Académique Documents
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Culture Documents
OF
THE UNIVERSITY
OF CALIFORNIA
LOS ANGELES
8 1360
A HISTORY OF
Prom a Photo by W. H.
Hayles)
IN
THE
HISTORY OF THE
CAVENDISH LABORATORY
1871-1910
WITH
AND
PORTRAITS IN COLLOTYPE
OTHER ILLUSTRATIONS
1910
All rights reserved
CO.
QC
51
PREFACE
ON
December
Thomson completed
the
ship of Experimental Physics in the University of CambridgeAt the beginning of that year the suggestion was made by
some of the Professor's immediate colleagues that the
so full of achievement.
for such
memoirs by various
dis-
Sir J. J.
Thomson
is
lasting interest.
it
known
Thomson's twenty-
tenure of the Professorship might be fitly celebrated by the writing and publication of a History of the
five years'
Cavendish Laboratory.
PREFACE
vi
The
following
extract
from the
letter
addressed
Much
Cavendish Laboratory
The
this matter,
even
if
it
to
written
is
republication of
all
single volume,
of
how
that
work came
to be done.
It is
thought
in the
No
even to those
who
doubt
it
will
and
primary object.'
It will be seen that the relative
importance attributed
by the authors to the many aspects of the work of the
Laboratory has varied considerably. But in so far as the
view taken of the work of the Laboratory at various times is
different,
the prevalent
undue
repetition.
portraits of
Maxwell
PREFACE
vii
The photographs
work of Mr.
of the Laboratory
W. H.
NOTE
THE
CONTENTS
I.
Ph.D.,
Sc.D.,
...
F.R.S.,
14
Emeritus
III.
R. T.
GLAZEBROOK,
40
IV.
75
Cavendish Professor of
Experimental Physics in the University of Cambridge
By
V.
Sir J. J.
THOMSON, M.A.,
F.R.S.
102
1885-1894
By H.
F.
NEWALL, M.A.,
University of Cambridge
VI.
1895-1898
By E. RUTHERFORD, M.A.,
159
F.R.S., Professor of Physics in the
University of Manchester
VII.
195
1899-1902
By
C. T. R.
WILSON, M.A.,
Physics
viii.
IX.
1903-1909
By N. R. CAMPBELL, M.A.
L. R.
WILBERFORCE, M.A.,
250
F.R.S., Professor of Physics in
CONTENTS
PAGE
OF RESEARCH PERFORMED
CAVENDISH LABORATORY
.
LIST OF
INDEX
THE
IN
.
IN
.281
THE
324
335
ILLUSTRATIONS
COLLOTYPE PLATES
JAMES CLERK-MAXWELL
To face
1879)
p.
14
From a Photograph in
LORD RAYLEIGH
To face
p.
40
fo
face A
76
PLATES
ENTRANCE OF CAVENDISH LABORATORY, SHOWING
EXTENSION IN THE DISTANCE
Frontispiece
IN CLASSICAL
To face
p.
RESEARCHES
To face
p.
64
RESEARCH STUDENTS,
1899
...
...
fo face p
IO 2
160
RESEARCH STUDENTS,
Prom a Photograph
1909
220
by Steam. Cambridge
236
AN ELEMENTARY CLASS
258
....
A HISTORY OF THE
CAVENDISH LABORATORY
CAMBRIDGE
CHAPTER
is
a modern
all
the great
development.
was done
earlier
Thomson
to
in
At a
still
Glasgow, had,
it
is
his
true, taught
own
students
earlier
one
researches, an invaluable
Professor
many
numbers.
begun
in
1868,
first
in 1872.
a single
III.,
In the spring of 1868 Adams visited France and Germany, but found that the only laboratory where systematic
Jamin
at the Sorbonne.
of
in their
It
own
investigations.
Foster, and
little
Adams
about them.
It
the
would be
difficult to
modern physical
frame a better
justification for
laboratory.
houses, had
become
The removal
unsatisfactory.
in 1846,
was
of the
finished in
begun
There was some idea of 'disposing of the old
Garden on building leases, or for the purpose of converting
it into a market place, or for such other purposes as may
1852.
Garden
lecture-rooms.
The
cost,
first
until 1860,
when
its
the
Council of the Senate reopened the question, wisely beginThe result was that the
ning with the study of finance.
foundation stone was laid by Professor Liveing on June 9,
1863, and in the course of the years 1864 and 1865 accom-
Com-
and Botany.
The
Mineralogy,
is
The
its
attention to the
want of
which
to
Willis
stock of apparatus.
Long Vacation
of
commend
itself
1870 found no
decision made.
But at the beginning of the Michaelmas Term the ViceChancellor received the following letter from the seventh
Duke
MY DEAR
MR. VICE-CHANCELLOR,
have
the
honour
to
am
mendation
shall
have
DEVONSHIRE.
it
The heads
a Professorship of Experi-
year.
He
gave his
first
till the
appointment of the
himself
had
Physics,
given instruction in
Professor of
Heat.
consisted of
Master of Peterhouse
College
W. H.
Professors Adams,
Miller; J.
W.
Clark, and
Humphry,
Liveing, Maxwell,
Before the
Courts Trotter.
far
streets to
be
fairly free
from vibration.
W. M.
Fawcett, and
an estimate considerably in excess of the amount contemplated at first. They were able to state, however, that the
They
by Mr.
'
and
the University.'
The lowest tender,
that
of
Mr. John
Loveday of
was accepted by the
Senate on March 12, 1872, and the building was nearly
ready by the Michaelmas Term, 1873, during which term
the lecture-room and laboratory for students were first
Kibworth, amounted to
8450.
It
is
printed
'
GULIELMO
CAVENDISH,
Principi
Devoniae, C.P.T.A., Academiae Cantabrigiensis
Illustrissimo
Duci
Cancellario, S.D.
Procancellarius Senatusque Cantabrigiensis.
Quom iam
perfectum
sit
quod veram
nobis scientiarum speramus officinam, tibi, Princeps illustrissime, simul grates agimus, simul gratulamur, quod ea te penes
est laus, studia promovisse ad omnes Naturae leges indagandas
fore
utilissima.
Sentimus Academiae
munus acceptum
quae
sit
vis
Donum
electrica,
adhibitis rationibus
in
nos
contulisti
te
ipso
dignum
illustraret,
videant
hoc
respondentia,
si
est, te
MDCCCLXXIV.
terms
viri ornatissimi,
cum maxime
Universitatis interesse
si
quae alia IB
Neque
alio
modo philosophicam
Cavendish
magna ex
animo
accepi.
Domine Pro-Cancellarie, oflicinae clavem custodiendam committo, senatui aedificium do cuius inter parietes
operae studebitur, baud mediocriter, nisi fallor, antiquam UniverTibi iam,
sitatis nostrae
famam
provecturae.
to the
new
laboratory,
unlocked the door and handed the key of the building to the
Vice-Chancellor. An inspection of the building followed.
In his first report to the Museums and Lecture- Rooms
Syndicate, dated May I, 1874, Maxwell said that an experi-
October.
He
of
the
standard
British
Association
on Electrical
and
Maxwell gives a
Chancellor, and also
list
report,
of
by the
the
British
that
deposited
by
the Chancellor was then complete, and adds optimistically that the collection comprised the whole of the
gift of
'
'
on
has been
felt
at a disadvantage in
be constructed in London.
employed
in the laboratory,
The number
maximum
of about twenty
in
practical
classes
a sudden
to
I,
1894, that a
sum
of /io,ooo.
built at once,
and
more apparatus.
The
now used
for
medical
io
of Cambridge,
The
W. M.
Fawcett.
The
extension was
first
same report
Term
of 1896,
was announced,
another statement appeared, one that marked the inception
of a movement which soon made even the new accommodabut, in the
which that
fact
tion insufficient.
come
in
began
Cambridge as advanced students, in
accordance with a definite scheme, to undertake research
to
to
While the
undergraduate
J. J.
Thomson.
work continued
class
to
number undertaking original experimental investigations soon made the pressure for room and
The need of further extension was
apparatus acute.
extend, the growing
Professor
in
hand,
November
6,
1906.
and
estimates.
was
It
composed
of
the Vice-
W.
C. D.
W. M.
Mr.
the
report
appeared
on
21.
February
who had
room
Fawcett,
first floor.
By
this
and
8300, the
foot,
first
sum on
To meet
this outlay,
7000
of
fees,
for
maintenance would
Long Vacation.
The building was completed during the ensuing Easter
Term of 1908. Meanwhile, in succession to the eighth
12
Duke
of
Chancellor, and
the
Devonshire,
new wing
On
munificence.
June
his
by
own
went
Laboratory,
where
he
declared
in
the
state to the
new
Cavendish
extension
of
the
laboratory to be open.
To supplement
our
memory
files
of the
ceremony we must
where we find a
of the Times,
his
interest
in
the
Cavendish
to
accept the
He
first
Much
of his experimental
work
related to the
13
He
all
to
The new
buildings
came
of the Michaelmas
14
CHAPTER
II
work
had
in
many
institutions
but as laboratory
nowhere
instruction
in
mind.
knowledge or
all
the more,
when
'
such indeed
the
sound of which
recalls
illustration
JAMES CLERK-MAXWELL.
CAVENDISH PROFESSOR
From
3 photograph in the
of Sir
1871-1879.
15
fife,
'-
auvcd
its purpose.
may be
some kind
is
involved
of the phenomenon.
,
to find.
characteristic of
principally of
ing,
our laboratory
may
directed to
16
into
open
artificial
will
some
continue to be poured.
may
It
which
new
scientific ideas.
But the
The whole
address
is
full of interest,
but
must
refrain
more
directly to
University Laboratory
But what
refers
altogether
The
The
Physical Laboratory,
locality in
we
are told,
may
held.
perhaps
17
be useful to those who are going out In Natural Science, 1 and who
do not take in Mathematics, but to attempt to combine both kinds
of study during the time of residence at the University is more
than one mind can bear.
I
and
We
shall
to
phenomena, such as
the
heat,
electricity,
and
electrical
The
command, and
may imply a
both material
and
intellectual,
for
phenomena.
Taking
difficulties
that
i8
stood in his
from a
way
is
shown
letter
my
disposal
Many thanks for your good wishes with respect to the new
I always looked forward to it with much interest,
professorship.
tempered with some anxiety, when it was merely to be erected in
I now take your good wishes as personal to
anxiety has developed into responsibility. I hope
you will be in Cambridge occasionally, for it will need a good deal
of effort to make Exp. Physics bite into our University system,
the University.
myself, and
my
which
is
To wrench
we have
we succeed
soon as
forgotten
too well,
all
about the
scientific part of
it.
was
in, practical
who was
Among the
who passed
in
his
ig
This position
in
the
death.
The
in the
first
student
who worked
W. M.
Hicks, of
the
John's College, (now
University of Sheffield,) who left Cambridge on his appointment as Principal of Firth College, Sheffield, a position he
Professor of Physics at
St.
'
properly
'
of routine measurements.
Maxwell's teaching,
was
fired
As
with the
the large coil was much further away, I supposed that when
the current was suddenly started or suddenly stopped
the effect
As
the needle
who
20
used as medium.
had been
left
narrow
within
June 29,
Cavendish Laboratory,
newly discovered
effect of light
He
of selenium.
on the
electric conductivity
Transactions
particularly
those of transparent
of these measurements,
dielectrics.
was hoped
it
which
more
By means
form given to it by
Maxwell requires that the square of the refractive index
magnetic theory of
light,
in the
The above
account
Gordon's
of
established
description
gives
great
laboratory at
scientific
his
satisfactory.
home
energy.
in
He
had
Pixholme, near
began
it
21
generally completed.
electric
lighting enterprise,
and published a
treatise
on
electric
lighting.
The
for the
which
therefore take
may
place here.
its
in
It
was, so far as
remember, mainly
Balfour Stewart on the nature of
basis.
of
It
it
that the law implies that the ratio defining the resistance
unchanged.
The main
difficulty in testing
the law
lies in
any theoretical
On
reason
why
it
should
hold
is
there
accurately.
22
thus
the physical
in
Gottingen.
The galvanometer at my disposal for the purpose had a
heavy magnet in the form of a thick circular disc, the front
brought to the notice of the meeting of the British Associaand Professors Maxwell, Everett, and
to a confirmation of
commented
upon by
Maxwell,
experimental arrangement
who had
designed
the
to a
23
The
principles.
the appointment of the Committee was further investigated by Chrystal, and ascribed by him to the change in
the longitudinal magnetisation of the galvanometric needle,
caused by the electro-magnetic effect of the alternating
currents in the galvanometer coil, when the needle is
displaced from the central position.
Chrystal's explanation
appears convincing and could certainly be applied to the
effects observed
by him, which to
my mind
whether
it
is
appearances were
a remnant of doubt
all
still
According
was
test
actually applied by
deflexion
was caused
Unless there
still
me
an increased
original displacement
something
be investigated.
left to
of the
'
'
Electrical Resistance.
to serve as standards to
These
coils
originally
deposited at
Kew
Observatory
24
change
was important
frequent intervals.
to
in resistance of
any or
in
view
of them,
all
at
because
difficult
Lord Rayleigh's
units, a position
it
its
electrical
activity to
be
present home.
The experiments on Ohm's law gave rise to a correspondence between Clerk-Maxwell and myself, and, further
Electricity and
inspired by a study of his two volumes on
'
I felt
a wish to
is
and encouraging
disposition,
may be
that
hope
its
its
publication
interest
is
mainly
May
DEAR
3,
1876.
SIR,
quicker.
25
phenomena
ment of physics
of electric conduction,
will
electrical experiments.
till
I shall probably be in Scotland from early in June
October, but I shall be here all May, and Mr. Garnett is generally
here a good deal in summer.
German
The
self-induction.
little
alternate currents
are
thus
almost
But Chrystal's
conductor (of
small currents
result is as follows
German
If
the resistance of a
of
when
or, in
its
other words,
extremities
is
I volt.
I
air,
am
Yours very
J.
To
asked
I
discuss
me
my
truly,
CLERK-MAXWELL.
The names
state of flux.
(vol.
ii.
volt).'
p. 247)
26
Lord Rayleigh
light
Weber's
The
went so
far as to
deny
it
some unknown
characteristic
seconds
in
after
reversal
consequence of the
of
the
reversal,
few
when, therefore,
the cathode had been
current,
27
it
which appeared
in
Some
M. G. Salet
years later
witnessed the
of
several
me
of Paris wrote to
set
up the apparatus
used.
to say
As soon
effect,
again,
have since
am
at a loss
in
the
laboratory
Clayden and
Charles
at
T.
the
same time.
Arthur
noticed,
W.
while
working
given
induction
number
coil
of
additional
lines
not
noticed
in
the flame
An
early
attendant
at
Maxwell's
which a soap
film
named
the
lectures,
book on
Sedley
'
Sound,'
Kaleidophone, in
as elastic
membrane.
28
thickness of the
of
membrane
in
different
parts
of
it
The name
of J. A. Fleming,
now Fender
Professor of
to give
and
Cheltenham College
Beginning work in 1878,
settle
down
at
at
Cambridge.
and taking up Chrystal's work of comparing the British
Association units of resistance, he designed for this purpose
a special bridge, and determined the most probable value
of the
ohm
surface
in
biaxial
crystals.
It
is
was
still
considered
necessary to protect
the orthodox
brook
accurate, slight
an
effect of
it
being possibly due to
perhaps worthy of remark
deviations from
dispersion.
It
is
29
make up
volume
a proportion which is
paper by Maxwell himself, and shows that the Cavendish
Laboratory had already, early in
its career,
established
its
One
purpose of working
or one which had been
definite
own
all
cases by the
same person.
An
was passed:
That a comparative
series of experiments
be made to
test
The Chairman,
Professor
H.
J. S.
stricken
by
30
capabilities of the
men
it
deserves
to be recorded as a proof
of
search,
Among
the work
still
planned
in
who was
then making
lead discs
when
first
experiments
at
Owens
possible, a
change in weight
placed vertically and then horiif
plate.
attraction of
showed the
obtained the
Fellowship in
where
of the Literary
and
remember
Joule, at a
31
meeting
What
already
in
He
a question
it.
But
it.
my mind
whether on these
in his
tion,
but
it
was
and
ally
him
to begin a conversation
You asked me a
*
:
have been thinking about it.' Such an opening generled to an interesting and original treatment of the subject.
I
32
will
remember many
of his
A
a sting which he not often allowed himself to show.
question was asked of Maxwell whether a certain so-called
His answer was
It is true
physical law was true or not.
in
the
but
not
to
the then
five,'
days
alluding
'
in the three
which
'
elicited
During the
last
many
life
Maxwell took an
of the experiments of
publication,
in
discoveries,
by
that the
results.
method was
33
especially
In
connexion
with
the
publication
of
Cavendish's
by a
lid,
1/21600.
(now
Sir)
Principal of
Glasgow University.
34
remember my
The
must have
two terms before Maxwell's
been delivered
in
one of the
last
came
by Maxwell on the
The
1878.
'
'
Telephone
at the
Senate House
in
made
at
were
all
The
other.
The main
diffi-
according to Maxwell's account, consisted in preventing the demonstrator's voice reaching him through
the brick walls in a sufficiently subdued form to give the
culty,
chance to compete.
has already been mentioned that William Garnett
acted as demonstrator during the whole period of Maxwell's
electric current a
It
The demonstrator
superin-
who were
intending
to
undertake
research
work
after
having gained a preliminary experience in physical measurements. On the question of Laboratory teaching Garnett
writes
Magnetometer, as
it
35
the horizontal
making
their
own
of work.
after
It
suitable
started.
These
lectures soon
When
the largest Science classes in the University.
Rayleigh became Professor he thought they occupied too
of
much
and
so he
were no practical Physics lectures available for medical students.
1 introduced into the Laboratory workshop a few engineers'
and joiners' tools, and later on two instrument makers were
frequently employed. When Professor Willis died, and Professor
of the Laboratory
Department
My own
The Kew magnetometer is still one of the instruments which form part
of the training of all candidates for the second part of the Natural Sciences
1
Tripos.
36
tive
for
The Laboratory examination was introduced in a tentaway into the Natural Sciences Tripos in 1874, when
a wire.
were
W.
Adams examined.
G.
set in 1875,
In
the
when
following
Professor
year
the
of
questions,
attempted.
The
to
instruction in practical
the extent
it
is
left
a good
over-instruction which
at the present
time, but
is
current in
many
laboratories
who was
nervously apprehensive
coming examinations.
extract from a letter
The
following
received
from
instruction.
think
allowed
to
come
unchaperoned
into
mutual
37
could not see the enormity of the offence. Among the apparatus
remember using was a small spectroscope with which
that I can
I had
I measured the angles and refractive index of a prism.
a book of trigonometrical tables in my hands for the first time.
I
knew
all
that the extras of the Little-go required as to trigonowhy the sines and cosines
stopped at
must be
45.
in
The
the
first
and
Laboratory were
in
Cambridge graduates.
When
arrived
with
the
am
all
privately
of
38
By them
the
as
Some
commoner.
fellow
felt
term
first
William Garnett
of
difficulty,
believe,
was
gown without
bachelor's
strings.
Thus
became
the
first
of
the
Cavendish
am
afraid
my
description will
fail
to convey sufficiently to
how
and reached
his writings,
fertile
easily
ideas in
all
its full
in detail
some
method.
science,
He
and
'
school
considered
it
'
but
it
best both
advance of
39
'
'
else.'
It
ideas
put
its
40
CHAPTER
III
Lord
The
Rayleigh.
under which
it
was
'
held,
be continued.'
first
By
a Grace of
November
20, 1879,
him
The
ship required
The number
sixteen,
Tripos
1881:
of
Forsyth,
Heath, 2
Steinthal,
Dodds, 8
Pollock. 4
2
3
4
W.
N.
Shaw and
R. T. Glazebrook
of Mathematics.
Fellow of Corpus.
LORD RAYLEIGH.
AFTER THE PAIVITJEG OF SIR GEORGE RE1P.
toei
W knl |iiil
of tte
Fjifci
aat
Fiam rf tfce
R-S_ACOT*:
SOCT.
41
The
Term 1880
to the
is
that
The Professor of Experimental Physics wfll lecture on Galvanic Electricity and Electro-Magnetism. Dr. Schuster will give
a weekly course on Radiation. Mir, Glazebrook will give an elementary course f AWMMHJMIM^P on Wfl*-*'M<,y and Magnetism,
Mr. Shaw wfll give a course of demonstrations on me Principles
of Measurement and the Physical Properties of Bodies.
The Laboratory wfll be open dairy from 10 to 4 for more advanced practical work under the supervision of the Professor and
for those who have tia<l fh< necessary training.
of lpiH*nn*i i iftc wfll be given during the Lent Term
lectures,
J.
J.
C.
The
Professor's lectures
...
14
47
23
42
In the Lecture
list
for the
of
number
last
term
in
was
of courses
ten.
list
of
December
1879,
I.
In 1882
women were
first
time to the
all
classes
list
of
post was too short to permit of the growth of any large body
of research students.
marked
One
of
sum
the
much
expenditure in
this direction.
1500.
Of
this
Duke
himself gave
Rayleigh
members
of the University
43
Resident
help,
and
many.
in his
Maxwell,
in 1877,
had
this
to the
suited
very different
of
pounds
in
this
all
the
number
of students at
that
there
filled.
Lord
44
by means of experiments
Perry
Measurements
Physical
Physical
and
Kohlrausch's
'
Pickering's
in
of
1873,
were almost
in 1878,
Elements of
all
which a
that were
available.
edition,
in
published
Manipulation,'
work
first
method
of
'
it.
explaining the
he continues
method
in
to be used,
apparatus needed.
The method
which
book
is
By
45
The
plan
is
now
well known.
in
it.
am
from which
its
to
it
came.
the
student
is
The
limited
necessary;
which
the more
was taught
kind
interesting alternative
Practical
is
absolutely
method by
previously is impossible.
After a very brief introduction to the measurement of
the well-known large pattern of Thomson quadrant electrometer, the difficulties, at any rate for a beginner, were not
46
Our work
of the
as Demonstrators
tasks
first
post
retirement,
when
of his
and the
We
own
results
were admirable.
had but
little
experience at
first
to guide us,
and
Helmholtz
its
and without
insurmountable
but neither
it
and so a
and
'
'
47
to
introduce
students
means at our
the memoirs
Students were
disposal.
referred
to
and
in
their
in
the Lent
Term
of
on Advanced Electricity and Magnetism contained fourteen names, and among these I find the following
1881
my
class
J.
otherwise
we were
free to teach as
Each
a week,
the class.
On
48
we were
free
for
research
work,
might be.
The
conditions of
work were
delightful.
The
pleasure of
were to come,
all
the Laboratory.
During the same period the method of conducting the
practical examination in Physics which is now so familiar
was developed.
The
increase in the
number
of candidates rendered a
grew
required.
At
first
it
was desirable
at present necessary to
to attach
the knowledge
how
to
is
attack a
question,
fairly
are
now
need
is
so
much
better
not marked.
to examine a large
number
of
of
possible
was not
it
indeed,
it
system of
marking.
classes
filled
another somewhat
49
'
'
for their
own
research work
given,
small
number
of selected
men
it
was
advanced classes
in the
to
render these
comprehensible to those
who have no
The
realisation of the
as an end to the
advancement of knowledge
is
a marked
were common.
was
It
realised that
three independent quantities were involved in the specification of the various quantities dealt with by the science,
and mass.
motion, alone
velocity
is
it
was simplest
Where
or acceleration,
quantities, length
kinematics,
a knowledge
and time,
is
sufficient
of
:
if
the
first
two
considerations
50
when
unit velocity
it
its
is
unit of velocity.
Such a system
of dynamical units
called an absolute
is
By
system.
simplified
in
the equations.
'
'
it is
Again,
same proportion.
dimension
time
in
length.
increased,
is
decreased
dimension
The
moves more
describe
Thus
slowly.
is
it
velocity
is
of
is
be proportionately
the same
will
of time: thus
time.
increased
I in time.
for acceleration
time
the velocity
distance and
is
in space
I in
and
space and
i in
in time.
Force,
again,
involves
is
mass gives
it
the unit of
unit acceleration
it
51
is,
2 in time.
space and
So far we have not defined our fundamental units
may be any
we adhere
they
convenient length, time, and mass provided
to these throughout and we shall get a
:
absolute system.
It has,
however, generally
been agreed for physical purposes to take the centimetre
as the unit of length, the gramme as the unit of mass, and
consistent
unit
known
is
of time.
The
absolute
system
electrical
derived.
The name
agency to
'
it
electromotive force
is
due, and
'
Ohm
But so
resistance,
the fundamental
obtain
this
units
relation
of
dynamics
certain physical
on
the
other
to
sidered.
Various considerations
'
quantity of electricity,'
is
and
lead
it
is
to
the conception
of
traversing a wire
when
52
are
between them
into play
But how
one second.
may
that a force
be, is called
be proportional
to
two
found
electrified particles, is
and
them.
If
of repulsion
law
may
if
one
is
This
one of attraction.
thus be written
F=
where
it is
is
the force,
qq'lr*,
q, q'
between them.
We
quantity of electricity.
charges are equal, so that q
unit
= q'
between them
F=
I.
is
Then qq
the
unit
= I or,
q =T
z
of
let
it
them be placed
is
force,
= q',
q=
at unit
that
=I
and
since q
and
I.
This
is
known
based on
as the
'
electro-
The
it
will
53
in C.G.S. units,
when the bodies are in air and the bodies be then immersed
in some other insulating material, it will be found that the
attraction or repulsion, whichever
it
in
a ratio which
Force
is
in given insulating
Force
where
is
medium
in
medium
Therefore
= Forcevin
K
'
K'
Force
in air
&
Kr2
'
is
a constant for
where /*
'
ourselves
unity,
have
= Ff,
quantity
Jof electricity
54
The dimensions
of a
Hence we
have
But we have
i in time.
in
called electromagnetic,
'
system.
It
of length
I is
if
a current of strength
i is
made
is
F
From
wire
we might
this
is
Hence,
= millr*.
if
is
also unity,
i,
we have
= i, = I,
=
I
then
F ==
i.
i.
is
is
carried
But
necessarily the
same
is
not
and indeed
is
many
The
times greater.
55
between the units can, of course, be determined by experiment only, but by considering the dimensions of the two
units
we can
nature of the
result
which experiment
will
give.
For
we have
we
find
M = [Mr[LF[T]-i;
and since
Q = it,
we
where
t is
is
flowing,
we have
Thus we
time,
see that,
we change
of electrostatic
is
which measure
to the
velocities.
So
same
that,
if
in
one electro-
numbers
number is equal
of some system
ratio as the
that
velocity
such
units.
That
is
to say,
we can
represent the
56
number
of electrostatic units in
some importance
to find out
usually denoted by
'
what
vacuum
is
this velocity,
Experiments on
'.
'
'
is
which
this point
is
have
And now
realised in practice
be taken to
tell
how many
what
steps
must
is
carrying
to consider
system
quantities to be
measured
easily
units also.
We
it is
important
it
Thus,
if
is
circuit
and
is
Wt, and
the
experi-
ratio
W//Q
is
This constant
constant.
round the
57
circuit.
E = \\7/Q or EQ = W*.
Q = it hence Ei = W.
Thus
But
of current
is
W=
I,
so that one
I.
So
being done in unit of time, then E
that the unit electromotive force will cause unit current
unit of
work
is
traversing a circuit to
W and
We
known
are
we
obtain
force absolutely
The
this
is
we have
to measure
is
work and
that of
current.
resistance,
defined by means of
and
tells
us
is
a constant.
Thus,
if
denote resistance,
we have
E/i
those of
We
=R
or
unit resistance
E=
when
i"R.
unit
and
E.M.F. produces
R we find, putting
*,
(i.e.
defini-
tions
58
The
The
unit
of
a circuit.
The
in
of
unit
resistance
is
Further,
it
is
universally agreed
now
that the
units of
units.
It
made
in practice.
The
unit of current
great,
We
force.
to
in
ohms.
The
is
due to the
Professor
spirit in
the
its
from
work.
He had
realised
more
fully
59
much
than other men
inspirer of
his
measurement
is
standards.
Thus Lenz
in
as Jacobi's standard.
When telegraphs were
introduced the measurement of resistance became of comsince
The
inconveniences
over
it
was
realised
varied in resistance
of a
in section at the
The
British Association
decided in their
in length
temperature of melting
first
and
I sq.
mm.
ice.
Committee appointed
in
1861
60
(1)
lend
The magnitude
the
itself to
more usual
electrical
would
measurements without
The
relation
part
of
electrical
or,
in
other
a complete system
for
measurements.
electrical
(3)
should form
it
to units
of
The
unit of resistance, in
common
so far as
is
between
(4)
The
physical measurements.
all
unit
The
unit
in order that,
if
to obtain copies,
serious error.
system of units
in
of resistance satisfied
Committee was
measure
When
and
resistance
value determined
of
absolutely
was
in
existence
this
the task
was a compara-
Weber had
already
carried
through
this
task
and
resistance coils
stated in
his results,
and from
this
came the
61
at King's College
the
new
The Committee
name
adopted the
Ohm
as the
name
of their material
ohm would need alteration. Modern practice is somewhat different: the ohm is the name of IO9 C.G.S. units
and does not depend on the accuracy of any one or
more experiments. If an experiment has been wrongly
the
experiments
is
I B.A. unit
= I ohm = io
C.G.S. units.
io C.G.S. units.
was made to
diameter.
in the coil,
and
position a small
the
coil.
The
magnet
from
its
equilibrium
on the strength of
is
of the coil.
62
it
ultimately
Since
deflection,
and the
at
rate
able,
which the
coil
rotates, to
express the
resistance absolutely.
This rough theory requires, of course, numerous corrections before an exact value can be found
The
were published
it
may
results of the
serve to
Committee
in 1864.
The Committee
was done
This, however,
in
Chief
fundamental
bridge
Professorship
which existed
units
importance were
recognised, and
were too
it
was
clear
in the absolute
that
the uncertainties
great.
Laboratory.
Among
63
volume
in
the
units
4 per
cent.,
ohm was
uncer-
silver equivalent
by
us.
By means
equivalent of silver
is
now known
to
some few
parts in one
is
values,
and
it
was
was considerable,
his
inauguration he
commenced the
experiments.
coil
apparatus,
The method
magnet supported
modifying
it
to
secure higher
and to a
first
which
is
approximation the
to a
64
method
of
stroboscopic
re-
interest of the
work
the result
is
influenced by
of
its
true value.
B.A. unit
-9893
io 9 C.G.S. units,
-9911
io 9 C.G.S. units,
in a sufficiently satisfactory
accuracy
the frame in
coil
The
results
appeared
in
The
and the
B.A. unit
final
value
'98651
('
Collected Papers,'
is
io 9 C.G.S. units.
result
is
between
this
IS
CLASSICAL RESEARCHES
measurement of the
coil of
65
the original
apparatus.
Next year
'
'
Sidgwick.
Lorenz
in
its
concentric
By
coil.
disc,
and n
Lord
number
coil
and the
method, were
With regard
the
and mine
sum
result
i
coils
Lord Rayleigh
of the
calculation,
The
two
mean
their product.
B.A. unit
-98677
io 9 C.G.S.
B.A. unit
9
'98665 x io C.G.S.
66
Phil.
Mag. Vol.
The paper
'
of error in the
reliability of
the results.
of
mercury
at the
is
ohm
in C.G.S. units?
The paper on the specific resisCollected
tance of mercury (Phil. Trans. Vol. 174, 1882,
II.
answers
this
and
from
Vol.
p. 78)
question,
Papers,'
'
it
we
is
106*21
centimetres.
of
resistance of a
in area
since I B.A.U.
Hence
ohm
is
=
=
=
-95418 B.A.U.
'94149 ohm,
'9867
ohm.
also
in
coil
terms of mercury
Ohm
in terms of
67
a Column of Mercury.
and the
law ; it
volt.
knowledge of
The
The
is sufficient
it
and of the
ohm
it
and
it
was
this quantity
The
electro-dynamic attraction between the suscoils when carrying the same current can
68
is
measured
in
silver
it
we can
thus
coils.
If
Professor
it
can also be
deposits,
is
and
known
in
care
by
great
current of one
chosen
of
the
cell
was measured by
ampere.
'
The two fixed coils belonged to an electro-dynamometer constructed by the Electrical Standards Committee
of the British Association, and had a mean radius of about
25 cm. The suspended coil was a flat coil of mean radius
about 10 cm. and its weight was about 575 grammes.
The mean radius of this small coil was not found by
that
of
the
large
coils.
electrical
The paper
method
contains
an
describes the
form of Clark
cell
now uniformly
Number
of
grammes
69
a current of I ampere
'00111794.
E.M.F. of Clark cell at I5C.
i*4345 volts.
The
differs considerably
nearly the
same as
it
will
be observed,
is
correct.
which he
comparison,
result.
principal
electrical units
values
by other
cell
cell
are
also included.
was made.
When
corrected
70
EM.F.
2OC.
Electrical Units
1
bridge work, and these figures, with but slight alteration,
in
71
p.
360).
period,
and the
to be sought
of i ohm.
owe him
merony. and
this value
the
72
which has in recent years been reaped in Cambridge springs from seed sown by him.
Nor was the time barren in results attained by other
discoveries
workers
when
Ohm
was
Schuster's
name has
work.
The
W.
D. Niven also
assisted.
of the
a report
out, with
73
Thomson's
'
first
io 10 cm.
/ sec.
as the value of
'
io10 cm.
/ sec.
The
first
of these
the long series which the Cavendish Professor has published as the result of researches
earliest of
Glazebrook's paper
tion Unit of Resistance
'
British Associa-
'
Messrs.
given that
i
B.A.U.
"98665
io 9 C.G.S. units
while in a somewhat later paper (PhU. Trans. 1888) Glazebrook and Fitzpatrick obtained the result that
Resistance of 100 cm. mercury
During the
earlier part of
"95352 B.A.U.
of the B.A.
is
one by
74
J.
C. McConnel, of Clare,
on
'
The Form
of the
This incomplete
list
and
investigations published
activities
Davos,
members
of the staff
in
Laboratory and
helping the
was with
the
picture of the
its
75
CHAPTER
IV
professorship.
I find
on revising what
half-forgotten
incidents
and
recalled
so
many
pleasant
although I had come up to Cambridge in 1876 the preparation for the Mathematical Tripos had left me no leisure to
examination.
there was
under the
tary subjects were grouped into one part of the Tripos, and
candidates were allowed to select a small number of the
There
more advanced subjects for the other part.
naturally, when we look back on our early days, a kind
is
of
76
of our experiences,
an unbiased judgment
is
do not think
prejudice which
when
took
confess
my
am
probably I
I should have done
later.
if
have found
had taken
my
The weak
which compelled us
of merit,
it
its
successors.
If
we
in
Owens
77
we made, we set
as we pleased
in following
up
in
first
the
more
interesting
teacher,
research
and
I
imparting the same spirit to his pupils.
remember that one day, when I had only been a short time
succeeded
in the
in
said that he
any help
gave
me
work
esting,
did
was purely
arithmetical,
feeling that
which
is
found
Though
it
the
very inter-
of a laboratory experiment.
much
to whether there
is
were
78
I
it
Cambridge.
Manchester and came into residence in Cambridge
The
I
completed
1880
two short
were
my
January
in
were
which
on
Pure
Mathematics,
published
papers
Most of my time when
the Messenger of Mathematics.
in
1876.
before taking
and
in attending lectures.
The
Tripos
large-
note-taking
somewhat
difficult.
it
seemed hopelessly complicated and uncouth. Cayley, however, never seemed deterred, but went uninterruptedly on,
in a few lines he had changed the shapeless mass of
symbols into beautifully symmetrical expressions and the
problem was solved. As a lesson on teaching one not to be
and
it
was most
valuable.
collection of symbols to
lectures
and
clear
wonderfully
satisfied.
were
read
His
from
was
before he
79
they were
think
enjoyed Sir
much more
physical
by experiments which
have often envied since
illustrated
of a physical
is
one hour
but
at half-past
two
many years
One afternoon
met a batch
my
of
I asked them
what they had been doing, and they said they had just come
from Sir George Stokes's lecture, which had commenced at
twelve.
I
in,
benefit from,
made me
of the
Some
reverse of interesting;
I
at
He
hardly spoke a
;
when he had
80
filled it
until those
'
like
what
is
ordinarily understood
an admirably arranged
given to a
much
by coaching,
it
was
really
most
of the lectures
My
my
had
just
degree.
in
Lord Rayleigh
My
first
piece
'
currents
displacement
'
in
The
dielectrics.
results
turned
my attention
to
some
effects
and subsequently,
at
Lord Rayleigh's
suggestion, to the determination of the ratio of the electrostatic to the electromagnetic unit of electrical charge.
also
worked
at
as the application of
problems
subject of
in
physics
my
and
Applications of
Other subjects
at
Theory
first
lain), I
lectured at what
at
81
Applied
Mathematics.
electricity
The
George Gordon, who
was
professor.
was Mr.
remember
was
told
My want of
would otherwise have been by the kindness of Glazebrook and Shaw, who continued to take charge of the
classes in Practical Physics which had been organised
it
by them ; in conducting these classes they had the assistance of McConnel and Randell as Assistant Demonstrators.
It is
staff at this
only two of them, Shaw and Randell, had taken the Natural
Sciences Tripos in addition.
One
of
my
first
duties
was
to appoint an assistant to
82
laboratories
left
to be private
Lord Rayleigh.
Everyone acquainted with
knows how much the success of the laboratory
workman, a man
discipline
among
he has to maintain
he requires,
too,
workshop
at
of those
research.
Sinclair one
engaged
in
was fortunate
who combined
all
these
qualities,
and who
Laboratory up to his
when he left to take up electrical engineerFrom 1892 to 1899 we had the very efficient assistance of Mr. W. G. Pye, who left us in order to start in
us until 1892,
ing.
business as a scientific
instrument maker.
Our
present
my
me most
investigations.
Immediately after
my
some
skilful
my
experimenters
electricity
through
which
subject.
83
and that
it is
which impart
that a gas in
which
state
all
must be a perfect
in
short,
My
split
up
into
two atoms,
and
It
my
first
was not
1897 that
until
was
is
split up,
the one
J.
C.
Laboratory,
in
Switzerland, where he
There are
in
he, too,
made
valuable
died in 1887.
were presented by
Threlfall succeeded
and
He
optical apparatus
his death,
ice.
after
had a somewhat
he
84
in
Physics
the
University of
man
N.S.W.
Sydney,
It
is
of
characteristic
that,
money out
of the
Govern-
was fortunate
tutor of
his place as
Demonstrator
The
or three years of
my
Cassie, Wilberforce
1901,
when he
two
left
Observatory
first
Kew
to
Sciences
now Superintendent
of
revolutionised thermometry.
new
species of shorthand,
which to
easier to
ordinary
time,
then
first
Royal Holloway
now
who worked
to
work
at this
from foreign
at the Laboratory.
85
the
of
first
Professor
is
late Professor
we owe
Newton.
The
1887.
studentship
was
established
for
the
pro-
motion of research
in
and
justifies
them
in devoting
themselves to science.
Many
their services
The
first
was Professor
of Physics at the
W.
Cassie,
who
86
fixed in his
own mind
He
scholarship.
as
insisted
that,
was
far
his income.
J.
gift
in the studentship
have been
W.
Whetham,
E. Townsend, C. T. R. Wilson,
H. A. Wilson, O.
W.
C. D.
A scheme
that of
bringing into
and mathematics
if
that science
phenomena
in
if
the Laboratory.
first
importance
The
87
failed
Cambridge who had been brought up on Maxwell's Electricity and Magnetism,* the generality and, in essentials, the
'
conviction,
On
for the
but
most
part,
met with
when
on
well
I
electric
Many changes
all
staff of
the
J.
Laboratory a
five
Physics
in
88
many
he
left
the
years,
Cambridge
Meteorological
in
1900 to
Council.
until
become Superintendent
of
he
left
the
force
(now
by
and
his father.
The
vacancies caused by
promotion
Callendar were
the
In
who
in Practical Physics
intended to be candidates for the
M.B. examination.
the lectures to
Capstick, and,
When
at Trinity,
Wilberforce
left
then has had the entire control of this part of the work
of the Laboratory.
We
it
to find
room
for the
They were
at
first
89
given in the
At last
to look out for a new home for these classes.
we found one in a tin shed on the south-east corner of the
New Museum site which had been used as a temporary
dissecting room, and vacated when the Laboratory of
Our demonAnatomy and Physiology was completed.
strations remained in this building until 1896, when they
small
number
them
to attend,
of hours per
and
all
class,
a matter of
of medical students,
there
week when
it
is
are
only a
possible for
these times.
of University College,
the University of Liverpool. An additional
demonstratorship, the stipend of which was paid wholly
by Laboratory fees, was founded in 1891. S. Skinner, R. S.
Liverpool,
now
W. C. D. Whetham, and G. F. C.
became demonstrators about this time.
Searle is
a demonstrator, and has had for many years charge
Cole, C. E. Ashford,
Searle
still
of the very
those students
who
are taking
Part
I.
of
the
Natural
Sciences Tripos.
I
90
The main
object of this
scheme
week
is
the demon-
to leave
for
research,
so that a
young demonstrator may not be overwhelmed with teaching, but has opportunities for doing original work and
I still, after a long
acquiring distinction as a physicist.
experience, think the scheme a good one, though it is
work instead
of research.
physics.
at
Not
research
in
see
publication
when he
clear
which
require
further
explanation.
term time.
In 1895 a change was
made
91
exceptional
cases
students
who
are
not
in
graduates, can
qualified to
do research and
is
and
certificates of research
work
if
after
two
years" residence
if
on which
until
from
New
Zealand,
that time the Research student has been one of the most
characteristic features of the Laboratory, giving to
a cosmopolitan tone.
it
quite
many
of
them holders
of the
'
1851
Exhi-
bitions, graduates
92
'
their
Sabbatical year
'
in
research,
men
view of
many
to a better,
tion of
points of
view
and
temperament can,
become
In
points of
more
work done
intelligent
in other countries
on
scientific
it
is
generally mentioned
when we
meet
and make
it
seem
far
more
vivid than
when
United States,
at the
away.
at the
while
all.
93
regulations,
Laboratory
A great many
discharge of electricity through gases.
researches had already been made in the Laboratory on
this subject, and our studies had led us to see the fundamental importance of certain investigations which were
almost impracticable with the means then at our command
of producing electrical conductivity in gases.
rays gave us a
more amenable
means
The Rontgen
made many
investigations possible
difficult before.
many workers
in the Laboratory.
Rutherford, Townsend,
McClelland, Langevin, who had come to us from Paris, all
were hard at work. C. T. R. Wilson began those researches
much
of the conduction
now
when
in this state.
It
was
That
this
something
94
shown
by the
removed from
was arrived
clusion
when
at that
and
left
it
The
with conductivity.
and negative
If
the gas
particles reunite,
which they
and
in a
with
much
were known
ions in liquids
for a very
much
longer time.
Some
made
in
number
of these atoms.
however, to the
disexperiments
covery of particles of quite a different order of magnitude.
The cathode rays which proceed from the cathode when
an
and many
1897
led,
through a tube
in
which the
Two
widely different
them
some
physicists maintained
others
they were
that
material
95
waves
particles
in the ether,
charged with
electricity.
view.
substances.
particles, for
before
it
charged atoms.
when
My
first
reasonable
if
the particles
96
ratio of the
mass
and
mass
also
These
all
particle
mass
of
therefore,
was
be measured.
to devise
announcement
of
this result
was made
at a
Friday
To
many
nected with
research
the
physical phenomena.
more
matters con-
social
Laboratory, by 1898
students had increased so
the
much
number
of
that
they
determined to celebrate the event by a dinner, and the
first of what has proved to be an uninterrupted series of
such gatherings was held in December, at a restaurant in
Sidney Street.
were about
was a
that
it
was
at this
It
scientific gathering of research students.
dinner that Langevin sang the Marseillaise
'
'
07
is
'
Old Boys*
'
One
Robb,
is
readers
the
way
printed below.
For the
benefit of non-mathematical
it
Interfering ParroL"
(Geisha.)
away.
While the
curl of
(X
Y^
is
98
Some
But
this
little
plucky
feared that
its
in dread anticipation,
And
Then dy by dy
While the
The
less
curl of (X,Y,Z,)
And became a
But
as large.
cathode ray.
And dy by dy
While the
less
d@ by dz was
curl of (X,Y,Z,)
equal K.dX/dt.
of the vector
99
by the
Wood (Emmanuel
College),
and F. Horton
Union.
Emmanuel
and
College, which
research
students and
encouraging
College
in
now regularly
The encouragement
research, offer
students.
Cains
my tenure
Capstick
(Trinity),
(Trinity),
Student),
Moore
(Trinity),
Chree
Horton
(King's),
Crowther
(John's) (Research
Wood (Emmanuel)
for
(Research Student).
Bevan,
example,
Callendar,
Many
Campbell,
of these
Capstick,
Crowther, Fitzpatrick, Horton, Spens, Whetham, C. T. RWilson, Wood have taken part in the work of the
Laboratory as demonstrators or lecturers.
The number
ing
staff
is
required,
on physics
in
ioo
The two
Whetham,
Horton a
tutor and
revision
course.
W.
Fitz-
M.B.
C. D.
and A.
Wood each give every term courses of lectures for Candidates for the Natural Sciences Tripos.
on Experimental Physics
mathematics were given
lectures
in Electricity,
more
it
The
recent
changes
in
attended by large audiences and which were very successful; it is hoped that this course will form a permanent
part of the instruction given at the Laboratory.
Searle has
Long Vacation
for science
masters
in
who wish
matical masters
of
was
The
first
extension,
which
Laboratory, is
gave us a large
room
for
the
elementary
classes
in
new
lecture-room, cellars
101
for experi-
owe
to the munificence of
which
is
Lord Rayleigh.
This extension,
ample room
Before it was
for those working at research.
overcrowding had become very serious. \Ve have
generally more than thirty people working at research, and
built the
before the
got
relief I
think
it
had room to
turn,
and when
at last
we
to squeeze
for producing
owe to the
connected with the Laboratory.
I
Laboratory not merely the opportunities it has given me
in indulging my scientific tastes in a way that would have
one
been possible
in
rich in friends
and
102
CHAPTER V
(1885-1894)
J. J.
new
The Vice-Chancellor
(Dr.
H. Darwin,
Professor
G.
Liveing,
Professor
Professor
Kelvin).
James
The
W.
Stuart,
Statute B, 1882,
Ferrers),
Sir
D.
Sir
as
follows:
Professor
Clifton,
Niven,
William
Thomson
Stokes,
(Lord
The
first
June 1874.
them here
(1885-1894)
IDS
it is
not
without interest to look back to a time when an undergraduate could find himself dissuaded by his tutor, as
how an
to think of
of the pioneers
given a
new kind
of opportunity
it.
they were
saw experiments
by teachers like
Neville Hutchinson and James Wilson, and they had access
successfully performed
done nothing
else, his
name would
in 1869,
and the
Though (to
was only after my fourth
term in the Sixth Form that permission was given me to
drop some of the classical work in order to attend Neville
Hutchinson's lectures and laboratory-classes, two terms'
work in 1876 under his stimulating influence was enough to
established in success.
my lasting contentment, be
it
said)
it
104
when
in
Trotter
my
told
first
week
me
that
can
recall my dismay
October 1876 Coutts
Cavendish Laboratory was
I
still
at Trinity in
the
my
disappointment to report
this
one
to
who was
young students
my
part
don't see
how
to
'
For
study at Cambridge
they can ever hope to get old
in that line of
students, unless
ones.'
of
me
encouraged
much
to
come
the
to
me
to
work
with.
made
One
text-books.
own
day, however
discomfort as
found
me
my own
clear in
possibly as
he took
me
elementary
much
to
his
unawares, and
was
He seemed
'
Yes,
better.
its
vagaries, for
bring
it
for you.'
to
situation turned
his quiet
human
my awe
of his
helpfulness.
power
105
(1885-1894)
methods
fine
It
'
and
was through
of the balance-room
excessively delicate
it
of a telescope
But
found a
afflicted
'
'
'
'
on.
What
are you
my
doing,
'
Bishop.
(sniff)
it
little
man
'
asked the
wall,'
must leave
were
in Poynting's
game.
investigations.
The
floor
it
is
106
was used
at
submarine boat.
lectures
his
words
in defining terms,
in
and the
explaining
He
Garnett,
much
but
audience,
who
to
the
unrestrained
amusement
in a chair
of
recall to this
mind
of a
'
'
like
the quality or peculiarity in -virtue of which
thus he would define electromotive force as the quality of a
battery or generator, in virtue of which it tends to do work
words
by the transfer of
in
defining a
so
many dynes
electricity
So
a region possessing or
possessed of a peculiarity he cautioned us against thinking
that a field of the strength of so many C.G.S. units meant
isolated
unit
magnetic
the
field
field
magnetic
as
'
is
there,'
pole be set
whether or not an
in
it
to
experience
(1885-1894)
the
force
of
so
many dynes;
107
the
came
dynes
in
by
phenomena
of
student was
of dynes into the measure of gravity did not leave the door
of
similar
outstanding
differences
in
Nowhere
clearness of statement
in
thought and
relations
between
electrical
(1863) of
British
Association on
It
would be
kind of
difficult to
spirit,
find so
marked an example
left as
of the
a heritage
The
recall
electric telegraph
are
lines,
io8
We
may be
called
on
avoided
if
make a proper
to
use of existing
data.
quantity
is
In
common
Then
in
published.
was ever
telling expression of
faith
his
drawn aside
into a digression
on the importance of a
strictly
for
an undergraduate,
who
tried to gain a
The wisdom
became sadly
two
clear, in
and
the interest was deep enough to give rise to the wish that
triposes
were
at the
all
(1885-1894)
log
the mere
in hastening
first
in physics
course,
during that term; for I recall the deep impression produced by the hopeless news of Maxwell's illness, and the
wide-spread mourning for his death, which occurred on
November
5.
and soon were put on to the lines that have persisted to this
The immediate increase in the number of students
day.
in the
demand
inconvenience; for
it
would
to purloin
it
an instrument for
was always
at
critical
'
'
private
moment
in the
So-and-So*s
divert the private research to a time that did not clash with
When
number
of
increased
engaged
students
to
attending
were very
the
striking.
in original research.
The
had
demonstrations
students
The
organisation
elementary and
in
both in the
which
is
teaching which
in
Lord
which
visible in the
the
striking.
Symptoms
had
of
the
lines
place
were
assist
development
taken
of
MS.
III
(1885-1894)
'
Shaw's book on
Practical Physics,'
in
of con-
laboratory
can derive benefit, not only from his own experiment, but also
from comparison or contrast with the results obtained by his
fellow-students
all,
sense of co-operation
is
in
really a verification of a
believe the
first
just indicated
broad
scientific principle.
on matters that
strictly
speaking
volume.
But as
as demonstrator,
matter here.
by Shaw
The attempts
shortly after
made
when he was
held office
refer to the
we made
the
first trials
method
tried.
We
Shaw on
intensity
of magnetisation of iron
of magnetisation.
worked
in pairs
(in
the
or 2
field.
if
was
made
when Shaw's
lysis,
Similarly
then in
the
practical
experiments
some students
worked with a gas voltameter, others with copper voltaEach pair of stumeters, others with silver voltameters.
dents obtained their
own
special results
these
introduced
moreover,
work
in a
class
conducted on
lines.
And,
showing
the students that the apparatus provided has to be chosen
with some forethought, For he may assign to one pair of
H3
(1885-1894)
students apparatus which he knows
is
Thus
another.
in
in the case of
student
is
vessels of
class
in
exercising
judgment
special students)
in
may show
(i)
is
too small
(2)
how
the cathode
is
deposited is
and dried for the purposes of weighing. Such experiments
would occupy a single student for too long a time ; but
when a student, after working with inappropriate apparatus,
It
may be doubted
elementary.
is
But
combined work
of
differentiation in the
aims of
men
in
the
experiment.
It
that the
more
room
for the
summarising of the
by the different students in repeating a given experibut though to my knowledge this was recognised
results got
ment
who seemed
upon him that seemed to have prior claims upon his time
and energy. In one or two instances the summarising was
take the case of the standards of electromotive
done.
force.
Each student
may
electricity
recorded
its
cell,
tested
provided
was recorded.
Such
cells
number
of 30, systematically
'
it,
and
Some
was allowed
The Clark
Cell as a standard of
in reality joining a
gaged
in
H5
(1885-1894)
or Glazebrook or Shaw.
that the advance
The
own
inspiration or to get
it
slightest sense of
left free
from one of
to search for
his leaders,
and
Help was
began to seem
recently
communicated to a
assistant)
mental work
blower.
the
picture
of
Sinclair
standing on
one
leg,
propped
light
some
ring.
and that's
r,' and with waggish solemnity,
the vector potential.'
After Sinclair came A. D. Bartlett, who was an expert
phasis of the
in
'
He
W.
Pye,
who had
received
Darwin's workshop
ment Company.
marked by the
at
the
His tenure of
excellent
Mr. Horace
his training in
Cambridge
Instru-
Scientific
office
as
attendant
organisation
of
the
was
workshop
Thomson's
lectures.
remembering that
in
in
new
of his hearers
many
that
made
his
lectures
valuable
supremely
to
recollection of
the lectures to
memories of the
irresponsibility
that
appeared
in
the Cambridge
Review addressed
to
It is
first
and
ii7
(1885-1894)
For when in the coarse of some investigation a new function turns up which would keep some of your
colleagues at Trinity contented and happy for months, you merely
'
with a grave scornfulness select such of its properties as you
require and march straight on to the goal you have in view. And
this accounts for what sometimes befalls yon in lecture-room,
For, though knowing well what is the result you wish to obtain,
you have occasionally fniJ?ii the envelope back containing the
details of the investigation and are compelled to plunge at short
notice into a sea of symbols. Yet when, since even Professors
make slips sometimes, it becomes evident that the desired result
is not coming and yon find it necessary to apply an empirical
correction to the work on the blackboard, the cool confidence
'
with which you say Let 's put in a plus and the smile of cheery
with
conviction
which you turn to your audience put to shame the
incredulity of the most sceptical among them.
mathematician second.
'
'
am
Professor's lectures,
it
will
appeal
had the
experience of lecturing.
The
results can
The
seems to
me
Second
'
see
Law of Thermodynamics.
instead of the
word
'
show
'
to be
the
societies
and to
as follows
scientific periodicals
may
be summarised
many
papers
The
the
distribution
may
physics
amongst
the
various
...
Heat
and Magnetism
Conductivity of gases
Non-experimental
Meteorology
Reports and Summaries
.,
7
10
Miscellaneous
13 per cent.
9
9
20
2O
10
2
Optics
It is
of
Electricity
branches
at the time,
and
way
it is
especially difficult to
do
so,
The danger
in
such a task
is
that there
is
a strong
(1885-1894)
temptation to
make the
iig
economy
be considered as there
The only way that seems likely to meet the present case
to appeal to the memory of my readers. As when, in
recalling to a friend the beauties of a mountain walk taken
is
many
dissolving mists.
woods.
In some such way as this, I would endeavour to conjure
of the outlook that was before the eyes of
up something
those
who were
rank and
in the
file
at the beginning of
Thomson's professorship.
The earlier chapters in this
volume bring before us the nature of the activity within the
Here I would jot down a few of the more
community.
recent advances achieved outside ; then, after a brief reference
to what
moment on
'
'
120
in
Laboratory
summary
my
relates.
recent
Among
may
serve to
1873.
full
possession
1876.
1877.
Pictet, at
1875 -9'
1874.
electrical convection.
Geneva, and
Cailletet, at Paris,
had succeeded
Wet
1882.
1881.
1881.
The Hall
1882.
Elster and
1880.
by
the
It
was
in
tions
effect
was discovered.
metals.
1883.
1880.
readers
were many a
fine peak.
If I
name
I2I
(1885-1894)
will
and published it in
same year Ewing's researches on the magnetisation
of iron began to appear
Quartz fibres were not spun from Boys's bow till
Van't Hoff was applying the principles of thermodynamics
1885
In the
1887
1887
to
in
...
Ewing
1887
at high
.
1889
till
1890
1887
1888
1887
appear
1890-2
till
itself,
1890
fertile
122
made
it
difficult
Had
among those
of
would have been increased by 141. During his professorship he contributed 75 memoirs and notes to scientific
periodicals.
more
Probably no
could
report
be
imagined
as
his
own work,
a report that
would be
search out the green passes rather than attempt high peaks.
I make bold to write such a suggestion here, for I feel that
I
whom
work
of
came
R. T. Glazebrook's Report on Optical Theories (B. A. Report 1885),
Thomson's Report on Electrical Theories (B. A. Report 1885),
J. J.
(1885-1894)
123
by Thomson.
Soon also there was to appear the report on Electrolysis
that W. N. Shaw was working at with the co-operation of
T. C. Fitzpatrick and others (B. A. Report 1890'.
H.
standards
Laboratory.
For such
investigators as
and memoirs on
'
Applications of
Thomson's
lectures
to
Physics
Dynamics
and Chemistry.'
Thomson
says
between them.
limited
number
The
dynamical principles.
The
124
relation
servation of
Joule's
between the
'
his
treatise
are
Theory
'
The Dynamical
dielectrics,
electrical actions
of dynamics.
J. J.
illustration,
i2 5
(1885-1894)
is
fix
the geometri-
When we
apply dynamics
to physics, the configurations have to be described, not only
geometrically, but also with respect to such things as distri-
We
have, in fact, to
any type.
J. J.
Thomson
may
be of
following configurations
(i)
geometrical,
electrical, (4)
(2)
strain,
(3)
He shows how
Thus,
way.
if
and
and q is a co-ordinate of
can
be written in the form
any type, Lagrange's equations
potential energies of the system
rf_rfL_rfL
dq
dq
= Q
dt
where
is
written for
Function and
is
T V
and
is
Routh's
cases
kinetic
modified
function,
L'=T V
twice
the
serve to define
completely
the
motion
'
of
In
fact,
if
of co-ordiof physical
126
cases.
method
is
It
must be remembered
For confidence
it
under others.
in the results
We
are
able to
rotate
beam
his
of light
method
that,
Thomson
though a
is
used.
When
The
which
'
motion.'
127
(1885-1894)
made
after
irrelevant.
them according
will divide
to subjects.
optics,
McCon-
quartz was a
natural sequel to Glazebrook's earlier work on Iceland spar,
in which experiment was needed to decide between conflicting
nel's
theories.
in
by an
integral
number
of
wave
lengths, so the
measurements
known
retardations.
especially in a crystal of
The
relative retardation
weak double
refracting
power
and
it
is
wave
surface
may be
nearly represented by a
128
the extremity of its axis, and the sphere slightly bulged, so that
the two no longer touch. The distance between the two at the
In
all
are assumed
extremity of the axis. At intermediate points their correspondence with the true surface lies open to the test of
new arrangement
for
measuring
the rings led him to extend his observations over the whole
surface, and thus he determined the gradually increasing
distance between the two sheets from the axis to the
equator.
from
4 to
39,
being the angle between the
ordinary wave normal and the axis; and with plates cut
parallel to the axis he dealt with the separations from
</>
<
= 53
to
<
<
= 90
<
(equator).
results
of
his
observations
We may
'
Report on Optical
Theories' (1885) to see that in Sarrau's theory the ether
(1868).
is
utilise
supposed to vary
Glazebrook's
in density in a periodic
manner from
(1885-1894)
McConnel
left
Cambridge
in
129
1890
In Perntner's 'Meteorological
Optics'
(Part
we
find
references
to
Again
in
Perntner's book
(Part
III.
1906)
we
find
by
diffraction
rings,
The
when
130
The
theory,
least
concerned.
of
strict
These expressions
ally.
for
are
S
!
sin (V
~
+ va
,{
)
and
for light polarised perpendicularly to that plane,
At
expressions
an
;
tan (" 4~ v
coincide
;
)
with
**
Young's expression
from
falls
(Q
(jj>
!)/(/*
slowly from
_j_ (f)
_ 7T/2
+ i)
(/*
to unity
!)/(/<
(or sin ff
+ i),
= cos
0,
or tan 6
/*)
it
vanishes,
grazing incidence.
then
incidence tan
relation tan 6
=p
amount
I3i
(1885-1894)
The
to
be a
reflected
reflexion
is
beam
reflected
is
elliptically polarised,
theory
resides
in
deciding
which the
varies with
how
is
to
The
treat
difficulty
the
in
interface,
transition
the time.
The
subject
is
amount
the
of
elliptical
light
polarisation,
his
natural
132
and
in
But Lummer's
to a film of impurity.
in
not
closed,
for
show
results, published
the subject is still
that
phase
is
altered
by
pressure.
Electro-optics.
Electricity
it
Thomson
well's laboratory.
Phil.
On
was natural
J.
J.
is
in a rotating
to
make
method
whether a displacement
is
increased by
the
associated
medium.
Fizeau
(1885-1894)
luminiferous
133
moving water
is
is
Roiti
had
six
failed in
failed to find
any
silver nitrate.
Wilberforce
when
dis-
current
0*26
sq.
ampere/
of
i'5
amperes
(current
density
cm.)
electro-
medium
is
changed,
is
is
K. But in
which he applied to
high frequency
relation p? oc
is
used
not
is
fulfilled,
134
to
show that
effects are of
is
indicated by
specimens
made
Carbon
(Turpentine,
same specimens
bisulphide,
of
the liquids
Glycerine,
Benzoline,
become Professor
and died in 1908.
In 1883
and?
Cassie
left
Cambridge
in
1893 to
Holloway College
a determination of
'
r,'
the
electricity to the
electromagnetic
The value then obtained (2-963 X io 10)
electrostatic unit.
ratio
of
the
unit
of
in 1890.
was
of
rectified,
vibrating
'
'
(1885-1894)
135
made
in
an experimental investigation of the question of the continuity of displacement currents in dielectrics, was started by
rrofcasoc Thomson with myself. But Hertz's work in 1887
rendered the research unnecessary though it was carried far
enough to show its extreme difficulty. In the preliminary
time.
Thus a magnetic
larger than
any recorded
induction of 28,000
at that
was obtained
short note was, however, published giving results of experiments on the magnetisation of iron rods, especially on the
effect of
on the
tine of
Dynamics.'
field.
and lengthens
Now
when magnetised
in
weak
fields
Villari's nlMMii
linn
and
also Sir
W.
Thomson's,
136
iron
in a
is
magnetic
in the magnetisation.
The maximum magnetisation synchronises with the loaded or unloaded state according as the
field is
magnetic
field
W. Thomson
Here then
is
Thomson's dynamical
Has
If not,
we
matter
is
cobalt a Villarian
critical field?
who
'
Thomson's theory.
Thomson's work on vortex
gained the
Adams
theory
him
(his
essay
had
to see an expla-
filled
Thomson's theory, and it passes into the form of an anchorring, which is stable.
Sundry effects of viscosity were also
studied, as also the effects of surface tension between the
The
two other
137
(1885-1894)
the coefficient of
viscosity
its
new
correction,
resulting in
Whetham
(1890)
slipping at the
was led
boundary
was
set oscillating
about a diameter.
Piotrowski pointed
sphere filled with
If
the coefficient
of slipping deduced by
indicate
and diameter.
Whetham's
gilt
was no evidence of
by
liquids.
Some
which
the
viscosity of
recent experiments,
whilst
theoretically
viscosity
results differed
by
138
A was
recorded.
1220*8.
If
this
is
menters.
Stokes
Vol.
V.
by recent experi-
181),
in
discussing
Tomlinson's
in
(Papers,
that
this
results,
error
would not
be
sensible
in
Maxwell's
apparatus.
The
gases was that of Capstick on the specific heats of compound gases which was carried out during this period (1894).
as a
change
in the velocity
The energy
energy of translation
If
is
of the
rotational,
represented by
whole energy
ft
translational,
and
If
represents the
number
it
7=1
and
if
is
of degrees of
may
freedom other
be shown that
2
"+3
is
translational.
(1885-1894)
Corresponding values of
=
=
7
ft
1.33
1.40
1.5
1.60
1.66
2.0
1.66
1.33
I.H
i.oo
0.66
1.2
3210
n
It
1. 1
1.0
oo
7, ft
139
for
many
be
Bryan showed
2.
would
(n
air,
= 2).
Naumann
number
in
fail
of atoms.
Chem.,' Vol.
in
J.
'
I, p. 89,
States of Aggregation
proportional to the
number
Capstick's experiments
and
')
suggests that
symmetry n + 3 may be
of atoms in a molecule.
aimed
at
finding
interesting subject
something
by studying
vapours.
dealt with
he
and that
same as
is
derivatives.
carbon
itself
methane
in
rated
He
paraffin causes
first
a large
fall
in the value of
7 whether the
140
and
for
is
I '40
is
1-40
i'3
thus
hydrogen molecule
is
gone.
group of derivatives
CH
CH
4
3
C1
CHjjCla
CHC1 3
CCU
tt+3
Methane
1-313
6-4
Methyl Chloride
1-279
7' 2
Methylene Chloride
Chloroform
1*219
9-0
1-154
I3'0
Carbon Tetrachloride
1-130
15-4
dently of the nature of the atoms. He suggests that nonintegral values of n may be connected with dissociation.
My own
was begun
of iron
phenomena
researches
Hopkinson's
my memory
Lord
came to
lating effects of
He
seldom
without
Cambridge
one of these
where
visits
to give
that he
intervened,
The mention
it
in all
new
of
the stimu-
Laboratory.
the
visiting
It
was
in
magnetic susceptibility
(1885-1894)
at the recalescence point,
phenomenon
such as
is
and
i4i
When
such a sheet
is
held stationary in the hot part of a blowpipe flame, incandescence in the sheet spreads out gradually from the centre
of heating,
shows
itself
in
to
is
which he adjusted
his eyeglass
I recall
The phenomeway in
the eager
'
Do
that again
ex-
'
!
so
the
required to
care a column of
its
vapour
and
142
seemed
made measures
of either the
And having
U tube
attach his
room between
When
it
is
stated that
it
alcohol,
it
will
in
way
first
glass
or both simultaneously,
him
to corroborate observations.
that
the
apparatus.
and
suddenness
There was
liberation of air at
strain, there
of
release
may
break
the
whole
some place
in
He aimed
at
Solutions of electrolytic
143
(1885-1894)
of
with
and
J. J.
Thomson's
cent.).
(3
Non-electrolytic solutions
This
diminution.
is in
agreement
freezing points.
chief
to attack
it
when
it
is
The
suggestions of Professor
to
make
standards which
refined observations
which resulted
in the establishment of
platinum thermometry.
at work in the passage room on the ground floor of the
Laboratory. There was a beauty of finish and simplicity
work he had shown that a platinum resistance thermometer sufficiently protected from strain and contamination
was practically free from changes of zero over a range of o to
year's
144
1200
C.,
and
satisfied the
same
the
indication
application that
was
at fault.
make the
standards unnecessary.
Even
not an essential, provided the specimen
For Callendar
is protected from strain and contamination.
found that different specimens of platinum wires wound
issue
tested
of
is
Callendar, there-
temperature
R
o
and
100
C.
respectively.
He
then
showed by
direct
oo
with a probable error of
C.
less
than i
ioo
C. over a range o
to 650
In 1890
between his
Griffiths
own
found
results
disconcerting
discrepancies
and Callendar's.
But he and
(1885-1894)
that Griffiths
Harmony
point of sulphur.
measurement of temperature
footing,
145
whether
it
is
now on an
entirely different
in
doubt whether
rt
report
in
1899, there
my mind
is
his
cursive shorthand.'
*
says
It is characteristic of
written.*
depends.
The only
'
'
Heat
'
Conduction of Heat
come under
the heading
in
this country
made with
undue importance.
poured
146
way
and the
in
1886-7.
Electricity
and Magnetism.
In electricity and magwork that was carried on in constandards and has been dealt with in
parison.
of
a force.
Wilberforce adopted
Monckman
number
when acted
electrified sphere placed above them, and compared the results with Mayer's experiment with floating
magnets. Searle (1892) devised his ingenious compound
on by an
The study
of
by Bouty.
electrolysis
attracted
a great
deal
of
(1885-1894)
attention.
147
actively at work.
whole subject, and there were many points requiring elucidation. Thus Fitzpatrick (1886) was studying the application of
alternating currents to the determination of the conductivity
work
of Kohlrausch
liquid
showed that though the salt could absorb dry HC1 gas and
thereby attain very slight conducting power and exhibit
polarisation effects, chloroform could be mixed with it
without producing any conducting power. When the tin
chloride absorbs H^, a yellow liquid is produced without
The
situation
liquid.
that
Shaw's
in
'
time,
148
in
is
necessary to the
solutions
for in
to a limiting value
which
is
partner in combination.
and in
prepared with extremely high insulating power
very dilute solutions, the addition of a small quantity of salt
;
thus water
increase
more
if
frequent,
to dissociation.
Ohm's Law
is
if
Ohm's Law
polarisation
constant,
is
in electrolytes,
eliminated, the
like
of
those of polarisation.
partners
must go on
(1885-1894)
E.M.F. does
directions,
is
149
at the electrodes
it
of electrolysis.
in
made
electrolysis,
joined by a tube
coloured
salts.
of the
conductivity, so that
way
When
the tube the velocity of the bichromate ion (the acid part of
The
salt, to which the colour is due) is deduced.
the
Whetham's
results
150
work done
in these
pages to a great
Amongst
many mathematical
the
J. J.
labile ether,
Chree's work on
the theory of
stream
and refraction of
I
lines,
elasticity, Michell's
Schott's
work on
work on
reflexion
light.
W.
memoir
Society.
in the
The second
'
S. Cole
all
the
was leading an attack on the processes involved in the conduction of electricity through gases.
Maxwell had written
in his treatise in
1872
when they
The
attack seemed in
difficult
and
less
Yet the
hopeful than the study of electrolysis in liquids.
properties of gases and the gaseous laws are simpler than
for those of solids or liquids.
The
(1885-1894)
i5i
what goes on
in
a gas.
Crookes's work on the trajectories of molecules in high
vacua was published in 1879, and Goldstein's researches on
'that remarkable motion which radiates from the kathode
in rarefied gases
'
had appeared
in
In the same
Philosophical Magazine
1881
in
there
Thomson's
journal
appeared J. J.
paper on
the electric and magnetic effects produced by the motion of
in that year.
in the
electrified bodies
in
it
in Crookes's
and
feature in the
work
of a magnet.
way
He
of testing theory
two moving
He showed
and he explained
;
the green phosphorescence seen in highly exhausted vacuum
tubes, referring it to the sudden stoppage of the kathode
particles.
is
152
when
In 1885,
to
the
Professor,
he was engaged
in
search
for
signs
(1886)
discharge.
Two
passed.
Laboratory.
nitrogen peroxide.
mixed
The
gases.
charge in a uniform
trace the state of the
field
field
The approach
discharge.
seemed
to
lie
In 1886-87
tricity
the position to be
to
Thomson and
oil,
stormed
dielectrics.
benzene, paraffin
oil,
for small
electromotive forces
that no
sible
has to
split
up the molecules
in the
former
it
is
simply a matter of rearrangement of some molecular condition which is not produced by the field.
153
(1885-1894)
accompanying the
is
rise in
temperature.
If
the temperature
may
Thomson
which produce
a
between io-5
conduction
time
must
electrolytic
occupy
infers that the molecular processes
few
coils
true
electromagnetic
154
of
through
electricity
gas
accompanied
brilliant
by
luminosity.
connexion of
the
influence
of
came Chree's experiments (1891) on liquid elecThis work showed, though the phenomena of the
electrodes
trodes.
it
Thomson found
difficult to get
the
first
dis-
Lecture in 1890.
it)
in his
second Bakerian
of extra-
ordinary interest, laid aside the study of electrodeless discharges; the method presented difficulties in the way of
quantitative measurement, the discharges being
and having very high frequency of alternation.
The
oscillatory
electrodes used as
quite clear
when
But
it
in his lectures
on discharge
produce dissociation.
Recent
'
155
(1885-1894)
by
At any
collisions.
rate,
The matter
Thomson
interpreted this
as
[is
scale
more
inference
would be provided
built
mm.
up of short
if
Thomson's
of
structure
these purposes
was
(Grothuss).
rate
of
propagation of the
electrode and
more than
travels
is
half
Gases
'
(1903).
am
Conduction of Electricity
in
156
more
electrification is
point
in
Thomson
1899.)
producing condensation
(C. T. R.
jet
effective
Wilson reverted to
out
points
when
that
on Electricity and
'
which
offer
many
which
Thomson made
a determination
io 10 cm/sec).
The
kathode,
if
it
e/ra=io
of
the
= io
magnetic
cms. and
:
field
is
required
produce
2
found to be 200, if v
estimate
curvature
io 7
The
(1885-1894)
final
cine
157
in
1893
now by
another.
summarise
to
in
in this branch,
it
may
be recalled
to electric
Schuster's
first
lecture in
by
phenomena
at
electrodes
how
And now
that
of
we know the
that we read
158
jet of particles in
known
agreement with
in 1893 measured
in
It
was not
till
1897 that
Thomson
But
this later
development must be
left
to the writer of
159
CHAPTER
VI
(1895-1898)
THE
is
one of the
number of new
discoveries of the
first
between
electricity
greatly in-
new and
fertile territory,
when new
after
initial analysis
160
'
Townsend, E. Rutherford,
W.
Murray, P. Langevin,
J.
H. Wade,
S. J.
McClelland,
Craig-Henderson,
J.
J.
Smith,
Erskine
Henry,
J.
G.
W.
Walker,
J.
G. Leathern, R. G. K. Lempfert,
less
than
half
may be
it
knowledge
of some of the important problems which were then on the
We
beautiful
attention.
Maxwell referred to
passage in his
'
Electricity
of
and Magnetism
'
(First Edition,
p. 58).
These, and
many
other
At
was
i6i
(1895-1898)
electrified surface.
either
in
electric field or
by other
agencies.
He
showed that the whole gas in a vessel was made conducting by passing an electric discharge through one part of
it.
For example, if the discharge tube was divided into two
compartments, the passage of a discharge in one compartment
produced a discharge of an electroscope in the other, provided always there was a free gaseous connexion between
which was
experiments by
It
was
later independently
J. J.
Thomson
positive,
observed in different
(1895).
In the electric
field,
the
positi%'e
Bakeriaa Lecture:
'
Gases.' Roy. Soc.. vol. xxxriL. p. 317 (1884); Proc. Roy. Sac., vol.
p. 372 (1887) ; Bftkerian Lecture, Proc. Roy. Soc. (1890).
xlii.,
(1895-1898)
't. ,__ _i ^t,,7p^j
f- .
an CBanimuu. sunace.
mere comact _
wim
_ii_..i.
,.
either
in
electric field or
by other
showed that the whole gas in a vessel was made conducting by passing an electric discharge throogh one part of
it.
For example, if the discharge tribe was divided into two
produced a discharge of an electroscope in the other, pron*"ii bclmxa
vided always there was a free gaseous
the two. This mHirafpH that the charged carriers or ions
which was
later independently
experiments by J. J.
Thomson
positive,
observed in diffaoil
(1855).
was
dissociated molecules.
In the electric
field,
the positive
162
steam.
from Faraday's laws of electrolysis of solutions. For sparklengths below a certain value the conditions were reversed,
the hydrogen appearing at the positive electrode and the
oxygen at the negative while for intermediate spark-lengths
;
He
at low pressure
In this case the spectroscope was used to determine
number
gases were
noted.
was
for
some
time.
difficult to
show whether
or secondary effect.
No
direct
electricity
evidence of
through gases,
this electrolysis
it
was a primary
through gases.
interesting point which was carefully
the view be taken that the hydrogen molecule
If
is
dissociated
the positive.
It
was
of interest to
oppositely charged atoms differed sufficiently to give different spectra. The only difference observed in the spectra
163
(1895-1898)
at the
of the
relative
to interpret
discharge.
of conduction in gases
of agencies that
it
of electricity
We
was atomic
in structure
was
atom of
electricity.
The charge
carried
by
it.
This point of view gave a simple and rational
explanation of the facts of electrolysis. Taking the charge
carried by the hydrogen atom as the fundamental unit of
multiple of
electricity,
example, in electrolysis
164
From
it
the ratio
electro-magnetic units.
Schuster
in
if
it
was
possible to deter-
and
When
magnetic
of
orbit of radius p,
the value of
In
this
is
equation
another equation
quantities
strength
which
can
both
relation
and u are
be
by the
obtained
unknown, but
between
particle
H/>=
moves
these
two
freely under
tube.
|
If
From
equations, both
1890.
The
value of -
deduced from the above conceptions was in the neighbourhood of io7 or about a thousand times greater than the value
,
of
m
1
for the
hydrogen atom.
Schuster, Proc. Roy. Soc., 37. P- 3*7 (1884); 47, p. 526 (1890),
165
(1895-1898)
it
air
of
of
we now know
that the
still
further increase of
in passing
tried,
'
by Lenard.*
By using a
Hertz.
p.
;
special discharge
(1892)-
52, p. 23 (1894)-
166
tube, he
thin opening
tube.
He made
showed that their power of penedepended only upon the mass of matter
present,
of
its
chemical
composition.
These
results
importance.
At that time the idea of a type of radiation capable of
penetrating matter opaque to ordinary light was quite new
to science, while the remarkable law of absorption of the
radiation by matter at once attracted attention.
short
between the cathode rays and the .t-rays. In a focus tube, the
cathode rays struck the anti-cathode and were accompanied
made a
conductor of
electricity,
volume
of the gas.
a close study of
i6 7
(1895-1898)
sequently
it
Conrays,
charged particles.
it
electric as well as
by a magnetic
field.
charge.
two
parallel plates
of potential
by means
at
a constant difference
of a battery.
much
less
and the
At low pressure
field more
electric
The
results obtained
1
by Hertz
in
the experiments
p.
1130 (1895).
previously
i68
The
referred to.
in
electric
field
now became
form an idea
of great interest to
of the
magnitude
to
its
magnetic
tube.
Thomson was
deduced
tn
the gas in the discharge tube was so low that the cathode
particle must make very few collisions with the gas molecules
1
Thomson
not
altogether
to devise
from
free
objections,
measured
An account
in 1897.
so
he
proceeded
in
in the
narrow pencil of
known magnetic
where u
is
field.
its
This
169
(1895-1898)
particle,
allowed to
municated to
it
number of
particles
them
ne
into
present in
carried
the
discharge.
Finally,
From
these
could be at once
tn
deduced.
containing
pressures.
of
Within the
m was the
same
io7
by
field
e
*!L!L,
c
the value
gives
field gives
the value
io6
first
under different
a somewhat lower
experiment.
Taking
agreement
170
atom
is
io 4
about
for
in
the hydrogen
of
the
the hydrogen atom, but concluded that the evidence indicated strongly that the mass of the cathode particle was
and had a mass much smaller than the chemical atom, and
that the cathode particles were of the same mass whatever
the gas through which the discharge passed or the nature of
the electrodes.
It is of interest to give at this point
clusions reached by
Thomson
at this
some
of the con-
time (1897)
of
hydrogen atoms
if
we
in this precise
substitute
for
stellar spectra.
If, in the very intense field in the neighbourhood of the cathode,
the molecules of the gas are dissociated and are split up, not into the
ordinary chemical atoms, but into these primordial atoms, which
we
and
if
(1895-1898)
charged
iTi
witlt elM-lucaty
electric field,
its
of
- which
is
independent of
And again:
Thus
in this
state,
y much
state in
..
/lifljfcrtfi-til
state in
cj\jinpj'-p
such as hydrogen, oxygen, &c. is of one and the same kind ; this
irattw fr**1Bc H*^ substance from which all the
are built up.
of the particle.
No
projection,
'
mass of the
magnetic in
detail is
first
corpuscle
origin,
definite
it
rays
contains the
consist
of a
It
does not
172
fall
subsequent
investigations,
the same
corpuscles of
which he
in
small
showed
mass could be
that
liberated
The importance
rays was
made determinations
We
refer
may
Wiechert,
particles,
The
in
of the value of
to the
fine experiments of
the
directly
velocity of the cathode
particular
who measured
direct
electro-
J.
McClelland (1897),
Ireland
1896 to work
in the
Wied Ann.,
Measurements were
(1895-1898)
173
pressures at least
of the
In addition to
in their greater
power of
or electric
field.
It
was
He showed
from a medium
as occur in
filled
show
There was no
definite
evidence, however, to
174
An
electrified particle in
netic
When
field.
motion
the
surrounded by a mag-
is
particle
is
stopped suddenly
it
must give rise to an electromagnetic impulse which is propagated outwards as a spherical wave with the velocity of
light.
If
number
of
On
of the #-rays,
this
and the
He showed
ticle in rapid
in
motion gives
rise to a thin
electromagnetic pulse
Under ordinary
wave
conditions,
front
when
which
tion of
is
plane and
is
motion of the
propagated only
to account in a general
The absence
was
The
particle.
way
in
shown
waves
if
'
pulse.
'
'
soft
Hard
'
or penetrating
i75
(1895-1898)
sets the
their
movement
fall
upon matter.
always set up
is
in motion,
and
were included
ionised gases.
It is difficult
and
scientific
*-rays by
mind
alike
Rontgen
in
perty
of
electrometer, he
was able
at
body.
had very
different properties
from
ultra-
electrified
176
the
method
of
measuring the
effects
of
the rays.
Thomson was
initial
In
assisted
experiments (1896),
by
McClelland. It was found that a gas acted on by the
radiation became a temporary conductor of electricity,
and behaved
a weak electrolyte.
It
was
now known
that
many
liquid dielectrics
become
slightly
The
is
effect of conditions
voltage.
weak
electrolyte
was
verified in another
way by
J.
true
contact difference
Term
of 1896
Thomson
(1895-1898)
177
was joined by Rutherford, who had just completed his experiments upon the magnetic detector of electrical waves.
A systematic attack was made to discover the nature of the
process taking place in the gas which caused it to act as a
conductor of electricity under the influence of the rays.
There were several suggestive observations that threw a
good deal of
light
on the
cut
off.
This
effect
subject.
more
was
which the rays passed through the walls and made the gas
conducting. It was found that the gas retained its discharging property after being carried several feet from the
point of action of the rays. If, however, the conducting
gas passed through a strong electric
field, its
power of
dis-
it
through water.
was thus
by an
electric field or
substances.
The view
was
some type of
removed
either destroyed or
by passing
it
'
ionised
the gas,
i.
e.
The
was to be ascribed
facts.
to the
by a strong
electric field
was due
to the rapid
not obey
field is applied,
178
the ions are swept so quickly to the electrodes that very few
have time to come together and recombine. Under these
conditions the current through the gas
maximum, and
is
The
applied.
current
existence of this
maximum
a characteristic property of
is
is
all
or
'
saturation
'
through
electricity
gases,
Philosophical Magazine in
basis of all
found to account
gases
in
made conducting by
assumption was
made
as
to
the
nature
of
the
No
ions
themselves.
There
still
was
based.
It
by Rutherford
relative
(1897),
number
of
number
present.
who determined
experimentally the
ions present
in
were cut
off.
the gas
The
at
different
rate of
recom-
(1895-1898)
1/9
charge.
inter-
moves
in
a retarding medium,
when
centimetre.
it
carried
than one-thirtieth of
ion carried the
^^ffljfjflly^ifrj
fhiy
this.
On
ordinary conditions
molecule of the gas in which it was produced. This suggested |Pat the charged ion Jmmf^diat^y after its fo" itatinm
in the gas.
i8o
There
is
now
is
it
to
make
far
more
collisions
much
greater mass.
J. J.
results
which indicated that the negative ion was more mobile than
In the initial experiments with *-rays no
the positive.
certain difference
in
the properties of
the two ions apart from the sign of their charge. Zeleny
(1898), however, showed that there was a distinct difference
first
When
the air was blown past the negative plate, far more
was observed in the issuing gas than
positive electrification
negative electrification
when
This indicated that the negative ion moved faster than the
This conclusion was confirmed by a number of
positive.
experiments. A method was devised for measuring separately
In
the velocity of the positive and of the negative ion.
In later experiments
in
it
cent,
was shown
i8i
(1895-1898)
difference between the velocities of the
two
ions
is
found
in
dry gases.
The
when
acts
field
in
and continued
his experiments.
number
of simple experiments
were devised to
illustrate this
effect.
The
ionisation
rays pass.
group and
It
in
methyl iodide.
is
amount
of ionisation
it
produced.
radiation
The
results
and the
indicated
same amount
produce a pair of
ions,
NO
ponent gases.
It
i82
Such a relation
approximately for a number of gases.
indicated that ionisation consisted in a process taking place
in the
in
atom
itself,
and not
in
Discharge of
way
#-rays, attention
As soon
produced
in a
in a
gas by
by Elster and
Lenard and others
detail
of
charged carriers.
Rutherford made a number of experiments to determine
He found that the velocity
the velocity of these carriers.
of the carrier
produced
in
It
was thus
clear that
From
others,
free
it
now known
that
is
sets
If
the
183
(1895-1898)
itself to a molecule or group of moleand becomes the negative ion. At very low pressures
the corpuscle remains free, and is identical in mass with the
corpuscle attaches
cules,
wide range.
Uranium
radiation,
from uranium,
tion
of
discharging
like
electrified
by uranium
He showed
rays.
that
the radiation ionised the gas throughout its volume, and that
the ions were identical in character with the ions produced
The
effect of various
uranium and
its
distinct types of
rays.
rays,
and
The
Rutherford had
left
compounds was
noted.
number of experiments to
test
whether
this conductivity
184
itself,
experiments
'
saturation
The
'
conductivity
off
from
distance
and negative
As
carriers.
in
the
had a
The
positive.
of
velocity
not
due to *-rays.
The experiments
of
the ion
of
fell.
ionisa-
The
application of the
same
principles to
was
made
this
phenomena
later
now under
consideration.
It is an
Properties of electrified gases.
interesting
coincidence that, while the experiments were in progress
in 1896 to explain the conductivity of gases exposed to
#-rays, another distinct but allied field of investigation was
opened up by Townsend.
to
Ireland,
'
first
and the
advanced
i8s
(1895-1898)
to enter the Laboratory and the
first
to receive
by
electrical
effects.
It
of
mast
These
electrified gases
i86
electrified
The
latter give
up
their
ments to investigate
this point,
by aspirating
It
seemed
ing problem
The
much
number
number
is
of ions present
simplified
is
field.
For example, the negative ion, which
than the positive ion in an electric field, also
As a consequence of this there is always an
diffuses faster.
in
an electric
moves
faster
This explains
i7
(1895-1898)
why the
a plug of
GOttQBMMOOl-
In this paper
carried the
iinM*j>tiga fTn
g flu* tHBpff^cs of
ionised cases.
is
air causes
liifi
a lowering of
mat***""-
denses upon
its
The
excess of water vapour then conthe dust nuclei, always present in ordinary air,
muA fyiyc a dense fog composed of minute drops of jatefIf the dust nuclei are initially removed from the air by
filtering or by successive condensations, a small expansion of
the air no longer produces a cloud. The behaviour of dustfree air saturated with water vapour and allowed to expand
suddenly had been previously investigated by a number of
v. Helmhoitz, but no
cinemas, notably by Aitken and
certain evidence had been obtained that condensation could
occur in the gas even when the expansion was sufficiently
great to produce a considerable supersaturation. C. T. R.
Wilson found that a gas could be completely deprived of
nuclei
i88
of
volume of the
initial
air
was
i'252,
when
a small
number
of
of I '375
number
of fine
drops appeared.
The
slowly.
It
was
clear
of
Nuclei of the
air.
first
in
number
about an eightfold supersaturation. The amount of expansion required for condensation on these nuclei was sharply
defined.
communicated
in 1895.
The final paper
Transactions of the Royal Society in
in
the
1897.
ordinary
air,
was reached.
At
this
stage,
instead of the
189
(1895-1898)
uranium had an
that the
the two kinds of ions, positive and negative, which had been
shown to exist in ionised gases. But the description of the
in
if it
had an
additional electrical
mass
The mathematical
moving charges
work on the
The
became manifest
in
theory of
Passage of
electricity
In
igo
and
cathode
of
fall
potential
in
that the
liquids,
number
fall
determined the
of
gases
(1898).
gases,
Henry
on the
(1898)
examined the
electric discharge
effect of a
magnetic
field
through
cm. of mercury. The discharge under these
conditions is tubular in shape, and is deflected by a magnetic
of about I
same way
as
was
carefully examined.
of
same
as in
thick layers.
Magnetism.
I9i
(1895-1898)
movable
cofl.
By
this
coil
is
This
of the hysteresis loss in the specimen.
measurement
is
of
method
very advantageous in
simple
researches upon the effect of conditions on the hysteresis
MB mi
loss in iron.
On
made an
it
was
greater
if
the
first oscillation
of the discharge
is
in the
This property
was used as a
Cavendish Laboratory.
By
by a
192
These experiments
mile.
were made before Marconi began his well-known investigations on signalling by electric waves. This effect of electric
oscillations of altering the
'
magnetism of iron
is
the basis of
'
detectors
receivers in radiotelegraphy.
General Physics.
Henry
W.
C.
Craig
Henderson
and
Thomson,
J.
tested
in motion by
According to theory, when a wave
passes through the ether a mechanical force acts on the
If the waves
ether in the direction of motion of the wave.
electrical oscillations.
are
zero
value,
is
if
An interferometer method
in motion by this force.
was adopted, so that a change of velocity of a beam of light
could be detected by the shift of interference fringes. The
spark of a Leyden jar was used as a source of light, while
set
oscillations
damped
No
round a
appreciable shift of
moved
if
the
of papers
on the
Waves were
set
up
in a
general.
(1898)
While
which
in
formula given
(1895-1898)
193
Wade devised a sensitive differential method for determining the boiling-points of liquids (1897) . In the ordinary direct
method it is difficult to obtain the boiling-point accurately,
since the correction
considerable.
By Wade's method
measured by a
differential
is
often
platinum
is
accurately
thermometer,
and
this difference
is
of solutions of different
concentration
and
the
results
systematic examination of the depression of the freezingpoint and of the conductivity of solutions of water in formic
These
results
by the formic
was not
acid.
i 94
plate,
(189?)
195
CHAPTER
VII
(1899-1902)
THE
first
direct determination of
the ions in
conducting
new
completed
gases,
by Thomson
chapter.
and
sense accidental.
in gases
by Rontgen
their charge
For
it
is
rays, but
much
might be regarded as
possible
to obtain
in a
particles,
possessing the
but carrying no
conclusively
property
particles.
is
charge
of
electricity.
It
was indeed
proved
not in
Townsend
made
a study of
when ozone
is
196
possibility of
visible
by condensing
all
that
was claimed
them
for
is
contained in a
The
Philo-
to the presence of
free ions.
It
is
natural to identify with these the nuclei made manifest in the gas
under the same conditions by the condensation phenomena
The remarkable
effects
which an
atoms or ions
on a steam
When
jet.
rainlike condensation
for their
in different gases,
and
197
(1899-1902)
made
It
was indeed
in
which
the rays.
A
if this critical expansion was exceeded.
number of x-ray bulbs having been made in the laboratory
by Everett, Professor Thomson's assistant, for other investigations, the experiment was very easily tried, and the x-rays
were found to produce large numbers of nuclei identical,
drops produced
The
But the
tl
direct proof
whose existence
in 1899.
ns read
ig8
Two
dust-free
parallel plates
these
air;
When the
this had previously been freed from dust.
were disconnected from the battery expansion produced a
dense cloud when, however, the plates were connected with the
battery only a very light cloud was produced by the expansion,
and this cloud was almost as dense when the Rontgen rays did
plates;
plates
when they
did.
light, gives
does not,
such
nuclei while a
positively
charged plate
on moist
practically
air
an
to
It
compare
under
identical
electric
field
were
field
fields
(1899-1902)
produced no
visible
199
The most conclusive form of the experiwhich the rays were cut off before the
With jr-rays an expansion made
expansion took place.
three seconds after the rays were cut off gave a fog in the
in
when the
no drops at ail
amounted to 240
volts,
stopped.
the
kind
for
which Rutherford
field
used in about 1/130 of a second after the rays were cut off
the nuclei agree in their behaviour with such ions. When
:
electric field
move
if
these nuclei
field
they
by
g-rays.
The
properties
ions
light
saturation lequiied to
large
expansions;
Uncharged
nuclei,
200
which might,
like
nuclei, easily be
found by Russell to
affect a
Thomson's apparatus
in
photographic plate
the dark.
this
was
deter-
making use
the
is
nueX, where
of ions per
is
c.c.,
the
mean
mean
velocity of
the total
number
velocity of the
positive
is
and of the
total quantity of
of the cloud, as in
condensed water
Townsend's experiments.
in
each
c.c.
The method
used for determining the size of the drops was also that
in
a viscous fluid
201
(1899-1902)
The
6.5
io-10
electrostatic unit.
In
all
the measurements
made were of
most
Now when
efficient nuclei.
made, the number of drops produced infirst, and a stage is soon reached (if
comparatively little change in the appearance of the resulting shower or cloud until we get the dense cloudlike
condensation which
ions.
in the
is
number
limits.
Thomson,
in his
way
paper on the
202
source of the normal positive electrification of the atmosphere, an excess of negative electricity being carried down
by precipitation.
of
1898,
made some
in
preliminary attempts
the
summer
to study the
condensation
tion
question
made
investigation
it
possible
for
Wilson
to
continue
the
after
light
found that while the negative ion requires a fourfold supersaturation of water vapour to make it grow into a visible
drop, something like a sixfold supersaturation
the positive ion.
is
required by
those of
is
Laby
(1908)
exceptional in
its
In
all
is
the one on
the Lenard
effect.
Thomson
same
A more
(1899-1902)
203
quantities
expansion
apparatus.
In
the
determination
earlier
in
much
been captured.
was
free
from
all
and
it
obtained with it that the negative ions only had been caught in
the earlier experiments, although the expansion should, if
rapid enough, have been sufficient to cause water to condense
also.
it
By measuring
the rate of
fall
directly determined.
is
that carried
There
is
now
little
doubt
204
in
many
one
The extremely
carried
electrolytic
Townsend
conduction
in
He
communicated to the Royal Society in April 1899.
Townsend
at this time
Clerk- Maxwell Student.
was
is
same
gases,
we
could deduce
and
and with
number
is
Townsend
with one atom of hydrogen in electrolysis.
found Ne equal to NE, indicating the equality of e and E,
the charges carried by the gaseous ions and by the hydrogen
atom
Townsend extended
his diffusion
investigations to the
205
(1899-1902)
more
rapidly
in
Townsend's
original
of unit electric
moist
method
air.
of determining
\e
The
consisted
Ne found
in
the
investiga-
for different
The method
is
by the positive and negative ions respecand Townsend has found that the positive ion may
charges carried
tively,
(1901), who
field.
in
the
206
in his
measurements
The
velocity of
the electric
being parallel
to
field
the
was
field
gas
diminishes
moisture
considerably
the
velocity
the
of
Zeleny
points
out,
more
in
all
probability
related
to
its
efficiently
method
siderably
a mixture of the
with
the single
respectively,
being
produced.
It
extremely
restrictions.
useful
contribution to the
formed
which
method,
The method
is
is
free
from
such
subject of
ionisation
in
gases which
Doctor of Science
in
(1899-1902)
ionises.'
The
'
207
Recherches sur
les
gaz
in 1902.
electrical conductivity
was
visibly
while
red,
the
negative
only
appeared
at
as
positive
by McClelland
peculiarities
in
were produced.
The results obtained
on
several
light
already known
threw
the
electrical
properties of incandescent
metals.
At
pressure of the atmosphere surrounding the hot wire.
moderate pressures the phenomena were such as could be
explained by taking into account the ionisation by collisions,
which Townsend had shown to be so important in the case
of ionisation
by *-rays
at similar
pressures.
There was,
however, evidence
in the
till
November
208
the
Professorship
College, Dublin.
'
investigation
Professor
'
saturation
Princeton
his
first
at the
appointment
Measuring the
current at low pressures, Richardson found
at
University.
in
number
agreement
The
in 1900.
flames,
produced only in
the immediate neighbourhood of the glowing electrodes. It
was not till 1905, when he studied the distribution of the
a
field in a flame through which a current was passing
quartz tube burner specially constructed for the purpose
making it possible to perform the experiments under very
that the matter was cleared up.
It
definite conditions
conductivity
is
He now
found the
209
(1899-1902)
true explanation of the
earlier
many
experimental results
which
his
where
is
it
large.
'
charge for the negative ions set free at low pressures from
metal plates exposed to ultra-violet light, as well as for the
negative ions from a glowing carbon filament, is the same as
the corresponding ratio for the cathode rays a ratio which
does not much exceed one-thousandth part of that of the
it
in
He
method
of
making the
ions visible
showed
to be too high.
Thomson's experiments proved
the charge carried by the ions from a negatively
charged zinc plate exposed to ultra-violet light differs little
that
it.
A more
in solutions,
and
identity
to
pressure,
we
210
when the
solutions, that
electrification
is
pressure
is
We
it
to a gradually increasing
found, as others
had done,
electric
force,
he
'
in-
the
is
In a paper on
of Electricity
Magazine
for
'
The Genesis
by comparison.
of the Ions in the Discharge
in
the Philosophical
also attributed
2ii
(1899-1902)
to the same cause
electric force
and
He
Townsend published a
of Physics at Oxford.
Wykeham
Professorship
He was able to
a value extremely
Townsend con-
Laboratory in
a very important
series
the
of
Cavendish
investigations
to cause i^M^^t*1*1
by
**?fl*pffit
fairly
When
the
can
be
consistent values
When
&*-
In
the
ami
212
of this
the
distance
the
electrodes,
is
between the
found
for
the
of the
Strutt's experiments
was
the electrodes.
The
object of
of
what
called
is
fall
affected
to
impurity
in
impossible.
fall in
the
cathode
Warburg's determinations
fall
of
potential.
Strutt
minimum
number
of investigations dealing
discharge in gases at
this chapter.
had found
that,
when
of that of Birkeland,
who
213
(1899-1902)
a rarefied gas.
What
is
known
the pro-
and
in the case of
it
was to be expected
in gases.
It
was known
is
increased.
is
by the glow
is
till
the cathode
He
is entirely
covered.
metres a second.
Several investigations on cathode rays were completed
that a
'
field,
2i 4
spectrum of Birkeland. When the cathode rays are produced by a battery of storage cells he found that all the
'
He
cathode rays are equally deviated by a magnetic field.
concluded that when a magnetic spectrum is produced, the
conditions are such that it is due to a variation in the
velocities of the cathode rays produced at different instants
on account of the varying electric force, and that there is
no need to assume any variation in the masses or charges
(in
its
ratio of the
mass
is
charge carried
independent of the
McLennan,
at that
University of Toronto,
is composed.
time Demonstrator of Physics
now
in
the
extremely
difficult
to
compare the
ionisations
makes
in
it
gases
equal
the
intensities
of
On
a second
visit
to Cambridge, in
1901,
McLennan
215
(1899-1902)
upon
certain salts.
Dmack
traversing
known
thickness
of air
at
definite
a pressure of I mm. of
Lenard
each
ray corpuscle produced about 0-4
mercury
cm.
traversed. Townsend had found
ions
for
each
of
pairs
pressure.
He
found that in
air at
moving
ions,
which are
effective in ionisation
by
collisions
for the
much more
rapidly
moving
/9-ray corpuscles.
At
the
ft
Strutt
field
ft
rays
in the
in
216
even
when
precautions
are
taken to avoid
all
and that
all
the
Wilson
concluded
from
his
measurements
chamber
that
in
about
each
cc.
To test
value of the charge of the ion were employed.)
whether the ionisation might be due to a very penetrating
radiation traversing our atmosphere, Wilson in the following
vacation compared the ionisations in a closed vessel when
carried into a railway tunnel with that in the same vessel
of
'
'
partially
'
Patterson
work of
Strutt,
ionisation
is
McLennan and
vessel, partly to a
of the vessel.
The subject of the
ordinary materials belongs rather to the
period reviewed in the next chapter it has been studied
traverses the
walls
radio-activity of
217
(1899-1902)
The
of
penetrating radiation
radium and
sphere.
Two
its
products
examples
is
in
illustrating the
wide distribution of
Some remarkable
effects obtained
when
air
was bubbled
was
emanation
in
the atmosphere.
This suggested to C. T. R.
Wilson (IQO2, 1903) that freshly fallen rain and snow might
be radio-active, and this was found to be the case.
J. J.
Thomson
any ionisation
light.
Experiments on secondary x-rays were made by Townsend in 1899. He showed that two kinds of secondary rays
are emitted by solid bodies on
by Perrin is to be attributed. Similar experiments had already been made in the Cavendish Laboratory
by Langevin, but they were not published till 1902.
discovered
Barkla had already begun his important work on secondary *-rays before leaving the Cavendish Laboratory in 1902
to become
Oliver Lodge Fellow in Liverpool.
He had
'
'
218
wires,
velocity
con-
electrical
undertaken by
variation of
metallic films.
March 1901)
that
when the
is
resistance
films
was reduced
to about 7
X IO' 7 cm.
was decreased.
The
investigations
we have thus
far considered
may
Some
(1900)
219
(1899-1902)
dilute solutions
to avoid
as far as possible
all
of
risk
made
of platinum.
Searle and Bedford (1901 introduced a
new method
of
measuring magnetic hysteresis. A single hysteresis measurement by the ordinary method of plotting a complete B
by
made by
and
this
it
lends
itself
hysteresis,
it
The
effect of
in 1900.
Richard-
+900
C.
There
remain
to
of
reflection, refraction
and
diffraction.
He
also
220
dispersion.
The important
H. A. Wilson
application by
and of various
solid
air
bubbles
methods of measuring
speare (1899)
elastic constants.
Shak-
of temperature
effects
221
CHAPTER
VIII
(1903-1909)
THE
biography.
in the
it
may be hoped
that to those
whose view
is
these grounds
we
general summary, and for proceeding directly to the narration of individual events.
Of
our notice.
222
founded by Nobel for annual award to those who, irrespecshould have performed the most notable
tive of nationality,
achievements
in the
In the two
1908 Professor Rutherford received a prize.
first mentioned the prize was for physics, and the joy
cases
with
which
the
our satisfaction at the award was enhanced by the unexpected recognition by the students of that science of the
great services
to
them by researches
In April
became vacant by the death of the eighth Duke of DevonIn no branch of pure learning has Cambridge
shire.
reason to fear comparison with any other institution, but
is
It
perhaps her most incontestable claim to supremacy.
was fitting, therefore, that the son of the munificent founder
of the
in
the
distin-
guished professors.
and one of
his
buildings (see
first
In 1908 Professor
Thomson was
August 1909.
Shortly afterwards
was announced that he was about to receive the honour
meeting in Winnipeg
it
Advancement
of knighthood.
The
in
223
(1903-1909)
had received
achievements which
in
recognition
every
country and those of many a provincial mayor.
list of new Fellows of the Royal Society is rarely
civilised
work on the
same honour
fell
radio-activity, the
ionisation of gases.
In 1904 the
who had
in
(now Professor)
tion
whose
Strutt,
of radio-active elements
in
the
soil
seem
likely to
and
electromagnetic theory
on
other subjects;
and
ionisation
in
flames
and many
in
work on -rays.
Rumford Medal.
his
O.
London, and later a professorship at Montreal.
Richardson was elected to a professorship at Princeton,
New
Jersey
Principal of
the
W. Walker
were appointed to
the
first
two at Simla, the
important meteorological posts,
last at the newly established Eskdalemuir Observatory.
224
in
the
may
rival or
became professor
in the University of
Cambridge.
Notwithstanding the departures caused by the filling of
these and other appointments, the Cavendish Laboratory
gained almost as
much
as
it
lost
We
Smoluchowski
of
Lemberg
arrived in
Cambridge between
impressions
one
who
is
made by
of the
visit to
rather than
of
some
225
(1903-1909)
account of
that I
am
my
like indis-
criminate eulogy.
With
struck
me was
Two
illustrations of
what
mean
will suffice.
One
is
the
St. John's
4oAr survival
'
226
worked
later
of sloth
example
hurriedly.
for the
Laboratory
itself,
it
difficult to describe
is
the
J. J.'
and yet
seemed
man
in
which there
be so
to
with ideas.
research students
the
the
jump
it
into a fellow-student,
criticism.
The
ideas
from which
The
possible.
of
it
suggestion
accuracy
investigations
that
'
sloth and
Prof. Bumstead has, perhaps, exaggerated slightly our
indolence
2
It should be pointed out that no consistent attempt is made to follow
researches performed outside the Cavendish Laboratory, even though they
1
'
(1903-1909)
227
in the period
we most
cerned,
notice
particles
Incidentally
and are
not,
ended
in its
values
3.1
io- w by Wilson.
certain
It
may
be noted that
it
The
and
seems
made during
and 4.7
10-"*.
The
period,
The incfastoa of
the writing of the complete history of physks
for reasons of space.
and is impossible
228
it
different experimental
way
The most
hopeful
by
until the
By the combination of ingenious mathematical investigation with skilful experiment, he has succeeded in showing
that the ions really consist of only a single charged molecule, and that their apparently greater size is due to the
one that
may
affect
most
startling nature
and
of ionisation.
Among
the other
characteristic
Phillips'
of
measurement
temperatures
researches
preceding
(1906)
of
periods
ionic
may
be
velocities
and Erikson's
mentioned
at
measurement
different
of
the
(1903-1909)
coefficient of
229
by Laby
(1908).
We
as based
upon ideas
period.
The
'
'
'
experiment
qualities attributed to
it
to attempt, that
is,
these
bodies
of the molecule, a
endeavour,
it
the work which had been done and the information which
'
Not only
as a
summary
of a large
investigators,
it
much
subse-
quent research.
The
inception of the
230
It
many
electrical
its
by
Professor
its
and
form
which appeared
and Matter,'
in his 'Electricity
'
period sprang.
that,
is
neutralised by an equal
positive
Electrical
and thermal
were brought
in its invention,
known
could be observed
experimentally.
Unfortunately no very direct tests could
be applied, for the quantitative prediction of the properties
of the structure
plex piece of
that
it
must
was
impossible.
mechanism, and
either contain a
it
The atom
was
number
clear
is
a very com-
231
(1903-1909)
was known as
yet-
on
research carried
in the Laboratory
The
first
of these lines
is
Thermionics.'
ponent has recently proposed the name
the
conduction
of electo
the
electronic
theory
According
tricity in
metals
is effected
by the morion of
electrons
which
!!
break
free, if
the metal
is
electric current
and Richardson
Owen
Wilson (1903),
(1903,
bridge),
1904),
outside
Cam-
is in all essential
respects in accord-
the
work done
first
direct
experimental
proof of
the well-known
232
velocities
among
it,
electricity
'
'
it
now fixed.
1902 the new science
far
is
of radio-activity
was
Some
may
who
is
not
(1903-1909)
233
The only
explanation of the
events similar
Now the
to
those observed
in
radio-active bodies.
moving
in closed orbits
is
two
classes is
the
common
some
might be found.
The
positive
several
would give a
was much increased by observations by
of whom C. T. R. Wilson, Strutt, and
investigators
likelihood that such an examination
result
as past or present
members
234
Chap. VII.)
shown
It
was
in
also
composed
However,
radio-activity
it
re-
done
235
(1903-1909)
in this field
Jaffe
(1904),
Their
methods
external radiation
by absorbing
and
different treatment,
shapes and
different
(1904,
cut
to
the
material subject to
in
sizes,
1905).
off
the same
materials, or
of different
Wood
endeavours
included
The
results
different
attained
in
the
common
common
source.
to
outside
hypothesis.
evidence to
show
radio-active
still
decidedly
is
against
the
any balance of
perhaps
negative that
question as
tended
It
definite
have
Cambridge
unsettled.
But though
this
line of
conclusion,
it
measurement
which have
Cavendish Laboratory. A specimen of the tilted electroscope,' which is to be found in almost every piece of
apparatus, is represented by the small instrument in the fore'
Immediately on
its left in
Wilson's portable electroscope for measurements of atmospheric electricity, while the round flask on
is
236
by Wilson
work on
in his
'
spontaneous ionisation.'
The
the photograph are electrometers arranged in chronological order. The oldest (on the
on its
left) is the original Kelvin quadrant electrometer:
right
the
On
left of
is
one of the
modern forms
of Curie (above)
'
to
electrical properties of
Wood
when,
'
potassium and
ionising rays of
its
considerable penetration.
these elements to be
incontestable, were
it
The
claims of
them but it will be pointed out below that it has another and
perhaps more important aspect. The chief examples of this
work are the memoirs of Crowther on the absorption of
:
(1903-1909)
yS-rays,
and
237
on
secondary
radiation
work on the
Liverpool,
the
be
last
was the
named
subject,
though performed
at
work
in
continuation
direct
of
his
of information
as
the
to
for
the atom
But the
is composed.
mathematical treatment
to
of
applying
the model
mechan-
difficulty
of
any
of
of the
experimental results
The
the
to
relations
elucidation
of
this
disimportant problem.
covered are extremely suggestive, indicating an intimate
connexion between the absorptive and the other properties
of an atom,
possessing
definite
smaller
than
those
periods
of resonant
which
are
it
of structures
vibration
concerned
in
much
optical
phenomena
However the
facts
them-
ranks
is
is
summary
analysis.
238
in con-
Two
of physics, gravitation.
since
formulation
the
the
of
related with
it is
One
still
the
is
between two
universal
totally uncor-
at explanation
to,
of
theory
two charges
of opposite sign
fundamental difference
this
weight to the
amount
in
Thomson
electricity.
quence of
certainly increased
is
suggestion
hypothesis
(1909)
that the
ratio
the
of
on
the
its
component
parts.
that the
member
electronic
ratio
of
large
amount
Thomson undertook
of
energy.
(1904)
in
ments of
Newton with
pendulum
The
results
of
were negative
the
who
has recently
(1903-1909)
239
Of the
value in explaining
and
many
previously unconnected
doubt
but before
we can
phenomena
more
about
the
was that
least
it
in all
phenomena
in
opposite sign.
It was natural that in attacking the
first
new problem
recourse
Thomson
of the nature
electric discharge at
low
which travel in the oppothe cathode rays, and have been proved by
eminent German physicists to carry a positive charge. The
of the
site direction to
240
arising
they passed.
filled,
particles, for
X io 8
There
particles.
The former
corresponds to an atom of
the
electronic
carrying
charge, the latter to a
hydrogen
molecule of hydrogen bearing the same charge, or an atom
value
of
atom
ratio
was
2.5
in
helium particles
X io 3
corresponding
either
split
up by the action of
is
particle emitted
241
(1903-1909)
was the same whatever the uatuie of the atom from which
was produced, and that the ratio of the charge to the mass
of this particle was that of the second group of *aM 1iaW'i
it
two
t-TLJLt
tnfSr 2
T;2.7T-I-i:5
iTr
'.'
r.-..-~.
'<-.:.'.
.".I
known
to be so anomalous in
almost
all
low pressures, bat the time has not yet come for a general
review, nor is it oar IIMMIMJH*. here to offer an opinion
the "many questions raised which are still the
of controversy.
It must suffice to note that
rfflicrernmg
subject
this direction
in other
242
heating
on the
various
of
electrification
kinds
(1905)
made
During the
last
produced by
and by those of
already
228).
(p.
They
some account
of
them.
complete.
of radiation (that
is,
from the
origin)
/3
rays
consisted of
light
first
of
were
class
believed
to
be
rays.
Rays
of the
charged particles
rays of the second
disturbances
in
the
ether,
which,
in
is
number
and magnetic
The
first
phenomena
The
fields
class of rays
of polarisation,
diffraction
case of
of qualities the
243
(1903-1909)
polarisation
ledge.
origin, like
was
their influence
alike.
Experiment showed,
Accordingly,
when
the rays
produce secondary radiation, consisting of a stream of electrons ejected from the body which they strike, it was to be
expected that a change in the intensity of the primary rays
of the first class should produce no change in the velocity of
the secondary rays, but only a change in their
number or
244
produced a change
intensity of
intensity of
change
in
in
the
their
quality.
work on
All the
radiation
elucidation.
class
it
Thomson and
alternative,
of the rays
was
Adopting the
first
atom
would be analogous
of the rays
which
fires
rifle
be explained.
The
first
class.
depended
practically
It
was
nature
finally
of
abandoned when
the
secondary rays
nature of the primary and was
independent of the nature of the atoms on
only on
the
So
far as the
may
245
(1903-1909)
neutral
particles
will
more
When
to
'
'
in
Thomson
The
early as 1903.
explicitly
theory which he
on the action of
now
set
it
is
incident.
This so-
'
'
photo-electric effect
Thomson proposed
is
concentrated
along a few narrow lines radiating from the source and leaving
the intermediate spaces entirely unaffected. The idea may
seem
at first sight
show
somewhat
startling,
that
it
is
for
it
is
The theory
of the action of
explains at once the similarity
246
the theory
But
it is
the
same end.
It is
too early to
it
by without some
notice.
To
those
who
are
the purpose of the volume, to those who are not so conversant it would be necessary to compile a complete text-
book.
But some
investigations
may
of
the
more
be mentioned
'
striking
miscellaneous
'
briefly.
whose
of recent years
owe
so
much, communicated
all
students
(1905, 1906,
(1903-1909)
1907) several of the
more
247
physicists.
of Mutual Induction
H. A. Wilson
mental
skill
'
electricity.
The
feature
which
theory
is
Wilson succeeded
in detecting
Two
researches
must
and metal
248
fibres
fibres in
and galvanometers.
Hoskings
measured with great elaboration the absolute value
of the viscosity of water, with reference to which the vis(1909)
is
observations.
much
field,
efforts
of
(1905, 1906)
physicists
for thirty
little
to
elucidate.
The
little
con-
And
this
chapter
quite true
that
valuable research
those which
there,
is
as
is
absolutely false.
anywhere
else
It
where much
But these ideas do not represent to-day a mere offshoot of physics they lie in the direct line of progress of
Nor are they the only ideas which lead to
the science.
investigations of the highest importance, and it must not be
leader.
of
(1903-1909)
249
who
entries in the
but the space at our disposal necessitates that the treatment should appear somewhat one-sided to those whose
acquaintance with the subject
is less
profound.
250
CHAPTER
IX
IN
IN October 1871
Professor Clerk
Maxwell delivered an
on
introductory
of the
laid
to help
him
to a
more
principles of Physics,
vivid
and accurate
whereas
in
realisation of the
is
to question and,
series
when
of experiments,
whose
necessary, to cross-examine
Nature with regard to the matter which is being investiThe former class of experiment has its natural
home in the lecture room and the latter in the
gated.
laboratory, as
same time he
at the
251
class of
in his
still
preparing
is
the
of
pursuit
especially to
science
practical
in
mathematics that
promises
interest
and
fruitfulness.
In one of his letters written at this time Maxwell playdesideratum at the new Laboratory
was to
set a
Don and
company
When
of Dons,
most of
whom
number
names
of
when Maxwell
first
W.
who had
Garnett,
Physics
held the
Demonstratorship of
had given him
and
tenure
Maxwell's
during
service in
the
of
assistance
Glazebrook and
help
McConnel
the
course
J.
H.
Clare
of
of
Randell
as
Pembroke and
of
in
C.
and
Practical j Physics
for
Assistant
instruction
J.
Demonstrators,
252
students
undergraduate
The
systematised.
tion
and
extended
gradually
grew
and
larger,
it
began
be
to
was
classes
by
MSS.
the
describing
The
details
practical
the
of
thus gradually
experiments.
compiled became even more indispensable as time went on,
various
and
in
finally
chapters
written notes
dealing
well-known
lasting
into operation
or
more
subjects,
encouraged to specialise
while
in
in
Part
single
II.
they
subject,
were
though a
first class
was to be obtained.
Part
I.
could be taken
of
considerable
number
The
Before
Advanced Physics.
these
changes
were
made,
the
number
of
settled
253
state,
Although, as
we have
fuller
number of students
and more thorough
Toe
and Magnetism were drawn up.
standard and general nature of the work done in these
courses can be inferred from a little book describing some
in
Electricity
of the experiments on
Shaw
It
in 1883,
was a notable
by
later.
feature of these
The
detail,
of
254
in reality
very significant.
it
in
In this
and
it
way
was made
progress that was being made and the points upon which
In the Advanced Demonstraadvice or help were needed.
tions,
he had obtained.
who have
improvements and
refine-
ments.
It
the courses.
On
accuracy which
uncommon
it
was possible to
obtain.
was no
It
single experiment,
It is hardly necessary
keenness throughout.
of
the
value
the
mental
training afforded
upon
to
in
insist
such a
case.
In
1884
Lord
Rayleigh
resigned
the
Professorship
255
of
stratorship
me
to pass
it
It
was impossible
to
tact
without deriving instruction and inspiration from his example. During all my time at the Cavendish Laboratory
I
from
to
it
take
me
in
hand when
it
fell
to Newall to
and
especial
In 1890 another re-arrangement of the posts in connexion with the Laboratory was made. Glazebrook was
desirous of being relieved of the work of personally supervising the students in the
responsible,
Cavendish Laboratory,
256
was created
and he
for him,
from
retired
his demonstrator-
Advanced Lectures.
At the same time the Laboratory
of
Newall,
branch of
who
retired
order
in
work.
scientific
to
the
services
undertake
another
lost
which had been the property of his father, had just been
to the University, and Newall consented to
presented
become responsible for the performance and superintendence of the researches which the acquisition of this fine
instrument rendered possible.
In filling up the vacancies thus created, the distribution
of duties
among
of demonstratorships
and
to
these
posts
G.
F.
C.
Searle,
S.
Skinner
and
him
sets of classes,
While
they
which
Glazebrook
divided
between
Advanced Physics
of
will
be described presently.
Shaw were Demonstrators
and
them
the
course
standard of
of
Part
lectures
II.
of
in
the
257
science
first
slurred over
when any
time.
Professor J. J.
practice of
of lectures,
tricity
in
other
To the
it
in connexion with
adequacy of this
test
to be acquired by candidates
258
set permanently at
a simple oral examination in
physical apparatus, and the memories of the first examiners
almost collapsed under the strain of storing for future
by the
rest
recital the
immense
their victims.
who
institution
of
'
collection of
Then we heard
howlers
'
perpetrated by
man
the
man who
any numerical
said that a
result.
Again,
aghast,
'
this
fulness
'
'
it
received.
was asked which was the higher end of the examiner's table.
He put the level down, and duly pointed in the direction of
the bubble, but the tube of this level was not parallel to the
base,
which end
is
The
higher now?'
'
And
bubble had moved and that the table, apparently, had not.
He pondered deeply, then suddenly illumination came the
;
'
in
whom
259
The
written
work
made
when confronted with the
actual apparatus of
It
could not be
much
towards training their powers of investigation and manipulation; but, to return to Maxwell's classification, while
experiments of research were impracticable, it would be of
great help to the students if they were set to perform for
themselves suitable experiments of illustration, supplementary
to the lecture experiments of
somewhat passive
The new
spectators.
practical cksses
were not
skill
to design apparatus
*
fool-proof ,'
and Fitzpatrick's colleagues will always reto peep into the room when a class
in
progress,
lecture-table
260
fitted with corks and tubes which were being used for the
determination of coefficients of expansion.
In a very short time the classes grew larger, and
when they had been in existence for about a year Professor Thomson associated me with Fitzpatrick in their
In our early days we had all kinds of
management.
surmount
to
difficulties
in
addition
to
those
directly
all
New Museums
1890, a
some time
Human Anatomy,
fortunate
might take
Practical
vacant, and
possession
of
Class.
Physics
some crumpled
The
fell
we considered
ourselves
It
for
the
Medical
Students'
even
here
rose-leaves disturbed
elimination
of
the
when
etc.,
seemed
at first
effectual,
but
away the
we put
all
the windows,
liberated chlorine,
days.
for a couple of
for occupation.
261
The
We
laboratory assistant.
between the
who was
allotted to us as oar
whenever he was
finally to
gave him
left
leisure
alone in the
to be reasoned with.
we found
It was
number
the
initial difficulties
were surmounted,
us as additional demonstrators,
series of
who
gave
us very valuable assistance not only in conducting the classes,
but also in planning out the experiments and devising and
to be specially acknowledged.
was taken up
in
were
in piogiess.
To
a short
get over this disadvantage,
262
for themselves,
set
We
of the
work which
and
after
own
students that
we
published our
Practical Physics,'
which
is
and so
in
1896
'
is
that,
if
student wants an excuse for performing his work mechanically and unintelligently, such a book may indeed supply it,
demonstrators
it is
almost a necessity.
had begun to be
The
desirable.
number
I.
263
Some change
of
full.
details of organisation
in
which the
ex-
which was at
liberty.
The demonstrators
of
course did
illogical
and
to
by the
which had
The experiments,
men who already had a
lecturer.
the
elementary knowledge of Physics and aimed at
deepening rather than the widening of this knowledge.
It will be seen that the scheme of teaching resembled to
fair
In the
latter,
264
same
lavish scale,
called
in
satisfactorily
together.
the
In the
experience
which we
in
Newall,
progress at
first
was rather
of
the
nature
of
the
of
later, it
For the
first
for
field.
'
265
acknowledged.
As time went on, however, and the students attending
the class not only grew larger in number, but were found to
include a proportion of
ordinary course,
Searle continually
devised
new
pieces
of
principles
Many
and
the
as
mathematical
of these experiments
first
saw the
involved.
light as problems
I.
of the
making
The
as
in
it.
of numerical accuracy,
with
carefully
all
influence for
266
of a
for students
in Physics.
It is hoped that in a short time much of the work
which Searle has given himself with such devotion
will be published
his book on Experimental Elasticity,
to
issued in
1908,
forms a
first
instalment,
and a
similar
treatise
after 1886.
It
realised, so far
was
whom
a teacher.
I.
most
A considerable
portion of their
new
subject,
had
little
or no knowledge of
was held
for
them
in
the
Long
Elementary Class
way
it
was more
an order
satisfactory progress.
came
267
Regulations
The history of
these courses.
all,
its effects
whom
Thomson
when they first
Professor
it
became apparent
skill
were not
that, while
to their
at all
II. of
many brought
first,
we had
the
all
who
engaged
may
unrelated
departments of Physics, which, though apparently
to what he is trying to do, would have been able to give him
268
is
it
whole.
man undoubtedly
he
is
new
The progress of our own Advanced Courses furnished
in pursuit is
himself.
this.
In the earlier
suggestions
we could
all
the
detect
was
when
traced.
a distinct slackening of
interest
work with the same vigour to find out for themselves something which they felt that their teachers might tell them at
if they
It may sound paradoxical, but it is
pleased.
the result of our experience that the more advanced students
once
work
best
difficulties,
when
their
demonstrators
appear to be
in
men such
stimulus as
Thomson has
He
states
269
is
and
at least
equally great.
Finally, in the case of
man who
an end
in itself,
weapons
will lead
and that
him
it
is
in
the
adrisable to replace
the
new method
of teaching
still
further increased
the
of
merit
by the award
in
of
defining and
addition of a large
number
of
Advanced
270
Students to the already teeming population of the Labobrought with it some minor inconveniences. At
ratory
various
the
necessaries
both
competition
among
the
raids
in the other.
was
that
it
arose,
In
connexion
teaching,
Cavendish
Professor
at the
with
the
influence
Thomson
in
Physical
1893, which
research
of
of the
Society,
work
upon
of the
founded
met once a
by
fortnight
At each meeting
The proceedings
in their subject,
271
in
When
in
critical disi
MVJIM of
its
methods
the work
naturally
grew even
more
vigorous.
new
In
fact, as to
men
rather than of
methods
In 1898 Glazebrook
left
Cambridge on
his
appointment
which were
for
London
in
resigned
to take
logical Council,
had to be made.
It
ftlMMiiil
to
its
272
Lectureship.
To
in his
to
him
as University
took
Fitzpatrick
Lectures.
The
over
the
full
course
of
Elementary
Tripos, Part
its
the South-Western
Polytechnic and
left
left
Cambridge
for
at the Labora-
Cambridge on
his
opening are necessarily so numerous that they cannot readily be followed unless they are
A classified list has thereexhibited in a tabular form.
its
and
is
chapter.
which have been made in the practical classes during the past
ten years have been but slight, the courses of lectures have
steadily continued to
follow up
in
detail
the
courses
which
have
been
in this
273
radiation
Shaw were
responsible for
the demonstrations
Shaw some
?
ad-
for Part
and
years.
In other respects
examination at
The changes
Thomson
was
left
274
Cambridge.
Capstick had taken over the Elementary
Course from Glazebrook and was giving in addition two
one-term courses on sound, one suitable for Part I. and
the other for
Part
Whetham was
of the
II.
Natural
Sciences Tripos.
and
by E. H.
Griffiths,
In 1900
the
lectures on
Searle and C. T.
years previously.
R. Wilson, as
on
electrical
measurements and
by
on
light.
Whetham on
solution
and
Whetham
Fitzpatrick
was
courses
for
Whetham
conducted by
atmosphere.
In 1903 we had to mourn the death of Sir G. G. Stokes.
The many
generations of students
who have
attended his
275
on optics will never forget the feelings of affectionate veneration which his personality inspired, or the hours
during which they watched him while he repeated, with
apparatus of archaic simplicity, and with an enthusiasm
lectures
fail
Thomson was
lecturing
Wood was
giving
up the
South Wales
in Cardiff.
In
other
list
lectures in Physics:
Larmor,
and magnetism,
electricity
some
relations
electricity, dis-
measurements;
Whetham
II.),
heat,
and
electrical
C. T. R. Wilson
(for
and magnetic
Part
II.),
light;
276
Part
I.)
heat and
and magnetism;
properties
Wood
(for
of
and
matter,
Part
I.),
electricity
and
mechanics
netism;
heat,
heat and
Horton
light
and
(for
(for first
first
mechanics
and
and
first
D'Arcy
and electricity, and
hydrostatics.
mag-
course
revision
(for
electricity;
Gold,
mechanics and
electricity
M.B.),
course in
M.B.),
and
light,
science;
The
in
M.B.),
revision
practical
official list
by Wilson, the elementary demonstrations by Searle and Bedford, a new course of elementary
demonstrations by Spens for Searle, the course of dedemonstrations
the
revision
courses of
In addition
the same character by Horton for Fitzpatrick.
to these, Searle and Bedford are delivering, under the
auspices of the Special Board for Mathematics, a course
of experimental lectures in geometrical optics for Part
of the Mathematical Tripos, a
I.
volume of
revealed.
first-rate
In the
first
work which
it
represents
is
obvious to
II. of
277
of
it
will
kind have
growth
part
in the
number
in the
days,
another
two
difficulties of
earlier
lief.
The
at the
courses,
are the
reduced to a
less
inconvenient
it
is
remembered
278
furnished by the
in
is full
of interest.
precincts.
M.B. students
the fact that the college could thus easily supervise the work
of its own undergraduates was considered very important.
It
classes
which
is
so
vital,
had either
to be extorted
by experiment,
from a naturally
from
his
own
frugal store.
At present,
supervision to
men
and
in
the lecturer and give their students such assistance and direction as they find necessary during the progress of the course.
Practically all the rest of the lectures, whether given
by
We
down
279
to the present
When
day.
of as
who have
APPENDIX TO CHAPTER
IX.
following fist gives the names of all those who have been
by the University to teach Physics in the Cavendish
Laboratory , and the University terms dining which they have held
The
tfpniulrft
office.
T-MJiiiaiinMe of
the
fist
space have
made
it
necessary to restrict
by the University.
Professors.
Lent 1871
Michaelmas
Michaelmas 1879.
1879
Michaelmas
1884.
Michaelmas 1884
R. T. GSazebrook
W.N.Shaw
....
Easter 1891
Easter 1899
Easier 1898.
Lent 1900.
W.N.Shaw
....
L. R. Wilberforce
G.F.C.
Searie
C. T. R. Wilson
Easter 1887
Easter 1900.
Lent 1900.
Michaelmas 1900
Lent 1901
280
Demonstrators.
....
W. N. Shaw ....
H. F. Newall ....
W.
Garnett
R. T. Glazebrook
L. R. Wilberforce
G. F. C. Searle
P. V.
Bevan
Lent 1880.
Lent 1891.
1880
1880
Easter 1887.
1887 Easter 1890.
Easter 1900.
Easter 1891
Easter 1891
Lent 1904.
Michaelmas 1900
Michaelmas 1904
Michaelmas
S. Skinner
C. T. R. Wilson
Lent 1874
Michaelmas
Michaelmas
Michaelmas
Lent 1891
....
1908.
A.
Wood
Lent 1909
Assistant Demonstrators.
....
R. Threlfall
....
H. F. Newall ....
H. Randell
C. McConnel
L. R. Wilberforce
Lent 1884
Lent 1884
Michaelmas
Michaelmas
Michaelmas
Michaelmas
Michaelmas
J.
J.
H. L. Callendar
Easter 1887.
Easter 1885.
1885 Easter 1886.
1886
Easter 1887.
1887 Easter 1888.
Michaelmas
1887
1890.
T. C. Fitzpatrick
1888
Michaelmas
1906.
R. S. Cole
C. E. Ashford
Michaelmas 1890
.
W. C. D. Whetham
J. W. Capstick
P. E. Bateman
Townsend
V. Bevan
S.
R. G. K. Lempfert
J.
....
....
T. G. Bedford
G.
Taylor ....
P.
C. Chittock
I.
Lent 1892.
Easter 1892.
28l
IN
THE
[The dates are those on which the memoirs were published, and are. in a
later than those on which the work was finished.
Only those publications are included which contain a considerable amount of
was completed
had
left
1874
J.
C.
MAXWELL.
Camb. Phil.
On Double
Motion.
1875
J.
C.
MAXWELL.
On
XL
On
Axis.
282
J.
C.
MAXWELL.
On
Proc.
Camb.
S. A.
SAUNDER.
Article:
Atom.
Article
Attraction.
Ency. Brit.
Ency. Brit.
On the Variations of the E.M.F. of a new form
of Leclanch6 Cell.
Nature, Vol. XII.
:
1876
G. CHRYSTAL.
On
On
tion.
CHRYSTAL and
G.
S. A.
C. T.
J.
SAUNDER.
W. CLAYDEN and
A.
C.
HEYCOCK.
MAXWELL.
The Spectrum
of Indium.
Vol. II.
Diffusion of Gases through Absorbing Substances.
Nature, Vol. XIV.
WhewelPs
and
Writings
Correspondence.
On the Protection of
Peaucellier's Linkage.
Vol. II.
On
stances.
also Phil.
Mag.
On Ohm's Law.
Article
Capillary Action.
Ency. Brit.
W.
D. NIVEN.
On the Calculation of
XXVI.
1877
J.
E. H.
GORDON.
On
in
Absolute
CLXVII.
Units.
Phil.
Trans.,
Vol.
MEMOIRS
LIST OF
J.
C.
MAXWELL.
Hermann
Ludwig
Camb.
Ferdinand
Helmholtz.
XV.
Nature, Vol.
On a Paradox
Proc.
283
in the
Theory of Attraction.
On Approximate
On
A.
SCHUSTER.
Article
Article
Ency. Brit.
Ency. Brit.
Diagrams. Ency. Brit.
Diffusion.
On
Spectra of Metalloids.
On the Presence of
1878
R. T.
GLAZEBROOK.
An Experimental Determination
of the Velocities of
Waves
Plane
of the Values
Normal Propagation
in different
of
directions in a
CLXX.
J.
C.
MAXWELL.
'
Tait's
Thermodynamics.'
XVII.
The Telephone.
Vol. XVIII.
Nature,
(Rede Lecture.)
Vol.
Nature,
On
Ether.
Ency. Brit.
1879
J.
E. H.
GORDON.
CLXX.
284
MACALISTER.
D.
].
C.
MAXWELL.
On
Inequalities of Temperature.
Vol. CLXX.
on Special Branches
Brit. Assoc. Report.
Article
Faraday. Ency. Brit.
Reports
of
Science.
Electrical
SCHUSTER.
A.
On
On Harmonic
On
Spectra of
Lightning.
Phil. Mag.
V.,
Vol. VII.
W.
N.
SHAW.
An
Experiment with
Proc.
Camb.
Mercury
Electrodes.
1880
J.
A.
FLEMING.
On
New Form
of Resistance Balance
comparing Standard Coils.
Phil. Mag. V., Vol. IX.
Notes on Nicol's Prism.
Phil. Mag. V.,
Vol. X.
Double Refraction and Dispersion in Iceland
Spar an Experimental Investigation, with
adapted
R. T.
GLAZEBROOK.
for
CLXXI.
Note on the
Light.
Reflection
Proc.
Camb.
and Refraction of
IJST OF MEMOIRS
J.
H. PoTsmssG.
;i =
flu I In
PUL
Jb*F.,FoLX.
LQKD KATLQGB.
fai Ihii
ffi
lal in! rf
lit" TUnniln
inf
TTI
J/-g.
F, FoL X.
A.SCHDSnK.
-.
On
firiL Asaoc.
A^orft.
A.
H.
SonrsTEm
.
mi
SOSCQB.
J.J.THOMSOX.
Oc MaxmtffsTheorjof
F, FoL IX.
Lici-t.
PUL Jf-
G.H.DAKWEK.
R. T. GULZEBKOOK.
Theorj of La&aL
Pmc.
286
R. T.
GLAZEBROOK.
On
a Method of
Comparing the
Electrical
Phil. Mag.
XL
On
the Molecular Vortex Theory of Electromagnetic Action. Phil. Mag. V., Vol.
XL
LORD RAYLEIGH.
On
Mag.
XL
On Images formed
Phil.
fraction.
On
A.
SCHUSTER.
SCHUSTER.
Mag.
V., Vol.
XL
the
On
J. J.
THOMSON.
1882
G. H. DARWIN.
R. T.
GLAZEBROOK.
Trans., Vol.
LORD RAYLEIGH.
of
Gravity.
Brit.
Assoc.
Report.
On the Refraction of Plane Polarised Light at
the Surface of a Uniaxal Crystal. Phil.
CLXXIII.
CLXXIII.
Further Observations upon Liquid Jets, in
continuation of those recorded in the Royal
'
'
Society's
1879.
On the
Heated Wire
Soc., Vol.
On
in
Dusty
Air.
Proc. Roy.
XXXIV.
MEMOIRS
LIST OF
LORD RAYLEIGH.
287
Battery.
Proc. Camb.
Phil.
Mag.
V.,
Vol. XIII.
On
Mag.
On an
XIV.
Comparison of Methods
Phil. Mag.
Mag.
A.
SCHUSTER and
H. E. ROSCOE.
J. J.
THOMSON.
V., Vol.
Phil.
XIV.
On
Phil.
Mag.
XIII.
the Dimensions of a Magnetic Pole in the
V., Vol.
On
Electrostatic
V., Vol.
System of Units.
Phil.
Mag.
XIV.
1883
R. T.
GLAZEBROOK.
On
Camb.
Proc. Camb.
Spectro-photometer.
Phil. Soc., Vol. IV.
On a Common Defect of Lenses. Proc.
Camb. Phil. Soc., Vol. IV.
On Polarising Prisms. Phil. Mag. V.,
On a
Vol. XV.
On Curved Diffraction
V., Vol. XV.
R. T.
GLAZEBROOK,
M. DODDS, and
E. B. SARGANT.
J.
J.
C,
McCoNNEL.
Gratings.
Phil.
Mag.
CLXXIV.
Camb.
in Quartz.
288
LORD RAYLEIGH.
On
On
Vol.
XV.
On
the Vibrations of a Cylindrical Vessel containing Liquid. Phil. Mag. V., Vol. XV.
On the Cuspations of Fluid resting upon a
On
On
Phil.
Mag.
On
the
Wire.
Mean Radius
Proc. Camb.
of Coils of Insulated
On
fork.
On
W.
SHAW.
On
THOMSON.
On
N.
Soc., Vol. V.
J. J.
the
Determination
of
the
Number
of
CLXXIV.
On a Theory
Phil.
R.
THRELFALL.
On
Mag.
the Indiarubber
tions.
Method
of mounting Sec-
Zoologisches Anzeiger.
1884
G. H. DARWIN.
R. T.
GLAZEBROOK.
On
A Comparison
Vol. V.
LIST OF
R. T.
GLAZEBROOK.
MEMOIRS
289
On
On
Refraction of
Glass.
On
C.
McCoNNEL.
LORD RAYLEIGH.
XVIII.
On
blems.
On
XVII.
On
CLXXV.
W.
N. SHAW.
On
Units.
On
Comparison of Resistance.
Vol.
C. SPURGE,
XVII.
J. J.
THOMSON.
V., Vol.
XVIII.
Gases. Phil.
2go
THOMSON.
J. J.
L. R.
WILBERFORCE.
On
Electrical
Oscillations
1885
J.
A.
FLEMING.
Phil.
Mag.
R. T.
GLAZEBROOK.
On
Young's Eriometer.
Proc.
Camb. Phil.
Soc., Vol. V.
On
the Theory of some Experiments of Frbhon the Position of the Plane of Polari-
lich
J.
C.
C.
McCoNNEL.
OLEARSKI.
of Mixtures of Gases.
Soc., Vol. V.
W.
N.
SHAW.
On
High Temperatures.
Soc., Vol. V.
J. J.
THOMSON.
tion of Light
by a Moving Medium.
Law
Proc.
On
the
Energy among
Roy. Soc., Vol.
of the Distribution of
the Molecules.
Proc.
XXXIX.
Report on Electrical Theories.
Report.
Brit. Assoc.
Proc.
OB a New Method
of |pnlM ing
of lain final i
Fflf. F.
T.
C FnrzPATMCK.
A.H.LBABK.
Proc.
;
:.
Prar.
rii
tfce
Fringes
P%-Z. Sec..
of ATterrratmg Coxrests to
Ch PUL
Soc^ Fof. F.
McGoMBn.
of the WaTO-Sanrfirae of
Trat*, FolL CUOTFI7.
W.N.SBtm.
I-
Qozrtz.
P4T.
Z:;^r..-f-:
__
:--".*:
;azr
::
_:.._-._
Z-:
7; r-:
.-.;.,;,;
Zl;-.:tr.::rr
-7
l-i.;.-;.
.--'.-.:
FaL F.
Fal.
JTFJJ.
J. J.
TBOMSOK mm*
Oa aa Elect prodKed by Oe
Fassaee of am
of
Pmc.
L.
J?oy.
PU2L
292
1887
H. L. CALLENDAR.
On
Laboratory, Cambridge.
CLXXVIII.
C.
CHREE.
T. C. FITZPATRICK.
A.
On
Conduction.
H. F. NEWALL.
On
Bright Red
Vol. XXIV.
W.
N. SHAW.
Some Laboratory
Heat.
Notes.
Phil.
and
Steel at
Mag.
V.,
Phil.
W.
F.
N.
SHAW and
M. TURNER.
J. J.
THOMSON and
H. F. NEWALL.
Experiments on the
Magnetisation of Iron
Rods. Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc., Vol. VI.
On the Rate at which Electricity leaks through
Liquids which are Bad Conductors of
Electricity.
J. J.
THOMSON.
Some
CLXXVIII. A.
On the Dissociation
Electric
Vol.
of
Discharge.
Roy.
Soc.,
XLII.
1888
C. V.
BURTON.
H. L. CALLENDAR.
Drops.
C.
CHREE.
Proc.
Camb. Phil.
On the Method
On
OF MEMOIRS
LIST
CHREE.
C.
T. C. FITZPATRICK.
MONCKMAX.
J.
293
On
On
on
their Resistances
electric
and 'Carbon.
Proc.
Roy.
Soc.,
Vol.
XLJV.
The
Specific
ties
XLVI.
On the Arrangement
of Electrified Cylinders
attracted by an Electrified Sphere.
Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc., Vol. VI.
when
H. F. NEWALL.
On
Phenomena.
W.
N. SHAW.
Electrical
Resistance.
Kew
Corrections
On some
Accurate Charts of
SKINNER.
Brit. .Assoc.
Report.
the Relation between the Contraction of
On
Volume and
THOMSON.
ductors.
J. J.
THOMSON and
Electrical Oscillations
XIX.
The Effect
J.
MONCKMAN.
A.
M.WORTHINGTOX. On
Action.
Proc.
VI.
the Stretching of Liquids.
Report.
Brit. Assoc.
294
CHREE.
C.
J.
A.
W.
FLEMING.
N.
SHAW.
On
J.
J.
THOMSON.
of
Electrical
Soc., Vol.
Systems.
of Vibra-
Proc.
Roy.
XLV.
Forces.
rapidly alternating
Vol.
XLVI.
The
On
Camb. Phil.
On
Vol.
A.
W. WARD.
XXVIII.
On
1890
W.
C.
CASSIE.
CHREE.
On
CLXXX.
A.
LIST OF
W. COLDRIDGE.
On
MEMOIRS
the Electrical
295
of Stannic Chloride ; together with the bearing of the results obtained on the problems
of Electrolytic Conduction and Chemical
Phil.
Action.
Mag.
V., Vol.
XXIX. (Two
Papers.)
T. C. FITZPATRICK.
W.
N. SHAW.
THOMSON and
J. J.
The
Brit.
Specific Resistance of Copper.
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Radio-Tellurium.
LXXVIIL
R. D.
KLEEMAN.
On
made by -, /?-,
Mag. VL, Vol. XII.
On a Relation between the Velocity and
the Volume of the Ions of certain Organic
Acids and Gases. Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc.,
the Recombination of Ions
7-
T. H.
LABY and
G. A. CARSE.
and *-Rays.
Phil.
Vol. XIII.
of
Proc.
W.
H. LOGEMAN.
Vol.
T. NODA.
Camb.
XIV.
LXXVIIL
On
the lonisation of Gases exposed simultaneously to Rontgen Rays and the Radiation
O.
PHILLIPS.
W. RICHARDSON.
The
lonisation produced by
Phil.
Gases.
Different
G. F. C. SEARLE.
CCVII. A.
The Expansion
of a
Gas
Hot Platinum
Trans.,
into a
in
Vol.
Vacuum and
LIST OF MEMOIRS
G. F. C. SEARLE.
The Magnetic
THOMSON.
On
Electric
Charged Sphere
Nature,
Force.
LXXIV.
Vol.
J. J.
Inertia of a
a Field of
in
317
the
Number
of Corpuscles in an Atom.
On Secondary Rbntgen
Camb.
Radiation.
Phil. Soc., Vol. XIII.
Electrification
Produced by Heating
Proc.
Some
Proc.
Salts.
Camb.
Proc.
Discharge
to
Spectroscopy.
Jour.
Roy.
XVIII.
On the Measurement of the Earth-air Current
and on the Origin of Atmospheric ElecProc. Camb. Phil. Soc., Vol.
tricity.
Inst., Vol.
C. T. R.
WILSON.
XIII.
1907
P. V.
BEVAN.
N. R. CAMPBELL.
The
Efiect of
Change of Temperature on
Phil. Mag. VI.,
Spontaneous lonisation.
Vol. XIII.
A.
CROWTHER.
On
by Matter.
On
F.
HORTON.
On the
On
Spectral Lines.
XXV.
3i8
INNES.
P. D.
On
G.
W.
R. D.
C. KAYE.
KLEEMAN.
Proc.
The
/?-
and
y- Rays.
LXXIX.
The Secondary Cathode Rays emitted by
Substances when exposed to the y-Rays.
Phil. Mag. VI., Vol. XIV.
].
KUNZ.
An Abrupt
of the Positive
escence.
T. H. LABY.
The Total
a-Rays of Uranium.
LXXIX.
M. LEVIN.
L. T.
MORE.
G. F. C. SEARLE.
Uber
LXXIX.
On the Impulsive
Phil.
Systems.
An Experiment
Motion
Mag.
of
Electrified
ended Magnets.
Vol.
XIV.
A Method
ductivity of Indiarubber.
Phil. Soc., Vol. XIV.
J. J.
THOMSON.
Rays of Positive
Vol. XIII.
The Electrical
Hot Bodies.
On
Phil.
Mag.
VI.,
Rays of Positive
Vol.
Electricity.
Electricity.
Phil.
Mag.
VI.,
XIV.
Ultra-violet
Light, and on the evidence as to the structure of Light afforded by its electrical
effects.
XIV.
Proc.
Camb.
Phil.
Soc.,
Vol.
LIST OF MEMOIRS
J. J.
THOMSON.
319
On
Rays of Positive
Jour. Roy.
Electricity.
XVIII.
Curvature Method of Measuring Surface
Tension. Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc., Vol.
Inst., Vol.
C. T. R.
WILSON.
XIV.
WOOD and
A.
N. R. CAMPBELL.
Diurnal
of the Spontaneous
Periodicity
lonisation of Air and other Gases in Closed
Vessels.
1908
J.
W. BlSPHAM.
Potential Gradient in
Point to a Plane.
LXXXI.
W. BURTON.
N. R. CAMPBELL.
The
D. F. COMSTOCK.
Camb. Phil.
The Relation
Vol.
LXXX.
Mag.
Soc., Vol.
of
VI., Vol.
Mass
XIV.
to
Energy.
Phil.
XV.
The
Vol.
F.
G.
HORTON.
W.
R. D.
C. KAYE.
KLEEMAX.
XXX.
The Spectrum of the Discharge from a Glowing Lime Cathode in Mercury Vapour. Proc.
Camb. Phil. Soc., Vol. XIV.
The Emission and Transmission of Rontgen
Rays. Phil. Trans., Vol. CCIX. A.
The Different Kinds of r-Rays of Radium, and
the Secondary y-Rays which they produce.
Phil. Mag. VI., Vol. XV.
J.
KUNZ.
Cathode and
T. H. LABY.
Canal
Rays
from
Hollow
Phil.
tion
A
T. H. LABY and
KAYB.
G. W.
XVI.
320
D. N. MALLIK.
Magnetic
Phil.
SATTERLY.
J.
G. F. C. SEARLE.
Rotation
Mag.
of
VI., Vol.
Electric
Discharge.
XVI.
The Amount
J.
THOMSON.
of the
Universe.
XIV.
On
XIV.
L.
VEGARD.
W.
C. D.
Researches upon Osmosis and Osmotic PresPhil. Mag. VI., Vol. XVI.
Electrolytic Properties of Dilute Solutions
of Sulphuric Acid.
Proc. Roy. Soc., Vol.
sure.
WHETHAM
and H. H. PAINE.
C. T. R.
WILSON.
The
LXXXI.
On the Measurement
of
the
Atmospheric
air Current.
Proc. Roy. Soc., Vol. LXXX.
Discussion of the observations of Atmospheric
Electricity,
tion, 1901-4.
1909
N. R.
CAMPBELL.
The
Radio-activity of Rubidium.
Phil. Soc., Vol. XV.
Proc.
Camb.
C. D. CHILD.
Light Emission.
Proc.
XXIX.
LIST OF MEMOIRS
C. CHITTOCK.
J.
A.
CROWTHER.
321
of Dilate Solutions
Proc.
Cam*.
Phil.
On
Soc., Vol.
LXXXII.
On the Scattering of the 0-Rays from Radium
by
Air.
XV.
On the
Proc. Cam*.
Phil.
Vol.
Soc.,
On
Cam*. Pha.
On
H. A.
Phil. Slag.
Different Temperatures.
Vol.
VI^
XVIII.
R.
HOSKING.
G.
W.
The Emission
H. V. GILL.
F.
On
Vol.
C. KAYB,
XVIII.
of Rontgen Rays from Thin
Proc. Cam*. Phil. Soc.,
Metallic Sheets.
VoLXV.
On the Distribution
of the
Rontgen
Roy.
Proc.
Rays
Soc.,
LXXXIII.
On
Radium.
LXXXII.
The
322
R. D.
KLEEMAN.
Some
and
Certain
Capillarity.
Quantities
Phil. Mag.
connected
VL,
Vol.
with
XVIII.
On
XV.
by an
Particle.
Vol.
LXXXIII.
Experiments to test whether the Secondary
Proc. Roy. Soc.,
7- Rays are polarised.
Vol.
LXXXIII.
T. H. LABY.
E. R. LAIRD.
Entladungsstrahlen.
Proc.
String Electrometer.
Soc., Vol. XV.
Phys.
Camb.
Phil.
Vol.
Rev.,
XXVIII.
E. P.
METCALFE.
On
VI.
J.
A.
ORANGE.
D. B. PEARSON.
L.
SOUTHERNS.
G.
I.
SIR
J. J.
THOMSON.
Sphere.
TAYLOR.
Mag.
Ions of Oxygen.
Vol. XV.
G. F. C. SEARLE.
Phil.
Vol. XVIII.
XV.
Interference
On
Light.
Phil.
Electricity.
XVIII.
On the Theory
Phil.
through a Gas.
Vol.
On
XV.
Electricity emitted
Camb.
On
Charges of
by Hot Wires.
Camb.
Proc.
XV.
Proc.
LIST OF
SIR
J. J.
THOMSON.
MEMOIRS
L.
VEGARD.
323
On
XV.
On
XVIII.
On some
E. M.
WELLISCH.
Vol.
XV.
the
Ions
produced by
Gases and Vapours. Ph i7.
Trans., Vol. CCIX. A.
The Passage of Electricity through Gaseous
Rontgen Rays
Mixtures.
An
in
Electrical
Waves.
The Laws
R.
WHIDDINGTON.
Discharge Tube.
Vol.
XV.
WILSON.
On Thunderstorm
VI., Vol.
XVII.
Proc.
Camb. Phil.
Electricity.
Soc..
Phil. Mag.
324
CAVENDISH LABORATORY.
The information is compiled for the most part from answers returned to
a circular letter addressed to all those who could be reached, containing
questions on the following points among others
(1) Previous university or college, if any
:
(2)
(3)
College at Cambridge
Present situation or occupation.
;
The
The
Trinity
St.
John's College
Principal,
Secondary
London.
ASHFORD,
Ontario
A
BARLOW,
LIST
P. S. (1002-3), St.
OF WORKERS
Johns
525
Cairo, Egypt.
BEDFORD, T. G.
Trinity
HoDov^CoOefe.Egham.
BIGGS, H. F. (1906-7), Trinity College, Dublin ; King's College
Demonstrator in Physics, Trinity College, Dublin.
BmcnA*. E. C. (1906), Professor of Physics, Richmond College,
Richmond, Va.
BlSPHAM,
J.
W.
Schools,
BLAIKIE,
BLTTH, VINCENT
J. (1900-3),
Insfff**?- of Primary
CoUege;
Junior Examiner,
College;
BORODOWSKT, W. A.
BRAND, A.
(1891),
Pembroke CoUege;
Barrister-at-Law, Lincoln's
Inn.
St. \ladimir,
Kiev
Trinity CoUege.
BROOKS, HARRIET (Mrs. Pitcher) (1902-3), McGffl University, Mont(Russia)
real;
Newnham
CoUege.
BRYAN, GEORGE BLACKFORD (1896-9), University CoUege, Nottingham; St. John's College; Senior Assistant Master, Royal
Naval Engineering College, Keyfaam.
Emmanuel
326
BURTON, WILLIAM
(1904-9),
Emmanuel
College
Chief Science
Trinity College.
Emmanuel
burgh.
CASSIE, W. (1890-3), Trinity College; Late Professor of Physics,
Royal Holloway College, Egham. Died 1908.
CHILD, CLEMENT D. (1898 and 1908), Cornell University Professor
of Physics, Colgate University, U.S.A.
;
CHREE, CHARLES,
Christi College;
Professor
CLAY, REGINALD
S. (1894-6), St.
Polytechnic, Holloway.
CLAYDEN, ARTHUR W.
Principal, Uni-
Chief
Engineer,
CROWTHER,
J.
College.
CUNNINGHAM, JOHN
St.
John's College
India.
Plumian
HOWARD,
Professor
K.C.B.,
of
F.R.S.
(1880-2), Trinity
Mathematics,
Cambridge
University.
of the
A LIST OF WORKERS
327
DAVIS, BERGEN
EMERY, G. F.
(1890),
Trinity
College;
Barrister-at-Law,
Inner
Temple.
ERIKSON, HENRY ANTON (1908-9), University of Minnesota; Assistant
Professor of Physics, University of Minnesota.
of Glasgow
Trinity
Government of India.
FTTZPATRICK,THOMASCECIL (since 1881), Christ's College, 1881-1906
Newnham
GALLOP, E. G.
Cams
College.
Lecturer in Mathematics,
College.
Women's
College, Baltimore.
328
Downing College.
GLASSON, J. L. (since 1909), University of Adelaide; Caius College.
GLAZEBROOK, RICHARD TETLEY, F.R.S. (1878-99), Trinity College;
;
1909),
University of Cincinnati;
Trinity College.
Manufacturer of
Newnham
Emmanuel
HARRISON,
EDWARD
London;
Science,
College.
King's College;
Calcutta.
HART,
(1882-5),
College.
Government
Physics,
College;
Missionary,
Presidency College,
London
Professor of
Lahore.
Trinity College
1900), University of
Barrister-at-Law, Middle Temple.
HENRY, JOHN
HICKS,
Professor of Physics,
HORTON, FRANK
College
St.
John's
St.
John's
College.
Non-Collegiate
School.
A. (1905-6), University of Glasgow ; Emmanuel
College Lecturer in Physical Optics and Assistant to the Professor of Natural Philosophy, University of Glasgow.
W. B. (1905-6), Johns Hopkins University, Associate Professor
HOUSTOUN, ROBERT
;
HUFF,
HUGHES,
Emmanuel
College.
IBBETSON,
W.
J.
St.
(1905-6), Dartmouth College, U.S.A.
Professor of Physics, Dartmouth College,
Deceased.
OF WORKERS
LIST
329
Assistant. National
Physical
KmsLEY, CARL
KLAASSEX,
HELEN G.
(1887-91),
Newnham
London;
Laboratory.
Aswiatr
Professor
*
irMt DAXIEL (since 1905), University of Adelaide ;
Emmanuel College.
Emu, JAKOB (1906-8), University of Zurich ; University of Michigan,
Ann Arbor, U.SA.
LABT, T. H. (1905-9), University of Sydney; FmrnanoH College;
Pttrfescor
LEATHEM,
ii
1.1
330
of
MAKOWER, WALTER
University of Manchester.
Professor of
MALLIK, D. N. (190?), Presidency College, Calcutta
Mathematics and Astronomy, Presidency College, Calcutta.
MARTIN, FLORENCE (1894-5), University of Sydney.
MAXWELL, JAMES CLERK, F.R.S. (1871-9), Trinity College; Cavendish
Professor of Experimental Physics, University of Cambridge,
1871-9. Died 1879.
MAYALL, R. H. D. (1894), Sidney Sussex College; Fellow and
Lecturer in Mathematics and Physics, Sidney Sussex College.
;
MCCLELLAND,
JOHN
ALEXANDER,
F.R.S.
(1896-1900), Queen's
Professor of Physics, The
National University of Ireland, Dublin.
McCLUNG, R. K. (1901-4), McGill University, Montreal; Trinity
College,
College
University of
Professor of Physics, University of Toronto.
McQuiSTAN, DOUGALD B. (1904-6), University of Glasgow; Caius
College Lecturer and Demonstrator in Physics, The Technical
Toronto
College, Glasgow.
METCALFE, E. P. (1907-8), University College, London Emmanuel
College Professor of Physics, University of Bangalore.
;
MIDDLETON, H. (1879-85),
MONCKMAN, J.
MOORE, D. H.
St.
John's College.
(1889-90).
(1893-4), Trinity College
MORE, Louis T.
NABL,
I.
NATANSON, WLADYSLAW
(1886-7),
Physics, University of Cracow.
Professor
of
Mathematical
A LIST OF WORKERS
331
NICOL,
NIVEN, SIR
W.
Director of
ORANGE,
J.
OWEN, GWILYM
Christ's College
College;
Professor
of
Physics,
Royal
Veterinary
College,
London.
Birmingham.
PRINGSHEIM, PETER (1907-8), Universities of Munich and Gottingen
Privatdozent, Uni-
332
O.M., F.R.S.
(187984), Trinity College; Cavendish Professor of Experimental Physics, University of Cambridge, 1879-84
Nobel
;
I94.
Laureate, Physics,
RICHARDSON,
WILLIAM
SPENCER
RICHARDSON,
(1896-8),
;
University
College,
RUDGE, W.
RUTHERFORD, ERNEST,
F.R.S.
New Zealand
of
Langworthy
Trinity College
University of Manchester; Nobel
Laureate, Chemistry, 1908.
SALTMARSH, MAUD O. (1906-7 and since 1909), Girton College.
versity
Professor
of
Physics,
SARGANT, E.
to the
St.
John's College.
S. A. (1875-6), Trinity College Assistant Master, Wellington College Professor of Astronomy, Gresham College, London.
SAUNDER,
SCHUSTER, ARTHUR,
John's College
Manchester.
SEARLE, G. F. C.,
Demonstrator
F.R.S.
St.
F.R.S.
in
bridge.
Lecturer
College,
Birmingham
Trinity
in
Birmingham.
SHAW, W.
Meteorological Office,
versity of
London.
Emmanuel
London
College
Director of the
A LIST OF WORKERS
333
College,
Cambridge.
SKINNER, SIDNEY (1882-1004), Christ's College; Principal, South-
Emmanuel
College.
SPURGE, C. (1884), SL Catherine's College ; Lecturer in Mathematics,
SL Catherine's College, Cambridge.
SUUIH, HON.
Institution,
THRELFALL, RICHARD,
Chemical Manufacturer.
TROTTER, A.
Wykeham
of
Birmingham
College, Dublin;
334
WADE,
John's College;
Head
College, Belfast;
of Physics Department, Woolwich
Polytechnic.
E. B. H. (1896-7), Trinity College
Egypt.
Emmanuel
College.
F.R.S.
(since 1886),
Trinity
Trinity College
WILBERFORCE,
London.
WILLS, ROBERT
Dublin;
L.
St.
College;
WILSON,
HAROLD ALBERT,
College, Leeds
F.R.S.
Trinity College
University, Montreal.
;
and
WOOD, ALEXANDER
WORTHINGTON,
University of Prague.
of Minnesota; Trinity College;
Professor of Physics, University of Minnesota.
NAME INDEX
ADAMS, E. P., 217. 234
Adams, J. C., 5, 78
Adams. W. G., 2, 36
Aitken, 187
Allcock. W. B.. 47
Allen. H. S., 220
Almy, 212
Anderson, 99
Arrhenius. 147, 149, 208
Ashford. C. E.. 89
Atkinson. 273
Austen Leigh. 9
Ayrton, 44, 70
BACON. 79
Baker. W. C., 218
Balfour Stewart, 21, 76. 77
Barkla, 217, 237
Barlow. 248
Bartlett, A. T.. 82. 116
Bateson. W. H., 5
Beck. T.. 47
Becqaerel, 183
Bedford. T. G., ioo, 219, 256. 276,
277
Berthelot. 141
Bevan. P. V., 99, 217. 223. 272, 275
Bidwell, 135
Birkeland, 212, 214
Blaikie. L..
160
Blyth, 232
CALLENDAR, H.
I43-M5
Chamberlain, A., 80
Child. 181
Chree. 84, 99, 135. 145, 150. 154
Chrystal, G., 21-25, 45, 6 3, 65, 108
Clark. J. W.. 3
Clark. (L).. 7
Clausius, 147, 151
Clay, R. S.. 261
Clayden. A. W.. 17
Clerk Maxwell. J., passim
Clifton. R. B.. 102
Coldridge, 147
Cole, R. S.. 89, 150
Cooke, H. L.. 216. 235
Cookson. H. W., 5
Coulomb. 53
Courts Trotter. 5. 104. 108, 273
Craig-Henderson. R. S.. 99, 160, 192
Cremien, 247
Crookes. 94, 151. 167
Crowther, 99. 236, 237
Boltzmann, 31
Bottomley, 145
Bonty. 146
Boyle, i
Bragg, 245
Brewster. 130
Brown, 231
Bryan, G. B., 139. 160. 190
Bumstead, 224-226, 244
Burke, J. B. B., 160. 213
Burton, E. F., 216. 248
DALE, 134
D'Arcy, 274, 276
Darwin, G., 72, 102
Darwin. H.. 72. 116
Davy. 123
Dawson, H. A.. 208
Devonshire, 7th Duke
42
Devonshire, 8th Duke
of. 4. 5, 7. 25,
of.
n, 222
NAME INDEX
336
A., 101
Dines. 29
HACKER.
Hagenbach, 137
Hale. 126
Hankel. 59
Harland. 81
Hart, S. L., 47. 81, 273
Hayles. W. H., 82
Heath, R. S., 40, 47
Heaviside, 189
Hecker, 72
Helmholtz, 12, 46, 123, 137, 163,
187, 193, 196
Henderson, R. S. Craig, 99, 160,
192
Henry, J., 160, 190, 192
Hertz, 86, 95. 135, 165, 167, 182
Heycock, C. T., 27
Hicks. W. M.. 19
Hittorf. 94, 148, 154
Hopkinson, E., 47, 140
Horton. F., 86, 99, 100, 231, 232,
EDMONDS, L.
H., 47
Elphinstone. H. W., 8
Elster, 182,
217
Emery, 146
Enright, 185
Erikson, 228
Erskine Murray,
160, 176
J.,
Ettinghausen, 70
Everett (Prof.), 22
Everett, E., 82, 197
FARADAY,
W. M., 5,
Ferrers, 102
Field, 223
Fitzgerald, 148
Fitzpatrick, T. C.,
Fawcett,
i,
"
247, 276
Hoskings, 248
n, 73, 88 99,
101, 123, 147. 148, 224, 259, 260,
271, 274, 276
Huff, 232
Hull. 224
Humphry,
Fizeau, 132
Fleeming Jenkin, 61, 107
Fleming,
108
Forsyth. A. R., 4. 47
Foster, G. Carey. 2. 43
Fresnel, 28, 130, 245
GARNETT. W.,
12,
18,
273
Gauss, 51
Geitel. 182, 215,
217
Gladstone. 134
Glaisher. 78. 79
Gold. 276
I 5i, 241
de la Gorce, 69
Gordon, G., 46, 81
Gordon, J. E. H.. 19-21. 108
Gorst, E., 80
Griffiths. E. H., 144, M5, 2 74, 275
Goldstein, 94.
Grotthus, 155
Grove, 102
Guillett, 70
Guthe, 69, 70
INNES, 244
JACOBI, 59
Jaffe, 235
Jamin, 2, 127, 131
Janet, 69, 70
Jeans, 140
Jebb. 6
Jenkin, Fleeming, 61, 107
Johnson. G. W., 47
Jones, V., 67
Jouast, 70
Joule, 31, 123, 135
KABLE, 69, 70
Kaufmann, 165,
171, 172
Kaye, 237
Kelvin. Lord (William Thomson),
12. 43, 45. 58. 102, 135, 140
Kirchhoff, 78
Kleeman, 237
Kohlrausch, 44, 4 6 6 7, &9,
Roller, 190
Kundt, 139
Kunst, 69
Kunz, 241
,
I,
M7-M9
NAME INDEX
337
*.
-
Nnca.
37. 138
J. G.. 160
r.
r.
84. 152
231
133
Lednc.69
Lempfert. R. G. K-. 160
It mm A. 159. 165. 172. 182.
PACTEXSOX,
J-.
218.
2-23,
135
I-t.
Pefct.69.ro
r. 247
-:
129
3. 5. 9. 19. 102
Lock. J. B..
Lodge, O.. 149
Pern*. 156
Perry. 44
Phillips, 228
Pickering, 44, 4^
Proeker, z6
Pollock. 4
Potier.69
MACAHSTER.
MacanlaT.
Ml Hi
W.
D.. 33
H..
i -3-
176,183.184,107,223
McCnMri.
J.
C_
41.
74.
B. 20-2
81-83,
5*
,224.232
127-129. 146.
.
r.
J-.
131. 15*
232
.192
RAHDEU..
.67-69
r.69. 70
---ai-:
J-
228.231
I
-::
3,150,166.247
63. 67. 135. 247
NATAKSOX.
84, 152
NewaD, H.
222-224.240
I9.
160. 177-179.
t
*4.
2I
NAME INDEX
SAGNAC, 217
Townsend,
27
Sargant, E. B., 73, 81
Salet, G.,
Satterly. 236
Saunder. S. A.. 23, 45
de Saussure, 29
Schott, 150
274-277
Shakespeare, G., 160, 220
Shaw, W. N., 12, 29, 30, 40, 41, 46,
48, 81, 84, 87-89, 109-112, 115,
123, 147. 150, 251, 253, 255. 256,
263, 271, 273. 274
Shaw, Mrs. W. N., 72
Sidgwick, Mrs. H., 63, 65, 69,
70, 81
Siemens, 59, 143, 144
Sinclair, D. S., 82, 113
Sindall, 10,
232
Smith, F. E., 69. 70
Smith, H. J. S., 29
Smith, S. J., 160
Slater,
Smoluchowski, 224
Southerns, 238
Spens. 99. 276
Spurge, 131
Stark, 241
Stein thai, 40
Stewart, Balfour, 21, 76, 77
Stokes, G. G., 29, 79, 102, 127, 138,
173. 200, 220, 247. 273, 274
Stoletow, 211
Strutt, R. J., 99, 211, 212. 213, 215,
216. 223, 224, 233
Sutherland, A. W., 28
TAIT, 142
Taylor, G.
I.,
245
J.
Trouton, 148
VAN DIJK, 69
Varley
(C.),
94
W. M., 245
Vegard. 248
Villard. 241
Villari. 135
Varley.
Vincent,
J.
WADE,
Wien, 214
Wilberforce, L. R., 84. 88, 100, 132.
136, 146, 255, 256, 260, 271-273
Wilkes. 67
Williamson, 147, 151
Willis, 35
Willows. R. S., 160, 212
Wills. 219
Taylor, Sedley, 27
Temple. 103
Tesla, 153
YOUNG,
i,
247
ZEEMAN, 126
SUBJECT INDEX
7.
*.*.. 43*
*27i
:a.u.:,.o-
MB^man
.i.ro-i.-
435^U
~7'i
-:'
-:
w*
:,:
::
-i
na
:..
'
A3
ZTX
f
Tiaiiim
P*
xsx. *S$.
:-
44k 172-
173. X74.2
**7-^*.
95-H.W
,%,i5a-3*
:n
:/:
:/'
::-
::..-:-:
-
,4.5
;i.u7
(. ft,
nu
SUBJECT INDEX
340
Dimensions of
units,
50-57
Ions,
,,
,,
,,
86
first
signals
183
'
Exhibitions,
1851
',
206, 227-228
LECTURES
,,
,,
Lenard
waves,
,,
,,
214-215
Maxwell to Lord Rayleigh, 18
rays,
Letters,
91
Liquid
air plant,
101
Long vacation
FELLOWSHIPS
held by members of
the Laboratory, College, 99
Fellowships held by members of the
208-209
Foreign students, 84, 224-226
GLASGOW,
'
MAGNETISM,
,
elected professor, 5
first report, 7
teaching
at, i,
43
library, 8, 85
inaugural lecture,
14-17
views on teaching, 1417,250
251
letter to Lord Rayleigh, 18
methods of teaching, 19, 34-35
letter to Dr. Schuster, 24
,,
,,
ultra-violet
light,
198182-183,
200, 245
spontaneous, 215-216,
233-236
Ions,
,,
209-210, 227
condensation
on,
188-189,
197-202
conduction by, 93-94, 177178, 209
29
methods of work, 31-32
illness,
interest in
Henry Cavendish,
32-33
recollections of,
32-38, 104,
106
Rede
34
death. 40, 109, 251
determination of the ohm* 61
on electrical measurements,
106
investigations of viscosky, 137
views of discharge through
gases, 150, 160
Measurements, electrical, Maxwell
on, 107-108
,,
principles of, 49-51
lecture,
189
SUBJECT INDEX
NATIONAL
63
Natural sciences tripos.
35.
36.
42.
81.
46,
9.
3.
84,
<7.
loo,
252-278
Nobel Prize, 10, 91, 222
lits of,
62.72
Rontgen Rays. 93. 94. *57. '59. 166.
195. 207. 237
..
..
189. 196-199
ionisation by. 175-182
OHM,
,,
definition of the, 58
determination of the. 61-67
8
57.
in insulators. 152
..
Oxford,
SHORTHAND. Calendar's,
43
i.
84, 145
Songs, 97^98
Sorbonne. 2
rotation of pl&oc of,
20. 71, 132
first,
3^
4^,
Laboratory, 223
241.242
Ratio of electrical
134
Rayleigh, Lord
units,
55,
73,
*
.
43
numbers
,,
of,
9, 10,
60
new wing, 12
Ts letter to. 18
appointed Professor. 40
TEACHING, chap.
determination of
ti
49-71
ohm 63
66
tiic
ii
of researches, 122
relation to t*a/-hing t
summary
15.90
students. 19. 38. 8x. 84,
108. 160
studentships, 05
passim
43-45
Maxwell's views on, 1417
in Maxwell's rime. 19.
35-37
in Lord Rayleigh 's time.
41. 46-49
,.
ampere,
67-68
IS'
ix.
outside Cambridge, i, 2.
units.
..
..
volt. 6869
minor researches, 71
work on elliptic polarisation.
Research in
41, 221,
253
i.
20, 53,
work on electrical
, ,
yffOTTPg
South
..
first
,,
regular practical. 41
son. Sir J. J.
research at Cavendish
Laboratory, 73. 8
first
at
Owens
College. 76-77
comes to Cambridge. 78
betw
attended. 78-79
private pupils, 80
SUBJECT INDEX
342
Thomson, Sir
continued
J. J.
80
UNITS, absolute, 50
B.A., 28, 59-66
Board of Trade, 70-71
appointed lecturer, 80
C.G.S., 51
dimensions of, 50-57
electrical, 51-71
names of, 25, 58
of resistance, 23-24, 28, 5962, 72
82
portrait of, 101
lectures, 116-117, 257
55, 73,
134
of electrical,
ratio
knighted, 222
on
relation
between mathe-
80
early work on gaseous conduction, 82, 151-158
application of dynamics, 80,
117, 123-126
discovery of gaseous ions, 93,
VISCOSITY,
138
experiments on,
WAVE-SURFACE,
optical,
8,
35,
82
94
work on cathode
156, 168-172
on Corpuscles,' 96, 170
'Conduction of Electricity
through Gases,' 229
and
Electricity and Matter
Corpuscular
Theory of
230
Matter,'
Weston
cell,
Women
at
69-70
Cavendish Laboratory,
'
'
136-
35, 42
Workshop.^
8, 35,
82
'
'
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