Thorium

Thorium
Thorium
Appearance
silvery white
General properties
Name, symbol, number

thorium, Th, 90

Pronunciation

/rim/
THOHR-ee-m

Element category

actinide

Group, period, block

n/a,7, f

Standard atomic weight

232.0381 gmol

Electron configuration

[Rn] 6d 7s

Electrons per shell

2, 8, 18, 32, 18, 10, 2 (Image)

Physical properties
Phase

solid

Density (near r.t.)

11.7 gcm

Melting point

2115K,1842C,3348F

Boiling point

5061K,4788C,8650F

Heat of fusion

13.81 kJmol

Heat of vaporization

514 kJmol

Specific heat capacity

(25 C) 26.230 Jmol K

1
1

Vapor pressure
P/Pa

at T/K 2633

10

100

1k

10 k

100 k

2907

3248

3683

4259

5055

Atomic properties
Oxidation states

4, 3, 2 (weakly basic oxide)

Electronegativity

1.3 (Pauling scale)

Ionization energies

1st: 587 kJmol1

2nd: 1110 kJmol1
3rd: 1930 kJmol1

Atomic radius

179 pm

Covalent radius

2066 pm
Miscellanea

Crystal structure

face-centered cubic

Magnetic ordering

paramagnetic

[1]

Thorium

2
Electrical resistivity

(0 C) 147 nm

Thermal conductivity

(300 K) 54.0Wm1K1

Thermal expansion

(25 C) 11.0 mm1K1

Speed of sound (thin rod)

(20 C) 2490 m/s

Young's modulus

79 GPa

Shear modulus

31 GPa

Bulk modulus

54 GPa

Poisson ratio

0.27

Mohs hardness

3.0

Vickers hardness

350 MPa

Brinell hardness

400 MPa

CAS registry number

7440-29-1

Most stable isotopes

iso

NA

half-life

228

trace

1.9116 years

5.520

224

229

syn

7340 years

5.168

225

230

trace

75380 years

4.770

226

231

trace

25.5 hours

0.39

231

4.083

228

0.27

234

Th
Th
Th
Th

10
Th 100% 1.40510 years

232
234

Th

trace

24.1 days

DM DE (MeV)

DP
Ra
Ra
Ra
Pa

Ra
Pa

Thorium ( /rim/ THOHR-ee-m) is a naturally occurring radioactive chemical element, found in abundance
throughout the world. Thorium atoms (symbol Th) have an atomic number of 90, with 90 protons and 90 electrons,
of which 4 are valence electrons. It was discovered in 1828 and named after Thor, the Norse god of thunder.
In nature, thorium is found as thorium-232 (100.00%). Thorium decays slowly by emitting an alpha particle. The
half-life of thorium-232 is about 14.05 billion years. It is estimated to be about three to four times more abundant
than uranium in the Earth's crust. It is a by-product of the extraction of rare earths from monazite sands. The
formerly widespread uses of thorium, for example as a light emitting material in gas mantles or as an alloying
material in several metals, have decreased due to concerns about its radioactivity.
Thorium-232 was used for breeding nuclear fuel uranium (233), for example, in the molten-salt reactor experiment
(MSR) conducted in the United States from 1964 to 1969. Most of the initial test reactors were closed down.
However, countries including Russia, India, and recently China, have plans to use thorium for their nuclear power,
partly because of its safety benefits.

Thorium

Characteristics
Physical properties
Pure thorium is a silvery-white metal which is air-stable and retains its luster for several months. When contaminated
with the oxide, thorium slowly tarnishes in air, becoming gray and finally black. The physical properties of thorium
are greatly influenced by the degree of contamination with the oxide. The purest specimens often contain several
tenths of a percent of the oxide. Pure thorium is soft, very ductile, and can be cold-rolled, swaged, and drawn.
Thorium is dimorphic, changing at 1400C from a face-centered cubic to a body-centered cubic structure. Powdered
thorium metal is often pyrophoric and requires careful handling. When heated in air, thorium metal turnings ignite
and burn brilliantly with a white light. Thorium has the largest liquid range of any element: 2946C between the
melting point and boiling point.[2]

Chemical properties
Thorium is slowly attacked by water, but does not dissolve readily in most common acids, except hydrochloric
acid.[2] It dissolves in concentrated nitric acid containing a small amount of catalytic fluoride ion.[3]

Compounds
Thorium compounds are stable in the +4 oxidation state.[4]
Thorium dioxide has the highest melting point (3300C) of all oxides.[5]
Thorium(IV) nitrate and thorium(IV) fluoride are known in their hydrated forms: Th(NO3)44H2O and ThF44H2O,
respectively.[4] Thorium(IV) carbonate, Th(CO3)2, is also known.[4]
When treated with potassium fluoride and hydrofluoric acid, Th4+ forms the complex anion ThF, which precipitates
as an insoluble salt, K2ThF6.[3]
Thorium(IV) hydroxide, Th(OH)4, is highly insoluble in water, and is not amphoteric. The peroxide of thorium is
rare in being an insoluble solid. This property can be utilized to separate thorium from other ions in solution.[3]
In the presence of phosphate anions, Th4+ forms precipitates of various compositions, which are insoluble in water
and acid solutions.[3]
Thorium monoxide has recently been produced through laser ablation of thorium in the presence of oxygen.[6]

Isotopes
Twenty-seven radioisotopes have been characterized, with a range in atomic weight from 210 u (210Th) to 236 u
(236Th).[7] The most stable isotopes are:

232

Th with a half-life of 14.05 billion years, it represents all but a trace of naturally occurring thorium.
Th with a half-life of 75,380 years. Occurs as the daughter product of 238U decay.
229
Th with a half-life of 7340 years. It has a nuclear isomer (or metastable state) with a remarkably low excitation
energy of 7.6 eV.[8]
228Th with a half-life of 1.92 years.
230

All of the remaining radioactive isotopes have half-lives that are less than thirty days and the majority of these have
half-lives that are less than ten minutes.

Thorium

Applications
Thorium
Thorium is part of a certain magnesium alloys called Mag-Thor, which are used in aircraft engines, imparting high
strength and creep resistance at elevated temperatures.[9] [10] Thoriated magnesium was used to build the CIM-10
Bomarc missile, although concerns about radioactivity have resulted in several missiles being removed from public
display.
Thorium is also used as an alloying agent in gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) to increase the melting temperature
of tungsten electrodes and improve arc stability. The electrodes labeled EWTH-1 contain 1% thorium, while the
EWTH-2 contain 2%.[11] In electronic equipment, thorium coating of tungsten wire improves the electron emission
of heated cathodes.[2]
Thorium is a very effective radiation shield, although it has not been used for this purpose as much as lead or
depleted uranium. Thorium is a fertile material for producing nuclear fuel in a breeder reactor. Uranium-thorium age
dating has been used to date hominid fossils.[2]

Thorium compounds
Thorium dioxide is a material for heat-resistant ceramics, e.g., for high-temperature laboratory crucibles. When
added to glass, it helps increase refractive index and decrease dispersion. Such glass finds application in high-quality
lenses for cameras and scientific instruments.[2] The radiation from these lenses can self-darken them over a period
of years and degrade film, but the health risks are minimal.[12]
Thorium dioxide (ThO2) and thorium nitrate (Th(NO3)4) were used in mantles of portable gas lights, including
natural gas lamps, oil lamps and camping lights. These mantles glow with an intense white light (unrelated to
radioactivity) when heated in a gas flame, and its color could be shifted to yellow by addition of cerium.[10]
Thorium dioxide was used to control the grain size of tungsten metal used for spirals of electric lamps. Thoriated
tungsten elements are found in the filaments of magnetron tubes. Thorium is added because of its ability to emit
electrons at relatively low temperatures when heated in vacuum. Those tubes generate microwave frequencies and
are applied in microwave ovens and radars.[10]
Thorium dioxide has been used as a catalyst in the conversion of ammonia to nitric acid, in petroleum cracking and
in producing sulfuric acid. It is the active ingredient of Thorotrast, which was used as part of X-ray diagnostics. This
use has been abandoned due to the carcinogenic nature of Thorotrast.[2]
Despite its radioactivity, thorium fluoride (ThF4) is used as an antireflection material in multilayered optical
coatings. It has excellent optical transparency in the range 0.3512m, and its radiation is primarily due to alpha
particles, which can be easily stopped by a thin cover layer of another material.[13] Thorium fluoride was also used in
manufacturing carbon arc lamps, which provided high-intensity illumination for movie projectors and search
lights.[10]

Thorium as a nuclear fuel

Thorium, as well as uranium and plutonium, can be used as fuel in a nuclear reactor. A thorium fuel cycle offers
several potential advantages over a uranium fuel cycle including much greater abundance on Earth, superior physical
and nuclear properties of the fuel, enhanced proliferation resistance, and reduced nuclear waste production. Nobel
laureate Carlo Rubbia at CERN (European Organization for Nuclear Research), has worked on developing the use of
thorium as a cheap, clean and safe alternative to uranium in reactors. Rubbia states that a tonne of thorium can
produce as much energy as 200 tonnes of uranium, or 3,500,000 tonnes of coal.[14] One of the early pioneers of the
technology was U.S. physicist Alvin Weinberg at Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Tennessee, who helped develop
a working nuclear plant using liquid fuel in the 1960s.

Thorium
In 1997 the U.S. Energy Department underwrote research into thorium fuel, and research was also begun in 1996 by
the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), to study the use of thorium reactors. Nuclear scientist, Alvin
Radkowsky, of Tel Aviv University in Israel, founded a consortium to develop thorium reactors, which included
other companies: Raytheon Nuclear Inc., Brookhaven National Laboratory, and the Kurchatov Institute in Moscow.
According to the president of their project, the "reactor cores are less expensive by up to 20 percent, and additional
savings occur because [the] design reduces the storage of nuclear waste by up to 50 percent." In addition, the reactor
"helps sever the link between nuclear power generation and nuclear weapons."[15] Radkowsky was chief scientist in
the U.S. nuclear submarine program directed by Admiral Hyman Rickover and later headed the design team which
built the world's first civilian nuclear power plant at Shippingport, Pennsylvania, which was a scaled-up version of
the first naval reactor.[15]
Some countries, including India, are now investing in research to build thorium-based nuclear reactors. Anil
Kakodkar, chairman of the Indian Atomic Energy Commission, said in 2009 that his country has a "long-term
objective goal of becoming energy-independent based on its vast thorium resources."[16] in May 2010, researchers
from Ben-Gurion University in Israel and Brookhaven National Laboratory in New York, received a three-year
Energy Independence Partnership Grant to collaborate on the development of a self-sustainable fuel cycle for light
water reactors.[17] According to the Israeli nuclear engineer, Eugene Shwageraus, their goal is a self-sustaining
reactor, "meaning one that will produce and consume about the same amounts of fuel," which is not possible with
uranium.[17]
Benefits and challenges
In a 2005 report by the International Atomic Energy Agency, it discusses potential benefits along with the challenges
of thorium reactors.[18] According to Australian science writer Tim Dean, "thorium promises what uranium never
delivered: abundant, safe and clean energy - and a way to burn up old radioactive waste."[19] With a thorium nuclear
reactor, Dean stresses a number of added benefits: there is no possibility of a meltdown, it generates power
inexpensively, it does not produce weapons-grade by-products, and will burn up existing high-level waste as well as
nuclear weapon stockpiles.[19] Ambrose Evans-Pritchard, of the British Daily Telegraph, suggests that "Obama could
kill fossil fuels overnight with a nuclear dash for thorium," and could put "an end to our dependence on fossil fuels
within three to five years."[14] He also points out that "China is leading the way" with its own "dash for thorium,"
which it announced in March 2011.[20]
Turkish nuclear expert Ayhan Demirbas has summarized some of the benefits of thorium when compared with
uranium as fuel:[21]
Weapons-grade fissionable material (U-233) is harder to retrieve safely and clandestinely from a thorium
reactor;
Thorium produces 10 to 10,000 times less long-lived radioactive waste;
Thorium comes out of the ground as a 100% pure, usable isotope, which does not require enrichment, whereas
natural uranium contains only 0.7% fissionable U-235;
Thorium can not sustain a nuclear chain reaction without priming[22] , so fission stops by default.
However, unlike uranium-based breeder reactors, thorium requires a start-up by neutrons from a uranium reactor.
But experts note that "the second thorium reactor may activate a third thorium reactor. This could continue in a chain
of reactors for a millennium if we so choose." They add that because of thorium's abundance, it will not be exhaused
in a 1,000 years.[23]
The Thorium Energy Alliance (TEA), an educational advocacy organization, emphasizes that "there is enough
thorium in the United States alone to power the country at its current energy level for over 1,000 years." [24]
Reducing coal as an energy source, according to science expert Lester R. Brown of The Earth Policy Institute in
Washington DC, would significantly reduce medical costs from breathing coal pollutants. Brown estimates that
coal-related deaths and diseases are currently costing the U.S. up to $160 billion annually."[25]

Thorium
Thorium energy fuel cycle
Although not fissile itself, 232Th will absorb slow neutrons to produce 233U, which is fissile. Hence, like 238U, it is
fertile. It is at least 4-5 times more abundant in Earth's crust than all isotopes of uranium combined and is present on
most continents, with many countries having large supplies of it. Also, preparation of thorium fuel does not require
isotopic separation.
The thorium fuel cycle creates 233U, which, if separated from the reactor's fuel, can be used for making nuclear
weapons. This is why a liquid-fuel cycle (e.g., MSR or Molten Salt Reactor) is preferred only a limited amount of
233
U ever exists in the reactor and its heat-transfer systems, preventing any access to weapons material; however the
neutrons produced by the reactor can be absorbed by a thorium or uranium blanket and fissile 233U or 239Pu
produced. Also, the 233U could be continuously extracted from the molten fuel as the reactor is running.
Since there are no neutrons from spontaneous fission of U-233, solid U-233 can be used easily in a simple gun-type
nuclear bomb design.[26] In 1977, a light-water reactor at the Shippingport Atomic Power Station was used to
establish a Th232-U233 fuel cycle. The reactor worked until its decommissioning in 1982.[27] [28] [29] Thorium can
be and has been used to power nuclear energy plants using both the modified traditional Generation III reactor
design and prototype Generation IV reactor designs. The use of thorium as an alternative fuel is one innovation being
explored by the International Project on Innovative Nuclear Reactors and Fuel Cycles (INPRO),[30] conducted by the
International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA).
A seed-and-blanket fuel using a core of plutonium surrounded by a blanket of thorium/uranium has been undergoing
testing at Moscow's Kurchatov Institute, under a 1994 agreement between the institute and McLean, Virginia-based
Thorium Power Ltd. Russian government-owned nuclear design firm Red Star formed an agreement with Thorium
Power in 2007 to continue work on scaling up the test fuel rods to commercial use and licensing in VVER-1000
reactors. This assembly could achieve a more efficient disposal method of weapons-grade plutonium than the
mixed-oxide disposal method, especially with the 2009 decision by the US to shelve the Yucca Mountain nuclear
waste repository highlighting the issue of what to do with all the plutonium left over from decommissioned nuclear
weapons.[31] Thorium Power, with offices in London, Dubai, and Moscow and with Dr. Hans Blix serving as an
advisor, also advises the United Arab Emirates on their fledgling nuclear program. They are awaiting the finalization
of the US-India nuclear 1-2-3 Agreement to complete a joint-venture with Punj Lloyd, an Indian engineering firm
with nuclear reactor construction ambitions.[32]
Unlike its use in MSRs, when using solid thorium in modified light water reactor (LWR) problems include: the
undeveloped technology for fuel fabrication; in traditional, once-through LWR designs potential problems in
recycling thorium due to highly radioactive 228Th; some weapons proliferation risk due to production of 233U; and
the technical problems (not yet satisfactorily solved) in reprocessing. Much development work is still required before
the thorium fuel cycle can be commercialized for use in LWR. The effort required has not seemed worth it while
abundant uranium is available, but geopolitical forces (e.g. India looking for indigenous fuel) as well as uranium
production issues, proliferation concerns, and concerns about the disposal/storage of radioactive waste are starting to
work in its favor. In 2008, Senator Harry Reid (D-Nevada) and Senator Orrin Hatch (R-Utah) introduced the
Thorium Energy Independence and Security Act of 2008, which would mandate a US Department of Energy
initiative to examine the commercial use of thorium in US reactors.[33] The bill, however, did not reach a full Senate
vote.
The thorium fuel cycle, with its potential for breeding fuel without fast neutron reactors, holds considerable potential
long-term benefits. Thorium is significantly more abundant than uranium, and is a key factor in sustainable nuclear
energy. Perhaps more importantly, thorium produces one to two orders of magnitude less long-lived transuranics
than uranium fuel cycles, though the long-lived actinide protactinium-231 is produced, and the amount of fission
products is similar.
An early effort to use a thorium fuel cycle took place at Oak Ridge National Laboratory in the 1960s. An
experimental reactor was built based on MSR technology to study the feasibility of such an approach, using

Thorium
thorium-fluoride salt kept hot enough to be liquid, thus eliminating the need for fabricating fuel elements. This effort
culminated in the Molten-Salt Reactor Experiment that used 232Th as the fertile material and 233U as the fissile fuel.
This reactor was operated successfully for about five years. However, due to a lack of funding, the MSR program
was discontinued in 1976. Nowadays this design is thought of as a Generation IV reactor.
Existing thorium energy projects
India's Kakrapar-1 reactor is the world's first reactor which uses thorium rather than depleted uranium to achieve
power flattening across the reactor core.[34] India, which has about 25% of the world's thorium reserves, is
developing a 300 MW prototype of a thorium-based Advanced Heavy Water Reactor (AHWR). The prototype is
expected to be fully operational by 2011, following which five more reactors will be constructed.[35] Considered to
be a global leader in thorium-based fuel, India's new thorium reactor is a fast-breeder reactor and uses a plutonium
core rather than an accelerator to produce neutrons. As accelerator-based systems can operate at sub-criticality they
could be developed too, but that would require more research.[36] India currently envisages meeting 30% of its
electricity demand through thorium-based reactors by 2050.[37]
In 2007, Norway was debating whether or not to focus on thorium plants because of the large deposits of thorium
ores in the country, particularly at Fensfeltet near Ulefoss in Telemark county.
The primary fuel of the HT3R Project near Odessa, Texas, USA will be ceramic-coated thorium beads.[38]
However, the best results occur with molten-salt reactors (MSRs), such as ORNL's LFTR, which have built-in
negative-feedback reaction rates, due to salt expansion and thus reactor throttling via load. This is a great safety
advantage, since no emergency cooling system is needed, which is both expensive and adds thermal inefficiency. In
fact, an MSR was chosen as the base design for the 1960s DoD Atomic Plane largely because of its great safety
advantages, even under aircraft maneuvering. In the basic design, an MSR generates heat at higher temperatures,
continuously, and without refuelling shutdowns, so it can provide hot air to a more efficient (Brayton Cycle) turbine.
An MSR run this way is about 30% better in thermal efficiency than common thermal plants, whether combustive or
traditional solid-fuelled nuclear.[39]
In 2010, Congressman Joe Sestak added funding for research and development of a destroyer-sized reactor using
thorium.[40]
Atomic Energy Canada Limited's Candu reactors are capable of using thorium as a fuel source.[41]
At the 2011 annual conference of the Chinese Academy of Sciences it was announced that "China has initiated a
research and development project in thorium molten-salt reactor technology." [42]

History
M. T. Esmark found a black mineral on Lvy Island, Norway and gave a sample to Professor Jens Esmark, a noted
mineralogist who was not able to identify it, so he sent a sample to the Swedish chemist Jns Jakob Berzelius for
examination in 1828.[43] [44] [45] Berzelius analyzed it and named it after Thor, the Norse god of thunder. The metal
had virtually no uses until the invention of the gas mantle in 1885.
Thorium was first observed to be radioactive in 1898, independently, by Polish-French physicist Marie Curie and
English chemist Gerhard Carl Schmidt.[46] [47] [48] Between 1900 and 1903, Ernest Rutherford and Frederick Soddy
showed how thorium decayed at a fixed rate over time into a series of other elements. This observation led to the
identification of half life as one of the outcomes of the alpha particle experiments that led to their disintegration
theory of radioactivity.[49]
The crystal bar process (or Iodide process) was discovered by Anton Eduard van Arkel and Jan Hendrik de Boer in
1925 to produce high-purity metallic thorium.[50]
The name ionium was given early in the study of radioactive elements to the 230Th isotope produced in the decay
chain of 238U before it was realized that ionium and thorium were chemically identical. The symbol Io was used for

Thorium

this supposed element.

Occurrence
Thorium is found in small amounts in most rocks and soils, where it is
about four times more abundant than uranium, and is about as common
as lead. Soil commonly contains an average of around 12 parts per
million (ppm) of thorium. Thorium occurs in several minerals
including thorite (ThSiO4), thorianite (ThO2 + UO2) and monazite.
Thorianite is a rare mineral and may contain up to about 12% thorium
oxide. Thorium-containing minerals occur on all continents. (see
Distribution section)[2] [51] [52]
232

Th decays very slowly (its half-life is comparable to the age of the

Universe) but other thorium isotopes occur in the thorium and uranium
decay chains. Most of these are short-lived and hence much more
radioactive than 232Th, though on a mass basis they are negligible.

Monazite, a rare earth and thorium phosphate

mineral, is the primary source of the world's
thorium

Thorium extraction

Thorium has been extracted chiefly from monazite through a complex multi-stage process. The monazite sand is
dissolved in hot concentrated sulfuric acid (H2SO4). Thorium is extracted as an insoluble residue into an organic
phase containing an amine. Next it is separated or "stripped" using an ion such as nitrate, chloride, hydroxide, or
carbonate, returning the thorium to an aqueous phase. Finally, the thorium is precipitated and collected.[53]
Several methods are available for producing thorium metal: it can be obtained by reducing thorium oxide with
calcium, by electrolysis of anhydrous thorium chloride in a fused mixture of sodium and potassium chlorides, by
calcium reduction of thorium tetrachloride mixed with anhydrous zinc chloride, and by reduction of thorium
tetrachloride with an alkali metal.[2]

Distribution
Present knowledge of the distribution of thorium resources is poor because of the relatively low-key exploration
efforts arising out of insignificant demand.[54] There are two sets of estimates that define world thorium reserves, one
set by the US Geological Survey (USGS) and the other supported by reports from the OECD and the International
Atomic Energy Agency (the IAEA). Under the USGS estimate, USA Australia and India have particularly large
reserves of thorium. India and Australia are believed to possess about 300,000 tonnes each; i.e. each country
possessing 25% of the world's thorium reserves.[55] However, in the OECD reports, estimates of Australian's

Thorium

Reasonably Assured Reserves (RAR) of thorium indicate only 19,000 tonnes and not 300,000 tonnes as indicated by
USGS. The two sources vary wildly for countries such as Brazil, Turkey, and Australia. However, both reports
appear to show some consistency with respect to India's thorium reserve figures, with 290,000 tonnes (USGS) and
319,000 tonnes (OECD/IAEA). Furthermore the IAEA report mentions that India possesses two thirds (67%) of
global reserves of monazite, the primary thorium ore. The IAEA also states that recent reports have upgraded India's
thorium deposits up from approximately 300,000 tonnes to 650,000 tonnes.[56] Therefore, the IAEA and OECD
appear to conclude that Brazil and India may actually possess the lion's share of world's thorium deposits.
The prevailing estimate of the economically available thorium reserves comes from the US Geological Survey,
Mineral Commodity Summaries (19962010):[52] [57]

American estimates in tonnes (2010)

Country

Reserves

United States

440,000

Australia

300,000

Brazil

16,000

Canada

100,000

India

290,000

Malaysia

4,500

South Africa

35,000

Other Countries

90,000

World Total

1,300,000

Note: The OECD/NEA report notes that the estimates (that the Australian figures are based on) are subjective, due to
the variability in the quality of the data, a lot of which is old and incomplete.[58] Adding to the confusion are
subjective claims made by the Australian government (in 2009, through their "Geoscience" department) that
combine the Reasonably Assured Reserves (RAR) estimates with "inferred" data (i.e. subjective guesses). This
strange combined figure of RAR and "guessed" reserves yields a figure, published by the Australian government, of
489,000 tonnes.[58] However using the same criteria for Brazil or India would yield reserve figures of between
600,000 to 1,300,000 tonnes for Brazil and between 300,000 to 600,000 tonnes for India. Irrespective, of isolated
claims by the Australian government, the most credible third-party and multi-lateral reports, those of the
OECD/IAEA and the USGS, consistently report high thorium reserves for India while not doing the same for
Australia.
Another estimate of Reasonably Assured Reserves (RAR) and Estimated Additional Reserves (EAR) of thorium
comes from OECD/NEA, Nuclear Energy, "Trends in Nuclear Fuel Cycle", Paris, France (2001):[59]

Thorium

10

IAEA Estimates in tonnes (2005)

Country

RAR Th

EAR Th

Australia

19,000

Brazil

606,000

700,000

Canada

45,000

128,000

Greenland

54,000

32,000

Egypt

15,000

309,000

India

319,000

Norway

132,000

132,000

18,000

Turkey

380,000

500,000

United States

137,000

295,000

Other Countries

505,000

South Africa

World Total

2,230,000 2,130,000

Dangers and biological roles

Powdered thorium metal is pyrophoric and will often ignite spontaneously in air. Natural thorium decays very slowly
compared to many other radioactive materials, and the alpha radiation emitted cannot penetrate human skin meaning
owning and handling small amounts of thorium, such as a gas mantle, is considered safe. The decay of thorium does,
however, create radon gas so caution should be exercised when thorium decays in closed spaces. Exposure to an
aerosol of thorium can lead to increased risk of cancers of the lung, pancreas and blood, as lungs and other internal
organs can be penetrated by alpha radiation. Exposure to thorium internally leads to increased risk of liver diseases.
The element has no known biological role.

References
[1] Magnetic susceptibility of the elements and inorganic compounds (http:/ / www-d0. fnal. gov/ hardware/ cal/ lvps_info/ engineering/
elementmagn. pdf), in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 81st edition, CRC press.
[2] Hammond, C. R. (2004). The Elements, in Handbook of Chemistry and Physics 81st edition. CRC press. ISBN0849304857.
[3] Hyde, Earl K. (1960). The radiochemistry of thorium (http:/ / www. radiochemistry. org/ periodictable/ pdf_books/ pdf/ rc000034. pdf).
Subcommittee on Radiochemistry, National Academy of SciencesNational Research Council. .
[4] "Toxicological Profile Information Sheet" (http:/ / www. atsdr. cdc. gov/ toxprofiles/ tp147-c3. pdf). Department of Health and Human
Services. . Retrieved 2009-05-21.
[5] Emsley, John (2001). Nature's Building Blocks ((Hardcover, First Edition) ed.). Oxford University Press. pp.441. ISBN0198503407.
[6] "The pure rotational spectrum of the actinide-containing compound thorium monoxide" (http:/ / www. rsc. org/ publishing/ journals/ CP/
article. asp?doi=b709343h). Physical Chemistry Chemical Physics. .
[7] Uusitalo, J. et al. (1995). " decay of the new isotopes 210Th and 211Th". Phys. Rev. C 52: 113. doi:10.1103/PhysRevC.52.113.
[8] Beck, B. R. et al. (2007). "Energy Splitting of the Ground-State Doublet in the Nucleus 229Th". Phys. Rev. Lett. 98: 142501.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.98.142501. PMID17501268.
[9] Avedesian, Michael M., ed (1999). "Microstructure of Magnesium and Magnesium Alloys" (http:/ / books. google. com/
?id=0wFMfJg57YMC& pg=PA28). Magnesium and magnesium alloys. Materials Park, OH: ASM International. p.28. ISBN9780871706577.
.
[10] McKetta, John J. (1996). Encyclopedia of Chemical Processing and Design: Thermoplastics to Trays, Separation, Useful Capacity (http:/ /
books. google. com/ ?id=ahNFGR1jMB4C& pg=PA81). CRC Press. p.81. ISBN082472609X. .
[11] Jeffus, Larry (2003). "Types of Tungsten" (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=zeRiW7en7HAC& pg=RA1-PA750). Welding : principles and
applications. Clifton Park, N.Y.: Thomson/Delmar Learning. p.350. ISBN9781401810467. .
[12] products/cameralens.htm "Thoriated Camera Lens (ca. 1970s)." (http:/ / www. orau. org/ ptp/ collection/ consumer)

Thorium
[13] Rancourt, James D. (1996). Optical thin films: user handbook (http:/ / books. google. com/ ?id=_VsEiRoFnXcC& pg=PA196). SPIE Press.
p.196. ISBN0819422851. .
[14] "Obama could kill fossil fuels overnight with a nuclear dash for thorium" (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ finance/ comment/ 7970619/
Obama-could-kill-fossil-fuels-overnight-with-a-nuclear-dash-for-thorium. html), Evans-Pritchard, Ambrose. The Telegraph, U.K. August 29,
2010
[15] of the Atomic Scientists (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=2wsAAAAAMBAJ& pg=PA19& dq=thorium+ reactor& hl=en&
ei=vy6ETbP5JJOCsQOD1Lj1AQ& sa=X& oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=1& ved=0CCwQ6AEwAA#v=onepage& q=thorium
reactor& f=tru''Bulletin) Sept/Oct. 1997 pp. 19-20
[16] "Considering an Alternative Fuel for Nuclear Energy" (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2009/ 10/ 20/ business/ global/ 20renthorium.
html?pagewanted=1& sq=Thorium reactor& st=cse& scp=1), New York Times, Oct. 19, 2009
[17] "Self-sustaining nuclear energy from Israel" (http:/ / www. israel21c. org/ 201010118407/ environment/
self-sustaining-nuclear-energy-from-israel) Israel21c News Service, Oct. 11, 2010
[18] "Thorium fuel cycle Potential benefits and challenge" (http:/ / www-pub. iaea. org/ MTCD/ publications/ PDF/ TE_1450_web. pdf),
IAEA, May 2005
[19] "New Age Nuclear" (http:/ / www. cosmosmagazine. com/ features/ print/ 348/ new-age-nuclear?page=0,0) Cosmos Magazine, April, 2006
[20] "Safe nuclear does exist, and China is leading the way with thorium" (http:/ / www. telegraph. co. uk/ finance/ comment/
ambroseevans_pritchard/ 8393984/ Safe-nuclear-does-exist-and-China-is-leading-the-way-with-thorium. html), The Telegraph, U.K. March
20, 2011
[21] Demirbas, Ayhan. Biohydrogen: for future engine fuel demands, Springer-Verlag, U.K. (2009) pp. 36-39
[22] "Thorium: Is It the Better Nuclear Fuel?" (http:/ / www. cavendishscience. org/ bks/ nuc/ thrupdat. htm), Cavendish Press, Dec 2008
[23] Kursunoglu, Behram N., and Teller, Edward. Global Warming and Energy Policy (http:/ / books. google. com/ books?id=-dHRVG0yJS4C&
pg=PA1& dq=Teller,+ Edward. + Global+ Warming+ and+ Energy+ Policy& hl=en& ei=1S2FTbPtCY6ssAOD3Jj4AQ& sa=X&
oi=book_result& ct=result& resnum=2& ved=0CEYQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage& q=Teller, Edward. Global Warming and Energy Policy&
f=false), symposium held Nov. 2000. p. 4
[24] Thorium Energy Alliance (http:/ / www. thoriumenergyalliance. com/ )
[25] "Coal-Fired Power On the Way Out?" (http:/ / www. earthpolicy. org/ index. php?/ book_bytes/ 2010/ pb4ch10_ss3) Earth Policy Institute,
Feb. 23, 2010
[26] Wilson, R. (1998). "Accelerator Driven Subcritical Assemblies" (http:/ / phys4. harvard. edu/ ~wilson/ publications/ ppaper703. html).
Report to Energy Environment and Economy Committee, U.S. Global Strategy Council. .
[27] "Light Water Breeder Reactor:Adapting a Proven System" (http:/ / www. atomicinsights. com/ oct95/ LWBR_oct95. html).
AtomicInsights.com. . Retrieved 2009-09-03.
[28] "Thorium" (http:/ / www. world-nuclear. org/ info/ inf62. html). World Nuclear Association. . Retrieved 2009-09-03.
[29] Clayton, J.C. (1993). "The Shippingport Pressurized Water Reactor and Light Water Breeder Reactor" (http:/ / www. osti. gov/
energycitations/ servlets/ purl/ 10191380-PWWUeT/ native/ 10191380. pdf). 25. American Chemical Society meeting,Pittsburgh, PA. .
[30] http:/ / www. iaea. org/ Publications/ Magazines/ Bulletin/ Bull511/ 51104894344. html
[31] Breakthrough Technology Alert (March 2009). "Thorium Will Power Your Profits (and Reduce Terror Risks)" (http:/ / www. thoriumpower.
com/ files/ VPI_03091a. pdf). .
[32] Forbes.com (2008-12-09). "Thorium Warms Up To Nuclear India" (http:/ / www. forbes. com/ 2008/ 12/ 09/
thorium-power-india-markets-equity-cx_vr_1209markets07. html). .
[33] Senator Orrin Hatch website. "Sens. hatch and reid push for thorium nuclear fuel cycle" (http:/ / hatch. senate. gov/ public/ index.
cfm?FuseAction=PressReleases. Detail& PressRelease_id=bf8479e9-1b78-be3e-e031-1635aee6efa9). .
[34] "Thorium: Cleaner Nuclear Power?" (http:/ / www. power-technology. com/ features/ feature1141/ ). .
[35] "Development work on 300 MW advanced heavy water reactor at advanced stage" (http:/ / timesofindia. indiatimes. com/ articleshow/
3864684. cms). The Times Of India. 2008-12-20. .
[36] Considering an Alternative Fuel for Nuclear Energy (http:/ / www. nytimes. com/ 2009/ 10/ 20/ business/ global/ 20renthorium. html)
[37] "Indian Thorium based reactor design complete" (http:/ / www. indiadaily. com/ editorial/ 19093. asp). .
[38] "Advanced reactor plan gets off the ground in Texas" (http:/ / www. thoriumpower. com/ files/ Energy Daily on Texas Reactor. PDF). The
Energy Daily. February 23, 2006. .
[39] Thorium Energy Alliance
[40] Congressman Sestak's Amendments in National Defense Authorization Act Pass House (http:/ / newsblaze. com/ story/
20100530110958zzzz. nb/ topstory. html)
[41] Nuclear's future: Fission or fizzle? (http:/ / www. powergenworldwide. com/ index/ display/ wire-news-display/ 1340453800. html)
[42] http:/ / energyfromthorium. com/ 2011/ 01/ 30/ china-initiates-tmsr/
[43] "Thorium" (http:/ / www. bbc. co. uk/ dna/ h2g2/ A3768861). BBC.co. . Retrieved 2007-01-18.
[44] Berzelius, J. J. (1829). "Untersuchung eines neues Minerals und einer darin erhalten zuvor unbekannten Erde (Investigation of a new
mineral and of a previously unknown earth contained therein)" (http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/ bpt6k151010. pleinepage. r=Annalen+
der+ Physic. f395. langFR). Annalen der Physik und Chemie 16: 385415. . (modern citation: Annalen der Physik, vol. 92, no. 7, pages
385-415)

11

Thorium
[45] Berzelius, J. J. (1829). "Underskning af ett nytt mineral (Thorit), som innehller en frut obekant jord" (Investigation of a new mineral
(thorite), as contained in a previously unknown earth)". Kungliga Svenska Vetenskaps Akademiens Handlingar (Transactions of the Royal
Swedish Science Academy): 130.
[46] Curie, Marie (1898). "Rayons mis par les composs de l'uranium et du thorium (Rays emitted by compounds of uranium and thorium)".
Comptes Rendus 126: 11011103.
[47] Schmidt, G. C. (1898). "ber die vom Thorium und den Thoriumverbindungen ausgehende Strahlung (On the radiation emitted by thorium
and thorium compounds)". Verhandlungen der Physikalischen Gesellschaft zu Berlin (Proceedings of the Physical Society in Berlin) 17:
1416.
[48] Schmidt, G. C. (1898). "ber die von den Thorverbindungen und einigen anderen Substanzen ausgehende Strahlung (On the radiation
emitted by thorium compounds and some other substances)" (http:/ / gallica. bnf. fr/ ark:/ 12148/ bpt6k153068. image. r=Annalen+ der+
Physic. f149. langFR). Annalen der Physik und Chemie 65: 141151. . (modern citation: Annalen der Physik, vol. 301, pages 141-151 (1898)).
[49] Simmons, John Galbraith (1996). The Scientific 100. Seacaucus NJ: Carol. p.19.
[50] van Arkel, A.E.; de Boer, J.H. (1925). "Preparation of pure titanium, zirconium, hafnium, and thorium metal". Zeitschrift fr Anorganische
und Allgemeine Chemie 148: 345350.
[51] "Monazite-(Ce): Monazite-(Ce) mineral information and data" (http:/ / www. mindat. org/ min-2751. html). . Retrieved 18 May 2009.
[52] "U.S. Geological Survey, Mineral Commodity Summaries Thorium" (http:/ / minerals. usgs. gov/ minerals/ pubs/ commodity/ thorium/
index. html#mcs). .
[53] Crouse, David; Brown, Keith (1959). "The Amex Process for Extracting Thorium Ores with Alkyl Amines". Industrial & Engineering
Chemistry 51: 1461. doi:10.1021/ie50600a030.
[54] Jayaram, K.M.V.. "An Overview of World Thorium Resources, Incentives for Further Exploration and Forecast for Thorium Requirements
in the Near Future" (http:/ / www. iaea. org/ inisnkm/ nkm/ aws/ fnss/ fulltext/ 0412_1. pdf). .
[55] "US approves Indian nuclear deal" (http:/ / news. bbc. co. uk/ 2/ hi/ south_asia/ 6219998. stm). BBC News. 2006-12-09. .
[56] IAEA: Thorium fuel cycle Potential benefits and challenges (http:/ / www-pub. iaea. org/ MTCD/ publications/ PDF/ TE_1450_web.
pdf). pp.45. .
[57] "Information and Issue Briefs Thorium" (http:/ / www. world-nuclear. org/ info/ inf62. htm). World Nuclear Association. . Retrieved
2006-11-01.
[58] "Thorium AIMR 2009" (http:/ / www. australianminesatlas. gov. au/ aimr/ commodity/ thorium_09. jsp#world_ranking). Australian Mines
Atlas. . Retrieved 2009-06-01.
[59] IAEA: Thorium fuel cycle Potential benefits and challenges (http:/ / www-pub. iaea. org/ MTCD/ publications/ PDF/ TE_1450_web.
pdf). pp.45(table 8), 97(ref 78). .

External links
International Thorium Energy Organisation - IThEO.org (http://www.itheo.org)
WebElements.com Thorium (http://www.webelements.com/webelements/elements/text/Th/index.html)
European Nuclear Society Natural Decay Chains (http://www.euronuclear.org/info/encyclopedia/d/
decaybasinnatural.htm)
ATSDR CDC ToxFAQs: health questions about thorium (http://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/tfacts147.html)
FactSheet on Thorium (http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf62.html), World Nuclear Association
Thorium TV - A review of the element (http://www.thorium.tv/en/index.php)

12

Article Sources and Contributors

Article Sources and Contributors

Thorium Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=420123154 Contributors: 2mcm, 65.68.87.xxx, Aarchiba, Acalamari, Ace ofgabriel, Acid88, Adapter, Ahoerstemeier,
Akaluzniacki, Alansohn, Albin Norlin, Aleksander.adamowski, AlexW, Alterrabe, Andonic, Andres, Andrewa, Antandrus, Archimerged, Arg, Arkuat, Arru, Ashyanbhog, Attinio, Audunv,
Awatral, Bank top, Barneyg, Bayou Banjo, Beetstra, BenAlbahari, Benbest, Benjah-bmm27, BlueEarth, Bmcgann, Bobo192, Borislav Dopudja, Brandon5485, Brian Huffman, Brisvegas, Bryan
Derksen, C1010, CAPS LOCK, CJGB, CMG, Cadmium, Calmer Waters, Cameronw22, Canthusus, Carnildo, ChemNerd, Chill doubt, Chris 73, Chris Roy, Chriscf, Christine T, Chuckiesdad,
Cmacd123, CommonsDelinker, Conversion script, Courcelles, Cryptic, Crzrussian, Cwkmail, Cxbrx, Cybercobra, Cyberevil, DMahalko, Danpat, Darrien, David Latapie, David R. Ingham,
DavidMIA, DeXXus, Deepak D'Souza, Deflective, Deogratias5, Deor, Der Golem, Dewan357, Diwas, Donarreiskoffer, DrHonzik, Dwmyers, Edgar181, El C, Elmozo, Emperorbma, EoGuy,
Epbr123, Facts707, Femto, Finefellow, Fionaclee, Foo1942, Fresheneesz, Fundamental metric tensor, Furrykef, F, G-Man, Gaius Cornelius, Gary King, GeorgeTSLC, Gizziiusa, Graeme
Bartlett, Graham87, Graibeard, Greatpatton, Grey Shadow, Gsmcolect, Gthb, Guthrie, Gypsypkd, Hak-k-ngn, Hallpriest9, Hcobb, Headbomb, Helge Skjeveland, Hersfold, Hesacon, Hinakana,
Hitssquad, Holy Ganga, Icairns, Ideyal, Idleguy, Itub, J.delanoy, JWB, Janke, Jaraalbe, Jauhienij, Jayshuler, JdH, Jdurg, Jim62sch, Joanjoc, John, JonathanCobb, Jons63, Julian Mendez,
JunCTionS, KFSorensen, Kaihsu, Karelj, Kathzerion, Kayleigheliz, Kbrose, Keenan Pepper, Keine entschuldigung, Kelovy, King Zebu, Kinu, Kjramesh, Kmarinas86, Ktsquare, Kudz75, Kurykh,
Kwamikagami, Kwilbur, LA2, Lamlott, LarryMorseDCOhio, LeBron Michael Bryant, Limulus, LorenzoB, M11101, MJBurrage, Malcolm Farmer, Marc Venot, Mark.murphy, Materialscientist,
Matt Gies, Mattisse, Maury Markowitz, Mav, McMillen1, Megan1967, Member, Michelet, Mindmatrix, Mio222, Mithridates, Mkweise, Mnyaseen, Moogsi, Mortense, Mr0t1633, Mrintel,
Nailedtooth, Nakkiel, Neil916, Nergaal, Nevadaone, Neverquick, Nick Y., Nihiltres, Northumbrian, Oberono, Ohnoitsjamie, OlEnglish, Ondrejch, Pakaran, Paradigm, PeepP, Peter Greenwell,
Peter.thejackos, Peter8212991, PeterJeremy, PhasmatisNox, Philip Trueman, PiersOffshore, Piperh, Plunkey, Polonium, Polyamorph, Poolkris, Pstudier, REQC, RamanVirk, Rbakker99, Rcnet,
Remember, ResearchRave, RexNL, Reyk, Rgoodermote, Rich Farmbrough, Richard W.M. Jones, Rickterp, Riick, Rjwilmsi, Rmhermen, Robert Merkel, Robertrade, Romanm, Royk, Ryan
Lonswell, SDC, SEWilco, Santr, Saperaud, Schneelocke, Scott Ritchie, Sfuerst, Sgokoluk, Shaddack, Shadowjams, Sholt, Shyam, Sillybilly, Sl, Sleigh, Slidersv, Smusser, Soliloquial,
Spangineer, Srikeit, Sstidman, Stephenacooke, Stifynsemons, Stone, Svante, Tagishsimon, Tempodivalse, Tetracube, The Haunted Angel, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheCaroline!,
TheDestitutionOfOrganizedReligion, TheoClarke, Thingg, Thoreaulylazy, Thorml, Thumperward, Tide rolls, Tkreh, Tobias Hoevekamp, Trevorloflin, Triforce of Power, Trojancowboy, Ummit,
UnitedStatesian, Vanished User 1004, Vegaswikian, Versus22, Volland, Vsmith, Wachholder0, Walkerma, Warut, Wayne Slam, Whkoh, Whosasking, Wikieditor06, Wikitiki89, Wikiwatcher1,
William Avery, Wwoods, Yekrats, YordanGeorgiev, Yyy, Zerpent, Zoomzoom316, 361 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and Contributors

File:Loudspeaker.svg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Loudspeaker.svg License: Public Domain Contributors: Bayo, Gmaxwell, Husky, Iamunknown, Myself488,
Nethac DIU, Omegatron, Rocket000, The Evil IP address, Wouterhagens, 9 anonymous edits
Image:MonaziteUSGOV.jpg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:MonaziteUSGOV.jpg License: Public Domain Contributors: Saperaud
Image:Monazit opening acid.gif Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Monazit_opening_acid.gif License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0 Contributors:
User:Hermann Luyken

License
Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported
http:/ / creativecommons. org/ licenses/ by-sa/ 3. 0/

13