Comprehensive Review and Comparison of DC Fast

Charging Converter Topologies: Improving Electric

Vehicle Plug-to-Wheels Efficiency
Janamejaya Channegowda, Student Member, IEEE, Vamsi Krishna Pathipati, Student Member, IEEE,
and Sheldon S. Williamson, Senior Member, IEEE
General Motors-Automotive Center of Excellence (GM-ACE)
Department of Electrical, Computer, and Software Engineering
Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science
University of Ontario-Institute of Technology
2000 Simcoe Street North
Oshawa, ON L1H 7K4, Canada
Tel: +1/(905) 721-8668, ext. 5744
Fax: +1(905) 721-3178
EML: sheldon.williamson@uoit.ca
URL: http://www.engineering.uoit.ca/; http://ace.uoit.ca/
charging includes the plug-to-battery (P2B) energy flow
stage. Ideally, the PTW efficiency for EVs should be close to
45-50%. The PTW energy flow includes P2B and battery-towheels (B2W) efficiency. In order to improve the PTW
energy-efficiency, a high efficiency, high reliability, high
power density, and cost-effective charger design is
mandatory. The terminology plug-to-wheels (PTW) for an
EV is similar to the terminology tank-to-wheels (TTW) for
a conventional internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicle,
except that in the case of EVs, the fuel tank is replaced by
the battery pack and a plug-in charging unit. Hence, for an
EV charging system + drivetrain system, it is essential to
analyze the PTW energy efficiency, of which P2B efficiency
is most important.
Commercial EVs today have on-board chargers, which
take input power from an AC wall outlet. The on-board
charger system consists of an AC/DC rectifier, a DC/DC
boost power factor correction stage, and a high-frequency
(HF) DC/DC charger converter. It is clear that this setup
leads to 3 conversion stages and facilitates a large loss of
power. Thus, overall PTW energy efficiency is drastically
low, and is about the same as that of conventional, gasoline
vehicles. The PTW efficiency of currently available EVs
ranges between 15-20%, when taking AC input from the
wall. Several efforts have been made to miniaturize the
onboard charger size, without compromising on charger
efficiency and cost. One technique involves a 2-stage
charger, which involves an AC/DC converter with an
interleaved boost stage for PFC, followed by a zero-voltage
switching (ZVS) DC/DC converter. Experiments were
carried out on a 3.3kW battery charger and it was found that
the 2-stage charger had an efficiency of 93.6%. The topology
also had an added advantage of operating over a wide
voltage range (200 450V) [4].

AbstractThe commercial success of electric vehicles (EVs)

relies heavily on the presence of high-efficiency charging
stations. This paper provides an overview and a comprehensive
performance comparison of the present status and future
implementation plans for DC fast charging infrastructures and
converter topologies. The paper also discusses critical
consequences of DC fast charging stations on the AC grid.
Different power converter topologies for DC fast charging are
presented, compared, and evaluated, based on the power level
requirements, efficiency, cost, and technical performance
specifications. The paper focuses specifically on Level-3 DC
fast charging converter topologies and their performance
comparison. Finally, the paper presents a detailed well-towheels (WTW) analysis from an energy-efficiency standpoint.
The most important part of this analysis focuses on the effect
of usage of various charging levels and charger topologies on
the all-important plug-to-battery (P2B) energy-efficiency
within the overall context of WTW energy cycle efficiency.
KeywordsBatteries, chargers, control, dc/dc converters,
energy storage, power electronics, transportation.

I.

INTRODUCTION

The increasing interest in developing vehicles running on

alternate and renewable sources of energy has led to a spurt
of research in the direction of improving the technologies
involved in the electric and plug-in hybrid electric vehicles
(EVs/PHEVs) [1]-[3]. Along with the improvement of these
EV technologies, several initiatives have been undertaken by
various government organizations across the globe to push
for the usage of vehicles which run on alternate sources of
energy. Several policies have been brought into effect to help
in electrifying commercial vehicles.
The growth of the EV market has led to the obvious issue
of coming up with novel and innovative ideas to charge
them. Chargers are an integral part of EV plug-to-wheels
(PTW) drivetrain efficiency. The intermediate stage of

978-1-4673-7554-2/15/$31.00 2015 IEEE

263

Literature survey has led to believe that there has been a

concerted effort in recent times to further reduce this 2-stage
topology to a 1-stage resonant charger, which inherently
possesses a PFC characteristic. This is utilized in the NLG5
charger, developed by Brusa Elektronik AG [5]. The
presence of only one stage greatly reduces the task of
controlling the charger. Additional attention has been given
to ensure that all the switches operate at zero-current
switching (ZCS), which in turn ensures reduction in losses.
This topology not only helps in the reduction of charger size,
but also eliminates the need of a large DC-link capacitor.
More recently, control strategies for EV chargers have been
implemented using one of the several digital controllers
(DSP, microcontrollers, or FPGA) [6]-[9]. Typically, all
contemporary EV chargers have a boost converter for PFC
and Ground Fault Circuit Interrupter (GFCI). Following are
the power levels at which charging can take place [10]:

are designed with only a single stage to reduce its size,

weight and cost. Fig. 1 depicts a unidirectional full-bridge
series resonant converter.

Fig. 1. Unidirectional full-bridge series resonant converter.

There has been much research being done on

unidirectional chargers to obtain a reasonable control
strategy which help to increase the efficiency of these
chargers. These are usually preferred as they dont affect the
battery life, as the number of cycles are limited.
B. Bidirectional Chargers
These chargers typically consist of two stages namely 1)
a grid-connected bidirectional AC-DC converter and 2) a
bidirectional dc-dc converter. And they have the two modes,
the charge and the discharge mode. Fig. 2 depicts a
bidirectional charger.

a) Level 1 Charging: It is the most common household

slow-charging method. For Level 1 charging, no extra
facilities are needed. Total initial cost is about $800.
b) Level 2 Charging: This can be an on-board equipment.
Level 2 charging is most preferred today, since it is
quicker and has a dedicated connector. The initial cost is
about $3,000.
c) Level 3 or DC fast charging: This option provides the
customer the option to charge in < 1 hour to ~15 minutes
of charge time. The power system for Level 3 charging is
completely off-board. This is purely a commercial fast
charging station and cannot be setup in residential areas.
Total initial cost of such a power system would range
between $40,000 to $70,000, including initial investment
costs, infrastructure costs, and O&M costs.

Fig. 2. Typical bidirectional DC charger for EV.

The presence of two peak-current inductors tend to make

the charger a little bulky and expensive. Batteries usually
perish faster due to large number of cycles. Table 2 gives
information in a more organized fashion regarding both the
chargers.

Further information for all the levels of charging is provided

in Table 1. As a test case, the Nissan Leaf 24 kWh Li-ion
battery pack is considered [11].

Table 2. Comparison of chargers based on power flow direction.

Table 1. Standard EV charging levels (SAE J1772).

Level
Level 1
Level 2
Level 3

Voltage
120 Vac
240 Vac
208/415 Vac

Phase
1-phase
1- and split-phase
3-phase

Power
1.4kW
4kW
50kW

Charger type

Time (h)
17
6
0.5

The review of available Level 3/DC fast charging

techniques are the cornerstone of this paper. Along with fast
charging power converter topologies, the option of having an
on-board Level 3 charger is also explored and reviewed. The
advantages and limitations of the presented topologies are
also highlighted for better clarity.

Unidirectional

Present
Status
Operational

Bidirectional

Unavailable

Charger
level
Levels 1,
2 and 3
Only for
Level 2

Power
converter
Buck and
fly back
Matrix
converters

Battery
health
No
degradation
Lifespan
reduces

Generally, DC fast charging stations for EVs are

designed to supply about 50 kW of power [12]. The
established trend is to place these chargers off-board. As
these stations are bulky, keeping them off-board is
convenient. The general block diagram of a DC fast
charging station is as shown in the Fig. 3, the charger in the
shown scenario is connected to a common AC link.

II. CLASSIFICATION OF DC FAST CHARGER SYSTEMS BASED

ON DIRECTION OF POWER FLOW
There are two classifications right now based on power
flow direction from grid to the load and vice versa, a brief
description of each charger type is given below.
A. Unidirectional Chargers
These chargers can only draw power from the grid but
cannot interpose power into the grid. Usually such converters

264

Fig. 3. General block diagram of a DC fast charging station.

This converter topology can operate in buck mode when the

duty ratio is below 0.5 and in boost mode when the duty ratio
is above 0.5 [19].

The output voltage that is fed to the load (either an

ultracapacitor or a battery) may be variable or fixed. The
filters placed ahead of the DC fast charging station help to
maintain a healthy power factor [13]-[16].
III. DC FAST CHARGING CONVERTER TOPOLOGIES
There are a number of power converter topologies
available for the purpose of rapid charging of batteries or
ultracapacitors few feasible options are highlighted in this
paper, they are:
A. Unidirectional Boost Converters
The unidirectional boost converter is shown in Figure 4,
these are employed in situations where the output voltage has
to be boosted up for loads which require higher voltage [17].

Fig. 5. Schematic of a Vienna rectifier.

Fig. 4. Unidirectional boost converter.

The primary goal of using such a boost converter instead

of a traditional diode bridge rectifier is to provide better
power factor, to remove harmonics at the input end and to
have an unvarying DC voltage at the output if unwanted
perturbations occur at the AC end.

Fig. 6. 3-phase AC/DC buck-boost converter.

Level 3 DC fast charging stations are very demanding in

terms of power, the available infrastructure is insufficient to
meet those power demands. Usually, simultaneous operation
of such charging stations tends to overburden the entire
distribution system. Large scale implementation of such
stations requires additional cost which has to be invested in
upgrading the transmission cable and transformers. As the
fast charging station penetration increases the power demand
in the grid also increases proportionally. Apart from
increased load demand, level 3 stations also cause drop in
voltages and overload of transformers.

B. Vienna Rectifier
Another popular power converter topology is the Vienna
rectifier as shown in Fig. 5. This too is a popular choice
when the aim is to achieve high power factor and to attain
lower harmonic distortion. As shown in Fig. 5 there is only
one active switch per phase which makes the Vienna rectifier
easier to control and makes it more dependable. This is
essentially a pulse width modulated converter, the boost
inductors present at the input play the role ascertaining
power factor correction [18].
Basically, the stored energy acquired by the inductor
when the switch is OFF is transmitted to the load via the
diodes whenever the switch is turned ON. The advantages of
employing this topology includes the absence of a neutral
point connection and the lack of auxiliary commutation
circuits which eliminate dead time problems.

IV. PLUG-TO-BATTERY (P2B) EFFICIENCY

A major area of study concerning mass production and
wide-spread implementation of EVs and plug-in hybrid
electric vehicles (PHEVs) is the analysis of the overall wellto-wheels (WTW) efficiency. Typically, the transmission
losses in transforming fossil fuel to electricity is about 7%
[20]. This study helps in evaluating and comparing available
EVs/PHEVs as well as in providing enhanced reasons for
opting for an EV [21]. One of the reasons for reduction of
plug-to-battery (P2B) efficiency in commercially available
EVs such as the Nissan Leaf and Tesla Roadster is the
presence of multiple stages in the onboard battery chargers.
Moving forward, the focus of this work is to integrate the
AC/DC rectifier, the DC/DC boost power-factor correction

C. AC/DC Reduced-switch Buck-Boost Converter

The main highlight of
this topology is that its
inexpensive, has less number of switches and most
importantly since this is a buck-boost converter output
voltage can be varied over a wide range. The topology is as
shown in Fig. 6. There have been a few three phase front end
rectifiers proposed but they are mostly boost converters
which do not allow variation of voltage over wide ranges.

265

stage, as well as the DC/DC charger converter stage. An

additional prospect is to make the charger DC (for fast
chagrining) and off-board (not on-bard the vehicle). This
will help increase P2B efficiency vastly, which in turn will
help reduce the cost of EVs. P2B efficiency varies with
varied charging levels (SAE J1772 AC Level 1, 2, and/or 3,
as well as DC fast charging Levels 2 and/or 3). The
approximate P2B efficiency of a charging infrastructure can
be found out by calculating the ratio of the total power
supplied to the battery + supplementary loads to the total
power provided by the input power source at the plug point
of the charging infrastructure.
In conventional vehicles as well as plug-in hybrid
electric vehicles (PHEVs), the approach to calculate WTW
efficiency is to take into consideration the quantity of fuel
utilized by the engine and the electrical energy drained from
the grid. The energy at the wheels can be preconceived by
integrating the curve under the power/time plot of the drive
cycle. Fig. 7 describes the various energy conversion stages
for a typical EV.

Efforts have been carried out to find efficiencies for onboard chargers as well as the overall P2B efficiency
(including battery management system and charging
efficiency). These efficiencies were found to be in the range
of 80-85% [23]. The efficiency maps for various charging
levels for all converter topologies are illustrated in Fig. 8.
V. PERFORMANCE COMPARISON AND EFFECTS OF DC FAST
CHARGING CONVERTERS ON THE GRID
A. Comparative Overview of Fast Charging Converter
Topologies
Few of the features of the discussed converter topologies
are highlighted in Table 4. After detailed review of the three
converter topologies, it can be concluded that the use of the
Vienna rectifier for the implementation of the DC fast
charging station is appropriate, due to the following reasons:
a) Presence of lower number of switches per phase
b) Good efficiency when compared to the unidirectional
boost converter and the reduced switch Buck-Boost
Converter
c) Better compensation for harmonic content
d) Higher power factor, around 0.99, compared to the
unidirectional boost converter and the reduced switch
Buck-Boost Converter.
Table IV. Performance comparison of DC fast charging converter
topologies.

Fig. 7. Block diagram representing the various energy cycles of

any typical vehicle.

The focus of this paper is to evaluate the impact of

various DC fast-charging converter topologies on the P2B
efficiency, which involves efficiency calculation from the
DC fast charging station to the battery pack of the EV.
Table 3 provides details of P2B efficiency for charging a
Lithium-ion (Li-ion) battery pack, whose efficiency is
considered to be around 93% [22]. The P2B efficiency can
be calculated using equation 1. In practice, coupling
efficiency is considered as 100% [22]. Due to poor coupling
in the power circuit, higher power loss can occur with
heating in couplers.
P2B = charger x battery x coupling

Charging
Level

Power
(kW)

Time
(h)

(1)

Charger
EFF

Buck

Level 1

1.4 kW

17

88%

82%

Level 2

4.0 kW

92%

85.5%

Unidirectio
nal boost

Level 3

50 kW

0.5

92%

85.5%

Vienna
rectifier

Level 3

50 kW

0.5

90%

84%

3-phase
AC/DC
buck-boost

Level 3

50 kW

0.5

95%

88%

Distinct
Feature

Boost

Phase
Current
THD
>5%

Unidirectional Boost
Converters
Vienna Rectifier

Boost

<5%

AC/DC Reduced Switch

Buck-boost Converter

Buck-Boost

~20%

Highest
Power
Factor
Efficiency
is higher in
boost mode

Simple
Design

B. Power Quality Effects on the AC Grid

EV charging stations have multiple impacts on the
distribution system and strain it in different ways. This
section enlists a few of the effects which are of prominent
significance:

P2B
EFF

Flyback

Mode of
Operation

Due to the reasons sighted above, the Vienna rectifier is the

most optimal converter topology for the DC fast charging
stations from among the reviewed topologies.

Table III. Plug-to-battery (P2B) efficiency of a Nissan Leaf for different

charger converter topologies and charging levels.
Converter
Topology

Converter Topology

a) Overloading of transformers: During peak loading

conditions, there exist numerous instances of
transformer overloading, leading to degradation and
eventually breakdown.
b) Voltage regulation: Instances of dip in the voltage level
during periods of EV charging are quite common.
c) Losses: It is understandable that the overall distribution
system losses will increase linearly with larger DC fast
charging station penetration.

266

d) Reduction in power quality: DC fast charging stations

are obvious sources of harmonic distortion, which not
only pollute the distribution system, but also damage
fragile equipment connected to the system.

factors, such as the choice of connection used (direction

based on charging), the total number of EVs being charged,
and the voltage/current levels of the EV energy storage
system [24]. EVs equipped with adequate power electronic
interface can operate as power sources, providing energy
during unanticipated power outages.
Numerous factors determine successful V2G operation
including the cost, effects of the grid on the EV battery
pack, and presence of a smart charging controller, which
ensures optimized power transfer between the EV and the
grid. Efficient adoption of a smart charging controller can
assist in reducing the negative repercussions of DC fast
charging stations on the distribution system. Bidirectional
charging can be accomplished by smart metering. Essential
unidirectional and bidirectional flows between an EV and
the smart grid are depicted in Fig. 9.

(a)

Fig. 9. Block diagram representing the unidirectional and

bidirectional power flow.

There are multiple benefits of V2G introduction

including the possibility of employing EVs as reactive
power suppliers, for balancing of loads, regulation of power,
as harmonic filters, they also help in increasing the overall
efficiency of the distribution system, help in reduction of the
overall operating cost of the power grid distribution system
and could help in possible generation of profit. As in all
technologies V2G has a few drawbacks such as the slow
deterioration of battery lifespan due to bidirectional
charging and discharging cycles, initial infrastructure
expenditure and requirement of smart communication
equipment [25].

(b)

VI. CONCLUSIONS
Successful implementation of DC fast charging stations
face many hurdles. Few of the issues include: high
equipment cost, overloading of transformers, and lack of
standard procedures and codes. Currently, Level 1 and 2 are
the most popular schemes available, as they are both
suitable for the available present infrastructure.
Furthermore, levels 1 and 2 AC charging are more cost
effective compared to level 3 DC fast charging stations.
Public transportation sectors, especially mass transit
systems, have a dire need for DC fast charging topologies.
In addition to public transit vehicles, other commercial
utility vehicles such as trams, trucks, and trains have peak
power demands, such as providing starting torque for a very
short duration. Peak power demands can be met if the
vehicle is charged within a very short amount of time. Fast
charging of electric mass transit systems is essential, since
an electric city transit bus or a subway/metro train makes
frequent stops (about 1 km between stops). The proposed

(c)
Fig. 8 Efficiency maps of the reviewed power electronic converter for all
the levels of charging.

C. Vehicle-to-Grid (V2G) Power Flow

EVs can be considered as electric loads or as power sources.
The charging characteristic of an EV is decided by various

267

DC fast charging system can be installed at major stops or

train stations. DC fast charging provides tractability and a
variety of charging options to the consumer. Finally, a more
user-supportive charging system will allow for greater
penetration of fast charging stations and greater acceptance
of the technology.
The paper comprehensively discussed and reviewed an
all-inclusive literature survey on the present status of DC
fast charger converter topologies. The concept of DC fast
charging stations and power electronic converter topologies
to achieve high-power transfer from the AC grid to the EV
battery were discussed in detail. The focal point of the
overall discussion was off-board DC charging, as opposed
to expensive and inefficient on-board AC/DC charging. It
has been proven in the available literature that the Vienna
rectifier is a preferred choice in high-power applications,
due to superior power factor and excellent capability to
cancel pout current harmonics.
In another favorable DC fast charging design scenario,
the reduced-switch DC/DC buck-boost converter topology
depicts excellent features, such as smooth transition
between buck and boost modes of operation. However, one
drawback is that the THD of phase current is very high,
which makes this topology comparatively inefficient.
Finally, the advantages and consequences of employing DC
fast charging stations as a commercial, wide-scale
infrastructure, were highlighted in the paper. Furthermore, a
comprehensive overview of present day challenges in
solving the undesirable effects of DC fast charging stations
on the power grid distribution system were also presented.

[9]
[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]

[16]
[17]

[18]

REFERENCES
[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]

[5]

[6]

[7]

[8]

D. Aggeler, F. Canales, H. Zelaya-De La Parra, A. Coccia, N.

Butcher, and O. Apeldoorn, Ultra-fast dc-charge infrastructures for
EV-mobility and future smart grids, in Proc. IEEE Power and
Energy Society Innovative Smart Grid Technology Conf. Europe,
Gothenburg, Sweden, Oct. 2010, pp. 1-8.
A Emadi, S. S. Williamson, and A. Khaligh, Power electronics
intensive solutions for advanced electric, hybrid electric, and fuel
cell vehicular power systems, IEEE Trans. on Power Electronics
vol. 21, no. 3, pp. 567-577, May 2006.
Y. Lee, A. Khaligh, and A. Emadi, Advanced integrated bidirectional AC/DC and DC/DC converter for plug-in hybrid electric
vehicles, IEEE Trans. on Vehicular Technology, vol. 58, no. 3, pp.
3970-3980, Oct. 2009.
D. S. Gautam, F. Musavi, M. Edington, W. Eberle, and W. G.
Dunford, An automotive onboard 3.3-kW battery charger for PHEV
application, IEEE Trans. on Vehicular Technology, vol. 61, no. 8,
pp. 3466 -3474, Oct. 2012.
S. Li, J. Deng, and C. C. Mi, Single-stage resonant battery charger
with inherent power factor correction for electric vehicles, IEEE
Trans. on Vehicular Technology, vol. 62, no. 9, pp. 4336-4344, Nov.
2013.
Y. Du, S. Lukic, B. Jacobson, and A. Huang, Review of high power
isolated bi-directional dc-dc converters for PHEV/EV DC charging
infrastructure, in Proc. IEEE Energy Conversion Congress and
Expo., San Jose, CA, Sept. 2011, pp. 553-560.
A. Khaligh and Z. Li, Battery, ultracapacitor, fuel-cell, and hybrid
energy storage systems for electric, hybrid electric, fuel cell, and
plug-in hybrid electric vehicles: State-of-art, IEEE Trans. on
Vehicular Technology, vol. 59, no. 6, pp. 2806-2814, July 2010.
F. Musavi, W. Eberle, and W. G. Dunford, A high-performance
single phase bridgeless interleaved PFC converter for plug-in hybrid

[19]
[20]
[21]

[22]
[23]

[24]

[25]

268

Powered by TCPDF (www.tcpdf.org)

electric vehicle battery chargers, IEEE Trans. on Industrial

Applications, vol. 47, no. 4, pp.1833-1843, July 2011.
R. Ghorbani, E. Bibeau, and S. Filizadeh, On conversion of hybrid
electric vehicles to plug-in, IEEE Trans. on Vehicular Technology,
vol. 59, no. 4, pp. 2016-2020, May 2010.
M. Yilmaz and P. Krein, Review of battery charger topologies,
charging power levels, infrastructure for plug-in electric and hybrid
vehicles, IEEE Trans. on Power Electronics, vol. 28, no. 5, pp.
2151-2169, May 2013.
J. G. Hayes and K. Davis, Simplified electric vehicle powertrain
model for range and energy consumption based on EPA coast-down
parameters and test validation by Argonne National Lab data on the
Nissan Leaf, in Proc. IEEE Transportation Electrification Conf.
and Expo., Dearborn, MI, July 2014, pp. 1-6.
S. Wang, R. Crosier, and Y. Chu, Investigating the power
architectures and circuit topologies for megawatt superfast electric
vehicle charging stations with enhanced grid support functionality,
IEEE International Electric Vehicle Conf., Greenville, SC, Dec.
2012, pp.1-6.
A. Hajimiragha, C. A. Canizares, M. W. Fowler, and A. Elkamel,
Optimal Transition to Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicles in Ontario,
Canada, Considering the Electricity-Grid Limitations, IEEE Trans.
on Industrial Electronics, vol. 57, no. 2, pp. 690-701, Feb. 2010.
A. Khaligh and S. Dusmez, Comprehensive topological analyses of
conductive and inductive charging solutions for plug-in electric
vehicles, IEEE Trans. on Vehicular Technology, vol. 61, no. 8, pp.
3475-3489, Oct. 2012.
O. Veneri, L. Ferraro, C. Capasso, and D. Iannuzzi, Charging
infrastructures for EV: Overview of technologies and issues, in
Proc. Electrical Systems for Aircraft, Railway and Ship Propulsion,
Bologna, Italy, Oct. 2012, pp. 1-6.
S. Dusmez and A. Khaligh, Cost effective solutions to level-3 onboard battery chargers, in Proc. Applied Power Electronics Conf.
and Expo., Orlando, FL, Feb. 2012, pp. 2121-2127.
B. Singh, B. N. Singh, A. Chandra, K. Al-Haddad, A. Pandey, and
D. P. Kothari, A review of three-phase improved power quality ac
dc converters, IEEE Trans. on Industrial Electronics., vol. 51, no.
3, pp. 641-660, June 2004.
B. Kedjar, H. Y. Kanaan, and K. Al-Haddad, Vienna Rectifier with
Power Quality Added Function, IEEE Trans. on Industrial
Electronics, vol. 61, no. 8, pp. 3847-3856, Aug. 2014.
D. S. Wijeratne and G. Moschopoulos, A Novel Three-Phase BuckBoost AC-DC Converter, IEEE Trans. on Power Electronics, vol.
29, no. 3, pp. 1331-1343, March 2014.
D. K. Bellman et al., Power plant efficiency outlook, Working
Document of the NPC Global Oil & Gas Study, 2007.
S. S. Williamson and A. Emadi, Comparative assessment of hybrid
electric and fuel cell vehicles based on comprehensive well-towheels efficiency analysis, IEEE Trans. on Vehicular Technology,
vol. 54, no. 3, pp. 856862, May 2005.
M. Eberhard and M. Tarpenning, The 21st century electric car,
Tesla Motor, Inc. Technical Report, July 2006.
F. Blaabjerg, R. Teodorescu, M. Liserre, and A. V. Timbus,
Overview of Control and Grid Synchronization for Distributed
Power Generation Systems, in Proc. IEEE Trans. on Industrial
Electronics, vol. 53, no. 5, pp 1398-1409, Oct. 2006.
M. Yilmaz and P. T. Krein, Review of the Impact of Vehicle-toGrid Technologies on Distribution Systems and Utility Interfaces,
IEEE Trans. on Power Electronics, vol. 28, no. 12, pp. 5673-5689,
Dec. 2013.
IEEE application guide for IEEE Std 1547, IEEE Standard for
interconnecting distributed resources with electric power systems,
in IEEE Std 1547.2-2008, pp. 1-207, 2009.