an idea face to face
o Electronically, women are equally likely

Cons

Tend to perform worse than face to face

Takes longer to set up, less effective decisions, less satisfied members (could
be a time issue)
Anonymity can cause rudeness and impulsive messages to occur

Prone to miscommunication, more difficult to recognize subtle trends towards

consensus
Over exaggeration tends to occur because of the lack of proof
Professional isolation

Less routine comms requires richer comms media

10.8 Review personal strategies and organizational initiatives aimed at enhancing
communication

Poor communications leads to even more poor communications when other

party becomes resistant, defensive, deceptive or hostile

Basic Principles of Effective Communications

Take the time to develop good rapport with employees

Be accepting of the other person as an individual with feelings and
emotions
Do not confuse the person with the problem dont let things get
personal
Say what you feel because ideas must be freely generated. Congruence
condition in which a persons words, thoughts, feelings, actions all contain
the same message
Listen Actively
o Watch your body language
o Paraphrase what the speaker means
o Show empathy
o Ask questions
o Wait out pauses
Give Timely and Specific Feedback Say what was good and what was
bad
7 Cs

Clear
Concise
Concrete
Correct
Coherent
Complete
Courteous

When Outside Your Culture

Assume Differences Until You Know Otherwise

Recognize Differences Within Cultures
Watch Your Language (and Theirs)

Organizational Approaches to Improving Communication

Provision of Explanations
o Explain why policies are made
Specific detailed, valid reasons, truthful, fairness
o Can reduce retaliation by 43%
360 degree Feedback
o Performance appraisal based on inputs from supervisors, employees,
peers and clients, or customers
Employee Surveys and Survey Feedback
o An anonymous questionnaire that enables employees to state their
candid opinions and attitudes about an organization and its practices
Suggestion Systems and Query Systems
o Programs designed to enhance upward comms by soliciting and
improving work ops from employees
o Reward programs for well thought suggestions that get adopted
Telephone Hotlines, Intranets, Webcasts
o Some hotlines are news services, some are query services, some use
it for whistleblowing on TV
o Intranet used to communicate important announcements
Tends to be a secret
o Webcasting is a rich market
o Podcasts sometimes used, are basically older forms of windows 7.
Tends to be cheaper
Management Training
o Managers must balance social and task depends from their
communication with employees
o Best way to teach is to isolate specific skills and give an opportunity to
enhance them

Managers roleplay the problem and reinforce their skills

Ch. 8 Organizational Culture (pg. 280-289)

8.6 Define organizational culture and discuss the contributors to a culture
Organizational Culture

Shared beliefs, values and assumptions that exist in an organization.

o Not necessarily mean close agreement on definition
o Not obvious until compared to others
o Involves basic assumptions, so is fairly stable over time
o Can split internally and externally
o Impacts performance and satisfaction
Organizations can have subcultures
o Smaller cultures within the larger organization

8.7 Discuss the assets and liabilities of strong culture

Strong Culture

Intense and pervasive beliefs, values, assumptions that make up the culture
Strongly supported by majority of members
What the organization is all about
Assets
o Coordination every aspect knows what their relevant counterparts
are doing
o Conflict resolution Shared core values helps resolve issues by having
similar cultures
o Financial Success If liabilities can be avoided, the success can be
found
Liabilities
o Resistance to Change may not support new changes, innovation
o Culture clash two different strong cultures can result in conflict
o Pathology cultures can be threatening in of itself. E.g. Enron and
secrecy
Develops from the leader and socialization

8.8 Describe how to diagnose an organizational culture

Symbols using symbols to emphasize a culture. E.g. walking by HR every

morning
Rituals activities that demonstrate the culture. E.g. day off for hockey
Stories folklore that communicate how things work around here. Central
themes expose the culture

Ch. 16 Organizational Change (pg. 568-578)

16.1 Explain the environmental forces that motivate organizational change and
describe the factors that organizations can change
Factors Motivating Change

Changes in the internal and external environment influence changes for the
firm to be competitive
o E.g.
EX Competition is increasing in business, causes flatter
hierarchies.
IN Conflicts, low productivity, high absenteeism, etc change
the organization
o Change requires:
Recognizing the problem
Investment of resources
Modification of routines and processes
Different organizations should have different levels of change

What Factors Can Be Changed

Factor
Goals and strategies
Technology
Job Design

Structure

Description
Goals change and strats
change to meet goals
Can be minor or major
Can offer more or less
variety, autonomy,
identity, significance,
feedback (Ch 6)
Company can be modified

Process

Work processes can be

changed

Culture

Main reason for failure of

change programs.
Fundamental aspect of
organizational change
A diverse labour pool
offers new blood and
innovation, new skills and
training

People

Example
Samsung phones
Online portal access or
manufacturing

Modify rules, procedures,

products, control
Running stages of a
project concurrently
rather than sequentially

Revised hiring process

2 things:
1. Change in one area often means there needs to be change in another area
2. Changes often require people changes

a. Change can cause anxiety, so clear and open communications with

proper training will alleviate it.
Process of Change

Unfreezing Recognizing a problem exists

Change Plan is implemented. Those who identify with company are more
interested in details of the process. Those not as strongly identified are more
concerned with results
Refreezing Making the new plan an enduring part of the organization

Different industries have different speeds of change

16.2 Explain how organizations learn and what makes an organization a learning
organization
Organizational Learning Process by which knowledge is acquired, developed,
and transferred throughout the organization

2 methods of learning:
o Knowledge acquisition Getting knowledge that already exists but is
external to the organization
o Knowledge development Developing new skills within the
organization through sharing experiences and knowledge

Learning Organization Organization with systems and processes in place for

creating, acquiring, transferring knowledge to modify and change its behaviour to
reflect new knowledge and insights

4 key dimensions:
o Vision/support Leaders communicate a clear vision for organizations
strategy and goals
o Culture Culture that supports learning
o Learning systems/dynamics Managers actively coach/mentor
employees to think, solve problems, make decisions
o Knowledge management/infrastructure Systems in place to acquire
and store knowledge
50% more likely to be profitable than those without learning organizations
Organizations tend to learn more from failures than successes. There can be
near misses in success which get ignored

16.3 Describe the basic change process and the issues that require attention at
various stages of change
Change Process Read 16.1
Problems in the Change Process

Diagnosis
o Systematic collection of information relevant to impending
organizational change

Can be handled in existing channels or through change agents

Change agents experts in applying behavioural science
knowledge to organizational diagnosis and change
Must diagnose proper changes must apply to the firm. Cannot
copy another firm or get a package from a consulting firm
o The key issue is what to do after a problem is diagnosed
Resistance
o Overt or covert failure by organizational members to support a change
effort
o Defense mechanisms can be activated
o Causes of this:
Politics and self-interest lose status, power, jobs
Low individual tolerance for change
Lack of trust
Different assessments of the situation sometimes change
might not be required
Strong emotions people can feel helpless
Resistant culture
o 2 major themes
Change is unnecessary because gap between current and idea
identities are not too far
Change is unobtainable because gap is too large

16.4 Explain how organizations can deal with resistance to change

It is harder to change soft factors, like mindsets and culture, and easier to change
hard factors like hardware
Dealing with Resistance

Politics and self-interest provide a special, desirable role or incentive in

exchange for supporting the change
Low individual tolerance for change overcome with support and patient
observation
Lack of trust provide good communications
Best method: involving people who are targeted for the change.
o Can allow targeted to feel responsible for the change

Next
o
o
o

best: Having transformational leaders and culture

Organization constantly on the hunt for improvement
Compares itself against the competition, prevent complacency
Inspires trust

Evaluation and Institutionalization

Organizational politics can affect objective evaluations of various results
Variables for effective evaluations:
o

o
o
o

Reactions did people like it?

o Can measure resistance
o Evaluations can also stop here, as some changes are political
o If favourable, then institutionalized
Learning what was acquired?
Behaviour what changes in job behaviour occurred?
Outcomes what changed in productivity and results?

Without proper evaluations, some changes can seem weak and ineffective
o
o

Rewards may not develop to accompany changes

Turnover can cause changes to be in vain

16.5 Define organizational development and discuss its general philosophy

Organizational Development

Planned, ongoing effort to change organizations to be more effective and

human
o Ongoing means:
Long period of time
Changes must last a long period of time
o Effective and human mean:
Personal processes (leadership, decision making,
communication, outcomes) on outcomes (productivity,
efficiency)
Most desirable = self-actualization, trust, cooperation, open
expression of feelings
o Uses behavioural science knowledge
o Modifies cultural norms and roles

Ch. 12 Power and Politics (pg. 420-437)

12.1 Define power and review the bases of individual power
Power

The capacity to influence others who are in a state of dependence

Not always perceived or exercised
Does not imply poor relations between people with power and less power
Can flow in any direction in an organization
Can apply to groups or individuals

Bases of Power

Power is found in the position in the organization or the resources that you
command
Legitimate Power
o Power derived from a persons position or job in an organization
o Only works well when employees accept the influence
Reward Power
o Power derived from the ability to provide positive reinforcement
o Often used in conjunction with legitimate power
Coercive Power
o Power from the use of punishment or threat
o Often used to support legitimate power
o Opposite to reward
o Generally ineffective, provokes considerable resistance
Referent Power
o Power derived from being well liked by others
o We tend to overlook the negatives of a role model
o Very powerful, achieves better compliance than rewarding or coercion
o Not position-dependent, but can be used to strengthen legitimate
power
Expert Power
o Power from having special information or expertise that is valued by an
organization
o Corresponds to the difficulty of getting a replacement
o Some secretaries have incredible expert power from working there
o Most associated with employee effectiveness

12.2 Explain how people obtain power in organizations

Power is obtained by doing the right things at the right time under the right
circumstances. They must fit the following criteria:

Extraordinary Activities Must perform excellently in unusual or nonroutine activities

Visible Activities People must know of the activity performed
Relevant Activities People must care about the activity and see it as
relevant to the organizations problems

It can also be done by cultivating the right people

Outsiders Knowing the right people outside of the organization can lead to
internal influence by association or external knowledge
Subordinates Getting to know up-and-coming subordinates can lead to a
good reputation for you (good team, good leader)
Peers Prevents barriers in the future acquisition of power (e.g. asking for
favours, getting backstabbed). Also rewarded for teamwork
Superiors Superiors as mentors or sponsors can provide power through
special information and introductions to special people

12.3 Discuss the concept of empowerment

Empowerment Giving people the authority, opportunity and motivation to take
initiative and solve organizational problems

This implies legitimate power

Opportunity freedom from bureaucratic barriers
Empowerment = hiring people intrinsically motivated by power and
opportunity, extrinsic rewards in successful performance.

Gives the employee the feeling of making things happen, gives

customers a god experience
Authorities can also share power with subordinates
o Fosters job satisfaction, organizational commitment, organizational
citizenship behaviours, high performance
o NOT unlimited power. Power in place where it is needed. Must match
customer and employee expectations
E.g. giving McDicks personnel ability to make adjustments is not
too relevant, people just want a quick service
There is a curve of power and sufficiency
o

12.4 Review various influence tactics

Influence Tactics Tactics used to convert power into actual influence over others.
Tactics include:

Assertiveness
Ingratiation using flattery/polite/humble
Rationality using logic/planning/compromise
Exchange doing favours
Upward appeal appealing up the organizational chain
Coalition formation Seeking support from other members

The choice of tactics depends on the base of power. E.g. coercive might gravitate
towards assertiveness, referent = ingratiation, expert = rationality.
Can also depend on who youre influencing. E.g. subordinates more likely to receive
assertiveness, rationality directed towards superiors.
Most effective depends on the person and the situation. Least effective is a shotgun
style that uses all the tactics.
12.5 Provide a profile of power seekers

Power is not necessarily a manifestation of evil. When used responsibly, it can be

effective and ethical. McClelland says the best managers, institutional managers,
are:

High in need for power

Use their power to achieve organizational goals
Use a participative or coaching leadership style
Relatively unconcerned with how others perceive them

They refrain from:

Coercion
Favourites

They are better than power managers and affiliative managers (those who prefer to
be liked). Institutional managers are most responsible, provide the best clarity, have
best team spirit
12.6 Explain strategic contingencies and discuss how subunits obtain power
Strategic Contingencies

Critical factors affecting organizational effectiveness that are controlled by a

key subunit
The work other subunits perform is contingent on the performance of a key
subunit

Conditions for Strategic Contingencies

Scarcity scarce resources can cause prioritization of different subunits.

Power is gained when resources are secured
Uncertainty subunits that deal best in uncertainty will gain the most
power. Subunit power can change depending on external factors
Centrality subunits closest to the central mission/work flow of the
organization has more power. It can be central in 3 ways:
o Controlling the finances
o Controlling the quality/quantity of production
o Central to the organizations goals
Substitutability power when subunits activities are difficult to be
completed by another subunit

12.7 Define organizational politics and discuss its various forms

Organizational Politics pursuit of self-interest in an organization, whether or not
the self-interest corresponds to organizational goals

It is self-conscious and intentional and can be individual or subunit. There are

2 criteria for being organizationally sanctioned:
1. The ends are sanctioned by the organization
2. The means are sanctioned by the organization

Examples:
1. Employee getting a raise for increasing her sales by 30% in the next 7
months
2. Head nurse giving a promotion out for junior nurse in return for not
reporting thefts
3. Use of bribery to get Salt Lake City Olympics
4. Falsifying documents to hire friends and promises special services to
those helping him
Political activities occur under the following conditions:

Most likely to occur in middle and upper management

Subunits with clear goals and routine tasks are less likely to be political
Some issues are more likely for politics to occur
Scarce resources, uncertainty and important issues cause politics

Politics result in lower job satisfaction, commitment, citizenship, increased stress

and turnover. Higher toll on older workers than younger workers
Political Skill ability to understand others at work and to use that knowledge to
influence others to act in ways that enhance ones personal or organizational
objectives. Factors:

Social astuteness being good and careful observers of other peoples needs
and motives
Interpersonal influence being persuasive and skilled at putting people at
ease
Apparent sincerity appear to be genuine and apparently have high integrity
Networking ability being good at establishing good relations with key
organizational members and outsiders to accomplish ones goals
(networking)

These facets are positively related to perceived job performance. Also less stressed
from role conflict.
Networking

Those high in self-esteem and extraversion were more likely to engage in

networking behaviours. Engaging in professional activities and internal visibility
means career success. Having a diverse network of powerful people leads to
powerful resources. Counteracts formal organizational structures. Factors:

Maintaining contacts
Socializing
Engaging in professional activities
Participating in community activities
Increasing internal visibility

Machiavellianism

A set of cynical beliefs about human nature, morality, and permissibility of

using various tactics to achieve ones ends
High machs are more likely to use lying and deceit.
o Tend to act in a practical manner (ends justify the means)
o Tend to be good liars and psyching out competitors
o Tend to be great politicians
o Able to distance themselves from their actions
o Able to identify when their tactics will work. All have the following
characteristics:
Can deal with the person they want to influence face to face
Interaction occurs under emotional circumstances
Situation is unstructured, few guidelines for approaching the
interaction
o Succeeds when emotions distract others
o Not likely to be actual high performers. Tend to be counterproductive

Defensive-Reactive Politics

Concerns the defense or protection of self-interest. Reduces threats to own

power by avoiding negatively perceived actions or avoiding blame. Tactics
include:
o Stalling moving slowly
o Overconforming doing things strict to the letter
o Buck passing not doing the job when youre most qualified for fear of
failure
o Buffing documenting every action to show that an appropriate course
of action was used. Becomes political when this becomes more
important than the task.
o Scapegoating blaming others for a wrong

12.8 Define ethics and review the ethical dilemmas that managers and employees
face
Ethics

Systematic thinking about the moral consequences of decisions

Consequences are the potential for harm to any stakeholders with the
decision
Unethical practices are common in business
Undergrads are more ethical than MBAs

Ethical Dilemmas

Contractual and legally mandated issues are the most prominent and likely to
be addressed (e.g. bribery, conflict of interest, etc)
Subjective issues are the less likely to be addressed (e.g. nepotism, child
labour, whistleblowing)
Often occupationally specific
Generally accepted ethical behaviours
o Honest communication
o Fair treatment
o Special considerations
o Fair competition
o Responsibility to organization
o Corporate social responsibility
o Respect for law

Causes of Unethical Behaviour

Gain when personal gain is unchecked by punishment, or poorly designed

compensation systems
Role Conflict conflicting goals in different roles in the same job. E.g.
engineers become managers in Challenger
Strong Organizational Identification engaging in unethical behaviour to
help the organization and obtain favours from the loyalty
Competition strong competition can cause high stresses to perform well.
No competition can be unchecked and be unethical
Personality certain personalities are more likely to be unethical.
Economically minded, irresponsible, disengaged people are more likely to be
unethical.
Organizational and Industry Culture combination of factors within the
organization create a culture of unethical behaviour. Can also result from out
of touch managers choosing the wrong compensation

Whistle Blowing

Disclosure of illegitimate practices by a current or former organizational

member to some person or organization that may be able to take action to
correct these practices
Important in large organizations because it is very easy to hide these things
in these companies
People with power rarely blow the whistle

12.9 Define sexual harassment and discuss what organizations can do to prevent it
and how they should respond to allegations

Sexual Harassment

Unethical behaviour that stems from the perpetuation of a gender power

imbalance. Can be verbal or physical, mostly committed by coworkers but
most severe are done by supervisors
o Clients and customers can engage in harassment
o More likely to occur in women with masculine personality traits
(independence, assertiveness, dominance)
Deviance rather than sexuality
Deaf ear syndrome inaction or complacency of organizations in the face of
charges of sexual harassment
o 3 main reasons for this:
Defensive managerial reactions
Inadequate anti-harassment policies and procedures
Organizational features that contribute to inertial tendencies
How do you prevent deaf ear syndrome?
o Examine the characteristics of deaf ear organizations and compare to
your own
o Develop management support and education
o Stay vigilant
o Take immediate action
o Create a good policy
o Establish proper procedures for reporting

Making Ethical Decisions

Identify stakeholders
Identify costs and benefits of decisions to these stakeholders
Consider moral expectations (includes norms, laws, ethics codes)
Familiarize with common ethical dilemmas faced by other people in your
profession
Discuss ethics with stakeholders
Convert ethical judgements into action

Basically, recognize issues, make judgements, convert judgements into behaviour.

Training has a positive impact on ethical attitudes.