Table of Contents

GEOGRAPHICAL AND CLIMATOLOGICAL PROFILE IN NEPAL..........................2

RELIGION IN NEPAL...................................................................................... 3
HINDU BUDDHIST HARMONY....................................................................3
EARLY REFERENCES TO NEPAL....................................................................6
PRE-HISTORIC NEPAL................................................................................... 7
LICHCHAVI ANCIENT SETTLEMENTS AND ARCHITECTURE.........................7
DAKSHINRAJAKULA................................................................................ 9
MANAGRIHA.......................................................................................... 9
KAILASHKUTA BHAVANA......................................................................10
BHADRADHIVASA BHAVANA................................................................11
VIHARAS AND CHAITYAS......................................................................11
TEMPLES.............................................................................................. 12
MALLA SETTLEMENTS AND ARCHITECTURE............................................13
MALLA PALACES..................................................................................... 16
CAUKOT DURBAR: PATAN PALACE........................................................17
TRIPURA LAYKU: BHAKTAPUR PALACE..................................................19
MALLA PERIOD BASIC HOUSE.................................................................21
BUDDHIST RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE......................................................24
BAHAS.................................................................................................... 25
BAHIS..................................................................................................... 27
MATHAS.................................................................................................. 28
THE TIERED TEMPLES............................................................................. 29
SHIKHARA AND DOME TEMPLES.............................................................33
DHARAMSALAS.......................................................................................... 34
STUPAS...................................................................................................... 34
UTILITIES................................................................................................ 36
SHAH AND RANA PERIOD ARCHITECTURE..................................................36
SYMBOLISM AND PROPORTION IN NEPALESE ARCHITECTURE....................40
SYMBOLISM............................................................................................ 40
PROPORTIONS........................................................................................ 42
References................................................................................................. 43

GEOGRAPHICAL AND CLIMATOLOGICAL PROFILE IN NEPAL

Nepal is a small, landlocked country, situated between Tibet (China) to its north, and
India to its east, west and south. At latitudes between 26 and 30 degrees north and
longitudes between 80 and 88 degrees east, the country covers an area of
147,181sq.km and stretches approximately 145-241 km. north to south and 850 km.
west to east. It has been said that, even though Nepals area is actually much the same
as that of the state of Florida in USA, if Nepal could be taken off the face of the earth
and laid flat, its area would equal that of the whole of the United States of America.
However, in fact, although occupying just 0.1% of the earths surface, Nepal is one of
the richest countries in the world in terms of bio-diversity due to its unique
geographical position and altitudinal variation. The elevation of the country ranges
from less than 100 meters above sea level in the Terai, to the highest point on earth,
the summit of Mt. Everest, at 8,848 meters, all within a distance of about 150km,
resulting in climatic conditions ranging from sub-tropical to Arctic.
Nepal is topographically divided into three regions: the Himalaya to the north, the
middle hills consisting of the Mahabharat range and the Churia Hills, and the Terai to
the south. The Himalaya and its foothills make up the northern border of the country
and represent 16% of the total land area. This is the least inhabited region of Nepal,
with less than 8% of the population living there. Most permanent settlements are at
less than 4000m altitude, although there are summer settlements as high as 5000m.
The middle hills cover about 65% of the total land area and are home to around 45%
of the population of the country. This area is the home of the ancient ethnic people of
Nepal. The climate is very good and most of Nepals lakes and beautiful valleys are
located in the middle hills. Areas in the eastern hills receive most rainfall because of
the monsoon clouds, which come from the Bay of Bengal. The middle hills provide a
very good habitat for wild life, such as leopard, deer, bear, monkeys, butterflies and
over four hundred indigenous species of birds.
The Terai is the southern part of Nepal and is an extension of the Gangetic plains of
India. It covers 17% of the total land area, providing excellent farming land as well as
space for large industrial areas. Until 1950, the Terai was predominantly an area of
heavily malarial sub-tropical forest, inhabited only by the Royal Bengal tiger, leopard,
wild boar, several species of deer, one-horned rhino, wild elephant and gharial and
mugger crocodiles. But after the eradication of malaria in the 1960s, many people
from the middle hills migrated to the Terai in search of farming land. Today, about
48% of the population occupies this region.
So Nepal has a very interesting and exciting bio-diversity due to its unique
geographical position and altitudinal variation. Probably, Nepal is only country in the
world, which could provide such opportunity: in a period of just two weeks it is
possible to travel from sub-tropical lowlands to alpine glaciers, to experience altitudes
from as low as 60m to the base of the highest mountain on the earth, temperatures
from +40 degrees celsius to -40 degrees celsius and a climate ranging from monsoon
and humid to dry rain shadow and frozen zone.
RELIGION IN NEPAL
2

In Nepal, Hinduism and Buddhism are the two main religions. The two have coexisted down the ages and many Hindu temples share the same complex as, Buddhist
shrines. Hindu and Buddhist worshippers may regard the same god with different
names
while
performing
religious
rites.
Nepal has been declared as a secular country by the Parliament on May 18, 2006.
Religions like Hindusim Buddhism, Islam, Christianity, and Bon are practiced here.
Some of the earliest inhabitants like the Kirats practice their own kind of religion
based on ancestor worship and the Tharus practice animism. Over the years,
Hinduism and Buddhism have been influenced by these practices which have been
modified to form a synthesis of newer beliefs.
Buddhism was introduced in Kathmandu valley by Emperor Ashoka of India around
250 BC. Later, around 8th century AD, the ancestors of the Sherpa's emigrated from
Tibet bringing with them a from of Buddhism. Known as Ningmapa Gurung's,
Tamang's, Serpa's and Newar's in kathmandu valley also follow Mahayaa Buddhism
and the famous temple of Swayambhu in Kathmandu and the Golden Temple or the
Hiranya Varna Mahabihar in Patan are visited mainly by Buddhist Newar's.
A few people have adopted a complex blend of both Hinduism and Buddhism known
as Bajrayana, which is mainly practiced in Kathmandu valley. A remarkable feature of
Nepal is thus the religious homogeneity that exists, particularly between the Hindu
and Buddhist communities. Apart from the Hindu's and Buddhists, Muslim (3.5%)
forms the third largest religious group. There has also been an increase in the number
of Christian' in Nepal in recent years, which number around 40000 although their
proportion in the population is less than 1 percent and 1.2 percent of other religion.

HINDU BUDDHIST HARMONY

Nepal is probably the only country where Hinduism and Buddhism have co-existed
continuously since very early times. In India, Buddhism died out in the 12 th century
with the rise of the Muslims whereas, in the extended countries such as Burma,
Thailand and Indochina, only Buddhism has survived. Celibacy in Buddhist monks is
normal in all the other countries, whereas, in Nepal the practice of celibacy among
monks gradually disappeared with the ascendancy of Tantric Buddhism.
Although looking at the worship of common deities, the similar pantheon of gods,
similar rituals and identical temple architecture it would appear the two religions
remained in harmony since early times, in reality there was tension between the two
religions at various periods of history. Vrisadeva, the early Lichchavi king is believed
to have committed self sacrifice and his grandson Dharmadeva was killed by his son
Manadeva because of their Buddhist leanings. Only their deaths could pacify the
opposing groups. Also the mass translocation of the Buddhist viharas from ChabahilGokarna area to Patan during the Lichchavi period suggests such a movement was
made probably for security reasons as Patan was mainly a Buddhists town. Conflicts
can also be deduced from the fact that religious texts of the two religions tried to
belittle each others gods and their deeds. Legends tell about Sankaracharyas
persecution of Buddhists and the merciless revenge of the Buddhamargis. The later
3

Lichchavi kings, the Thakuris and the Mallas all favored Hinduism, although they
continued to contribute to Buddhist viharas and temples as well. For example
Amsuvarman, a Sivite, extended patronage to Buddhists and also built a vihara. Later
Malla kings also repaired both Hindu temples and Buddhist viharas. Buddhism saw a
brief revival in the 12th century when the Buddhist teachers fled India and brought
along their texts and made Nepal a centre for Buddhist learning. Thereafter, with the
rise of Jayasthitimalla and the Gorkhalis Buddhism saw a continuous decline in
Nepal, further exacerbated by the caste system among the Buddhists and the growing
popularity of Vajrayana. However, in spite of the marked bias at the level of the ruling
elite, there was much more tolerance and harmony among the common people of the
two religions.
Both religions believe in karma and rebirth of the soul. Both seek release from the
endless chain of rebirths by achieving nirvana or moksa. Despite Buddhas
teaching to the contrary, Nepali Buddhists have a caste system similar to the Hindus.
After the advent of Mahayana Buddhism both share a similar pantheon of gods and
goddesses who have the same conceptual basis, have similar iconic forms and are
worshiped in much the same manner e.g. Siva-Avalokiteshwara, Parvati-Tara, IndraBodhisattva Vajrapani, Brahma-Bodhisattva Maitreya, Bhairav-Mahankal etc.
Brahmanical gods which were long established and popular were incorporated in the
Mahayana pantheon, their duties similar to the gods they were derived from (Slusser,
1982). As a result the two religions have similar cultural practices and rituals.
Both the religions were influenced by Tantrism, which did not introduce any
fundamental philosophical principles but it radically changed the rituals. Buddhist
schools that incorporated tantric ideas and principles were known as Vajrayana. Vajra
denotes thunderbolt and diamond. The thunderbolt signifies the flash of intuitive light
of perfection (siddhi) and the diamond symbolizes the indestructible quality of the
doctrine. The vajra, commonly held by Vajrayana deities, has been borrowed from the
Vedic rain god Indra (Slusser, 1982).
Tantric practice places emphasis on the supremacy of the female principles, probably
an continuation of the older cult of the Mother Goddesses. According to Hindu tantras
shakti emanates from the female principle which activates all matter. In Buddhism it
is the male symbol which is considered active. But it is common practice in both the
religions to apply the term shakti to all goddesses. Tantric deities of both religions
have both fierce and passive manifestations. They are multi-headed, multi-limbed and
have similar attributes.
Following the introduction of Tantrism in Buddhism, it came to be dominated by
priests like in Hinduism. This became even more entrenched as the caste system
which was practiced by the Hindus was also introduced among the followers of
Buddhism. The selection of a leader or the priest was no longer determined by
religious knowledge but by heredity and caste. The earlier monastic Buddhism, where
the monks and nuns remained celibate, was replaced by married priests who were
responsible for performing religious rituals.
The two religions have often been syncretic. Certain gods are worshiped by followers
of both religions. All Nepalis worship Pasupati, Bhagawati, Rato Machendranatha,
4

Ganesa, Hanuman, Indra and many other minor deities. Navadurgas (nine durgas) and
Astamatrikas (eight mothers) are universally worshiped. Similarly, Vajrayoginis or
Vidhyasvaris are equally revered as mothers (mais) or grandmothers (ajima). By the
6-7th century AD Buddha was inducted into the Hindu pantheon as one of the 10
incarnations of Vishnu. The two religions also worshiped the same gods but as
different deities. Jalasayana Narayan at Budhanilkantha is worshiped as Vishnu by the
Hindus but as a form of Buddha by the Buddhists. Guhyeswori is worshiped by the
Hindus as a form of Durga while the Buddhists believe her to be Prajnaparamita,
Agniyogini or Nairatma. The tantric Buddhist deity of Mahankal is considered by the
Hindus to be a form of Siva. Once a year on kartik sukla astami Pasupati is adorned
with a Bodhisattva crown and worshiped as Avalokiteshwara. Changu Narayan is
worshiped by the Buddhists as Bodhisattva Avalokiteshwara. Hindus worship
Machendranath while the Buddhists worship him as Avalokiteshwara. The Buddhist
goddess Hariti, goddess of smallpox, is worshiped by the Hindus as Sitala Mai.
A very peculiar syncretism of the religions is seen in the worship of the Kumari.
Kumari, the virgin manifestation of Durga, is worshiped in the body of a Buddhist
(Sakya) girl and her shrine is a vihara. Kumari Ghar has Kumaris personal shrine on
the top floor, principle deities of the Five Tathagatas on the ground floor and an
agama on the first floor. Hindu priests (Karmacharya, Achaju) are in charge of her
installation, Dasain activities and nitya puja while Vajracharyas worship her daily and
play a leading role in her chariot festival. The Kumari festival is participated in by
people of both religions. Everyone also participates in the festivals of Indra Jatra and
Machindranatha Jatra. During the festival of Indra Jatra Bares officiate as priests and
Buddhist Newars assist in celebration.
Bagh Bhairav of Kirtipur is worshiped by both Hindus and Buddhists. The main icon
is of clay and covered by a silver mask. When the icon is damaged, it is repaired or
replaced by a Vajracharya priest who collects clay from seven places around the
shrine of Mhaipi, between Paknajol and Balaju.
The shared religious philosophy of the two religions has led to common temple forms.
However, the majority of Buddhist religious buildings comprise of viharas and
chaityas while Hindu religious buildings primarily comprise of free standing temples
with various types of roofs. While all the major Hindu temples are tiered temples,
some of the prominent tiered Buddhist temples are the two tiered Machindra temples
at Kathmandu and Patan, the three tiered Vajrayogini temples at Pharping and Sankhu,
temple of Mahankal and Taradeo at Itumbahal. Temples built into the sides of
Buddhist viharas display the same features as that of the Hindu tiered temples.
There are many shikhara type Hindu temples but few Buddhist ones. One of the most
prominent and beautiful shikahara Buddhist structure is the Mahabouddha temple at
Patan. Two shikhara temples dedicated to Vajrayana deities exist at Swayambhu. The
free standing shikhara housing Machindranath (Padmapani Lokeswara) the kwapadya of Bunga Baha at Bungamati is another rare example. The Lon Degah (stone
temple) built in 1664 and the Sakyamuni Buddha Mandir (1649) at Kirtipur are other
good examples of Buddhist shikhara temples. Unlike the Hindu temples, no large
domed Buddhist temples exist, but the number of small Buddhist shrines with dome
5

roofs are innumerable. Both religions also have open shrines of deities but this
practice is more common for Hindu gods.

EARLY REFERENCES TO NEPAL

The earliest epigraphic records of Nepal are the pillars erected at Lumbini and Nigali
Sagar in 257 BC by the Mauryan emperor Ashoka (269-232 BC). The Lumbini pillar
inscriptions record that Ashoka came to pray at the spot because Lord Buddha was
born there. The inscription on the other pillar at Nigali Sagar refers to the repair and
expansion in size of the stupa of a previous Buddha called Konakama in 254 BC and
his personal visit and offering of reverence in 249 BC. Legendary accounts of
Ashokas visit to Nepal are not substantiated by Indian or Sri Lankan records. The
five Ashoka Stupas of Patan have been credited to Ashoka, four lie at the cardinal
corners of the city while one is situated in the centre, however, Slusser contends
stupas may be funerary mounds of pre-Buddhist origin and may predate the Mauryan
period (Slusser, 1982) Neils Gutschow and Tiwari, however, do not accept this and
believe they are no older than 16thcentury (Tiwari, 2001). The four chaityas associated
with Ashoka are claimed by other Buddhist legends to be Chilancho Chaitya of
Kirtipur, Swayambhu Chaitya, Chabahil Chaitya of Devpatan and the Patuko mound
of Patan (Tiwari, 2001).Svayambhu Purana account of Ashokas daughter Charumati
marrying a local prince Devapala and establishing Deopatan and a vihar of her name
is also not substantiated by Indian and Sri Lankan records. (Slusser, 1982)
The epigraphic record of the valley is pushed back significantly by the discovery in
1992 of a stone sculpture of King Jaya Varma dated 185 AD (Slusser, 1982). Ancient
Brahmi script states he is the 4 th king who died in the year 107 Saka Samvat, which
coincides with Jayadev II record on the stele at Pashupati and the account
of Gopalarajavamsavalis. Before the Jaya Varma inscription, the earliest dated
document of the valley was the stone inscription at Changu Narayan erected by
Mandeva in 464 AD.
Buddhist chronicles refer to monks at Sravasti, an important trading centre (Set Mahet
village by the Rapti river) who joined a group of wool merchants bound for Nepal but
who had to return because of the difficult passage. This clearly indicated trading
existed between India and Kathmandu Valley during 5-6th century BC. (Slusser, 1982)
Kathmandu was connected to the Uttarapatha, the great northern Indian trade route
which passed through the Sakya capital of Kapilavastu and existed at least from the
6th century BC and connected the eastern Gangetic basin with the civilization of the
Near East. The Uttarapatha was connected to another great trade route, the
Dakshinapatha which was connected to the Buddhist communities of Sanchi and
Ujjain. In early 7th century AD the Tibetan nation was established which brought
tranquility to the surrounding territory. From then on Nepal became the preferred
trade route between Tibet and India. Till the late 18 thcentury, trade was the primary
source of the Valleys wealth and its main raison detre. (Slusser, 1982)
Mauryan statesman Kautilya (244 BC) referred to woolen blankets from Nepal in
Arthasastra (Slusser, 1982). Italian excavations in Hadigaon unearthed built cultural
remains dating back to 150 BC ( Tiwari, 2001). Since the timing is relatively close to
6

the time of Kautilya, conclusions can be drawn that settlement of distinct urban
pattern existed to accommodate such heightened economic activities. The history of
settlements in the valley can thus be pushed back more than 600 years from
established date of historical beginning. (Tiwari, 2001)
Hsuan-tsang, Chinese pilgrim to India in mid 7 th century heard in Vaisali about red
copper, yak, Mingming bird and use of copper coins in Nepal. Wang Hsuan-tse,
Chinese envoy on his way from the Tang court to meet Harshavardhana at Kanauj,
visited Kathmandu valley in the mid 7th century during the reign of Narendradeva and
noted that merchants, fixed and itinerant, were numerous and cultivators rare.
(Slusser, 1982)
The 4TH century AD pillar inscription of Samudragupta at Allahabad lists Nepala as
a frontier state. Tang dynasty, contemporaries of Lichchavis, referred to Nepal as Nipo-lo

PRE-HISTORIC NEPAL

LICHCHAVI ANCIENT SETTLEMENTS AND ARCHITECTURE

By early Lichchavi period, settlements existed at Sanga (Sangagrama), Banepa, Nala,
Panauti, Khopasi, Palanchowk, Dumja and probably Dolakha, Lele (Lembatidrangga),
Chitlang valley and even upto Gorkha. Within the Valley settlements occurred at
Daxinakoligram, Deopatan, Hadigaon, Budhanilkantha, Thankot, Naxal
(Jonjondingrama), Jamal (Jamayambi), Kisipidi (Kichpringgrama) etc. (Slusser,
1982).
During Lichchavi period, grama meant settlement of Lichchavi creation or expansion
and are not indicative of villages. Drangga was not a physical classification but a type
of administrative power given by the state (Tiwari, 1982). Pringga generally referred
to settlements on the crests of hillocks and the suffix was never used for places with
Sanskrit names. This suggests pringgas refer to settlements from Kirata period whose
names had remained popular for a long time eg. Khopringgrama pradesha (eastern
part of Bhaktapur), Jolpringgrama (NW of Thankot), Lohpring and Muhpring (E and
NE of Pasupati). Settlements on slopes of hillocks usually carried the suffix dula
such as Kadulagrama, Mekandidula, todays Kupandole etc.
Lichchavi towns were situated along a number of trade routes crisscrossing the valley.
The towns were fairly compact with distinct urban character. Apart from agriculture
including production of cash crops, other activities were pursued such as animal and
fish farming, mining and metal processing, cotton weaving, forestry, trading etc.
Weaving of cloth was practiced at Thankot which is still continued. There was
extensive trading with the southern neighboring states and high levels of commercial
activities existed as evidenced by minted coins and measuring units and scales. Such
non-agriculture activities indicate certain degree of urbanization. The defense and
administrative services also appear to be highly organized into functional departments
and regional divisions for taxation and security etc. Many types of taxes were levied
7

e.g. on land, orchard produce such as garlic and onions, exports, cloth, oil, shops,
agriculture implements, animal farming, entertainment etc. Tax collection centres
were located close to temples and at the palace gates. Settlements do not appear to be
walled as in the later Malla period. Pedestrian and wheeled traffic routes linked the
different settlements and the roads had various classifications such as marga,
mahapath, brihatpath, hastimarga etc.
Unlike during the earlier times when settlements were laid on the lower slopes of the
hills and drinking water sources were close by, many Lichchavi settlements were
located on the high lands (tar) of the valley, far away from hill water sources and in
areas with relatively low water tables. To provide them with adequate water, the
Lichchavis developed ponds with deep wells or which were fed by canals bringing
water over great distances. Sometimes naturally available water veins or reservoirs
were used to supply water to depressed pit conduits (dhunge dharas). The distance
from the source or reservoir determined the depth of the pit conduits. Some of the
dhunge dharas are still working today.
The towns were either palace centric or temple centric. Palace centric towns were the
capital city with the palace as the central focus. Maneswar (Hadigaon) where
Managriha was built was the first palace centric town. Temple centric towns were
built around important temples. Some of the early temple centric towns were
Bhringagrama (Sunakothi), Lembatigrama (Lele), Bungamati, Deopatan and
Narasimhagrama (near Budhanilkantha). Settlements also grew up around the tax
offices which formed the central urban space such as at Stharudrangga (Chapagaon)
and Kichpringgrama (Kisipidi). By late Lichchivi or early Malla period towns came to
polarize around centres having both a temple and tax offices. Stone water conduits
were often built near these complexes. As taxes were collected close to the water
spouts, these were frequently referred to as bhansar dhara. In palace centric towns
the palace gates served as tax collection points and location of water conduits (Tiwari,
1989).
The Lichchavis established Dakshinkoligrama at the confluence of Bagmati and
Vishnumati. Bajracharya and Slusser believe the name was derived from Koligrama
which existed to the north. Tiwari refutes this argument by proposing that the name
was derived from the people of "Kaula sect" who practiced Tantrik worship facing
east so that their right hands lay to the south (Tiwari, 1982).
Hadigaon was the capital of early Lichchavis and the location of Mangriha, the palace
of Manadeva. Gopararajavamsavalirefers to Hadigaon as Nandala. It was known as
Andipringga but acquired the Sanskrit name Haripura during the transitional period
which changed to Harigrama, Harigaon and finally to Hadigaon (clay pot villagespecial clay extracted to form telia bricks (Slusser, 1982). It lay on the principal trade
route from Daxinakoligram to Tibet on the Kampo-Yambi route (linking present day
Kapan and Indrachowk). It remained the capital until the capital was shifted to
Kathmandu during the transitional period.
According to the Bhasavamsavali King Gunakamadeva is supposed to have built
Gunapo palace and established Kathmandu in the form of a sword between the
Bagmati and Vishnumati rivers as per the advice of Goddess Mahalaxmi in a dream.
8

This legend was probably a way of legitimizing the shifting of the capital city from
Hadigaon to Kathmandu sometime during 942-1008 AD. The Kampo-Yambi highway
probably formed the centre line of the sword and confirmed the amalgamation of
Yambi and Yangala (north and south Kathmandu).
Bhavanas refer to palaces. Viharas were called viharas but no mention is made of
chaityas which were probably included in the viharas. Prasada as well as bhavana was
also used to refer to Hindu structures housing images of gods or Sivalinga. Palaces
were located within settlements whereas viharas seemed to be situated in rural areas, a
few being located within or on the fringe of urban areas. Temples were also generally
sited within settlements and often formed the central space. Six palaces are mentioned
in the Lichchavi inscriptions: Dakshinrajakula, Managriha, Kailashkuta bhavana,
Bhadradivasa bhavana, Salamburajabasaka and Pundrirajakula (Tiwari, 1989).
DAKSHINRAJAKULA
Anshuvarman mentions this palace and probably refers to a very old palace, older
than Mangriha. D. Bajracharya suggests it was located at Hanuman Dhoka but Tiwari
believes it lay SE of Jaisedeval and south of Hadigaon, across all rivers in Patan. He
suggests it refers to the Kirata palace around Patukodon since chronicles mention last
palace of the Kiratas to be the first palace of the Lichchavis. The site was also known
as the centre of practice of Daxina Buddhism (Tiwari, 2001).
MANAGRIHA
Manadeva built Managriha during his long reign of 464-505 AD. He probably felt the
need to build a new palace because of the patricide, however, the new palace was
named after him by his son only after his death. The first edict was issued by his
successor Vasantadeva in 506 AD which began with Um Swasti Managrihat and
symbolized the palace as the seat of power (Tiwari, 2001). Edicts continued to be
issued from the palace until 641 AD by Bhimarjunadeva, the puppet king under
Vishnugupta who lived in Kailashkutabhawana.
Jayadev IIs Narayan Chaur edict describes Managriha as an extensive walled
compound, pierced with several gateways and contained a preksanamandapi. From
Amshuvarmans description, the palace housed the royal family and many palace
functionaries. It also contained a number of shrines and temples and a stable for
coronation horse and elephant (Slusser, 1982). Managriha probably was of trikuta
design and had a moat around it. There were public entrances on the east and west
sides. A Siva linga temple existed in the north-west corner of the main central court.
To the south there was a forecourt with a pavilion for public audience. The outermost
court or raja-agana had a prekshana-mandapi to its south which was a pavilion to
screen visitors to the palace.
Both the Jayadev II and Amshuvarman edicts are in Hadigaon and refer to Managriha,
probably indicating its location there. According to Slusser, Karttikeya, the
commander of the gods, which normally graces temples in the capital city has six
faces, six arms, twelve eyes and twelve or six ears. Such a statue appears to the west
of Hadigaon, guarding the western gate, thereby confirming the capital city status of
Hadigaon and the location of Managriha there. (Slusser, 1982) Tiwari locates the
9

palace to the area generally north of Bal Mandir and to the SE of the current
Manamaneswori temple (Tiwari, 2001). Coins were minted during the Lichchavi
period and there was a place referred to as Tamrakuttasala close to Managriha. The
Kampo-Yambi highway was supposed to have passed at some distance from the
palace to the west.
KAILASHKUTA BHAVANA
Kailashkutabhavana was built by Amshuvarman (605-621 AD). Construction may
have begun during the time of Sivadeva I, predecessor of Amshuvarman when
citizens of Kurppasi (Khopasi) were instructed to furnish 50 varieties of clay for the
door opening festival and Kailasha festival. This suggests the palace may have been
whitewashed as was the practice in contemporary India. First edict from the palace
was issued in 605 AD. The Guptas who usurped power and later Narendradeva (643679) and his descendents till Jayadeva II issued edicts from Kailashkuta bhavana,
denoting that the ruler had shifted residence from Managriha to Kailashkutabhavana
(Slusser, 1982).
Two steles, first dated 606 AD erected by Amshuvarman are located at a dabali at the
east end of Hadigaon. One addresses the palace officers and seeks their obedience and
was probably located in the centre of the palace or at the main gate. The other
inscription is about the amount of annual grant to religious and administrative
institutions from the state treasury and was probably located outside the palace gate
dealing with such grants. The location of the steles suggest the palace was situated
somewhere near Dabali of Hadigaon (Tiwari, 2001).
According to Chinese annals, the Chinese ambassador Wang Hsuan Tse described
Kailashkutabhavana as a storied structure 200 tcheu high and 80 pou (400 ft.) in
circumference able to accommodate 10,000 men. It is divided into three terraces, each
divided into 7 storeys. In the four pavilions there are sculptures which are decorated
with gems and pearls. In the middle of the palace there is a tower seven storeys high
roofed with copper tiles. Its balustrades, grilles, columns, beams and everything are
set with gems and semi-precious stones. At each of the four corners of the tower
descend copper water pipes, at the base of which water spout forth from water
dragons. From the summit of the tower, water is poured into troughs which gushes
forth like fountains from the mouth of dragons (Slusser, 1982).
The Chinese ambassadors description suggests the palace was of Trikuta design, i.e.
with three courtyards, probably as Tiwari suggests in the North-south axis (Tiwari,
2001). There was no exit from the NE to the south. The South Gate was provided a
much higher grant than the other gates suggesting it was the main gate which had a
military checkpoint and tax and administrative offices for the different parts of the
valley. The reference to Pratalya also seems to suggest there was either a chariot way
or a covered walkway linking the south gate to the inner courts. Then there was the
west gate from the lower court which also had a security checkpoint indicating the
south court was accessible to the public. Above it in the middle court was the
Managriha gate also facing west and above it another gate. A gate also existed in the
north side. The middle court led only to Managriha while the west gate on the upper
court led to a still older palace Madhyamarajakula built by Bhumiverman, the first
10

Lichchvi king to set up his capital in Andipringga. As no security barriers appear to

have been set up in the Mangriha gate, Madhyamarajkula gate and the north gate,
there probably was free passage between the palaces which would suggest that they
were contiguous (Tiwari, 2001).
Classical texts required gates to the east so its absence probably meant that access was
not possible because of a stream or a lake to the SE. The Chinese ambassador also
mentioned a lake was visible from the terrace (Tiwari, 2001). Impressive waterworks
leads one to believe that the water mechanic held an important position and this is
substantiated by the higher salary allocated to him.
The palace structure was probably constructed mainly of wood and bricks as indicated
by the bricks with Amsuvarmans name unearthed in Hadigaon. (Slusser, 1982)
Kailashkuta bhavana had more than four temples and five gates. However, there is no
mention of the temples in the Chinese annals which should not have missed these
when such a detailed description of the palace had been provided. This would
probably indicate that the temples were either not grand structures or did not form
focal points in the squares or were confined to the private quarters of the palace. It
appears palace temples were given prominence only later during the Malla period
(Tiwari, 2001).
Slusser argues that Kailashkutabhavana was probably located in Kathmandu in the
vicinity of Jaisideval because of the presence of the statue of Kartikkaya in the
vicinity whereas Tiwari firmly believes the palace was located in Hadigaon, to the SE
of Managriha and Manamaneshwari, to the south of Gahana Pokhari which was the
source of the water for the palace waterworks (Tiwari, 2001).
BHADRADHIVASA BHAVANA
Narendradeva issued three edicts between 671-679 AD from Bhadradhivasa bhavana.
Slusser suggests it refers to Kailashkutabhavana, not another palace, used while it was
being repaired (Slusser, 1982). Tiwari disagrees and suggests Bhadradhivasabhavana
could be a palace located in Patan where Narendradeva took up residence after he was
ousted from Kailashkutabhavana due to palace intrigue as a result of his attraction to
Buddhism (Tiwari, 2001).
VIHARAS AND CHAITYAS
Lichchavi inscriptions indicate existence of 14 viharas. Srimanadeva vihara,
Abhayaruchi vihara, Chaturbhalatanasana vihara, Kharjurika vihara, Madhyama
vihara, Sivadeva vihara and Varta Kalyanagupta vihara were thought to lie in the same
general area. Sriraja vihara which was also close to them was thought to lie NE of
Gokarna. Thus all the above viharas were probably located between Chabahil and
Gokarna. Sivadeva vihara is probably the same as Bouddhanath and Gum vihara lies
at its current location at Vajrayogini (Tiwari, 2001).
There seems to be an absence of viharas in Patan during the Lichchavi period
although there was a concentration of viharas during the medieval period. During the
period following Lichchavi, a strong conflict appears to have developed between
Brahmanism and Buddhism. Manadeva's father probably was a victim of such
conflict. As a result there appears to be a total relocation of the Buddhist population of
11

the area between Chabahil and Gokarna to Patan (Tiwari, 2001). The Lichchavi
viharas probably housed celibate monks and nuns practicing Mahayana Buddhism and
were generally located away from settlements. By the time of the transitional period,
Bajrayana had fully flourished and celibate monks and nuns had given way to married
bhikshus. The design and location of the viharas were changed to accommodate their
married status. They came to be located within dense settlements (Tiwari, 2001).
Locke, however, believes the two schools of Buddhism existed alongside since early
Lichchavi times and Bajrayana slowly gained ascendancy until celibacy in monks
died out altogether (Locke, 1985).
Gopalarajavamsavali informs that Vrisadeva built Swayambhu chaitya, Dharmadeva
built Dharmode chaitya, Manadeva built Gum Vihara and Sivadeva I built
Bouddhanath. The exact form of the earlier chaityas is difficult to determine as they
are hidden within later enlarged structures. It was a common practice in India and
Nepal to enlarge existing stupas while carefully preserving the original sacred
structures within. It is therefore not uncommon to find original images within deep
niches.
Dharmadeva stupa and Mahamayuri stupa (Gum vihara) are probably most
approximate to their original size and appearance, however, the finial is probably of
later date. The original structures of Swayambhu and Bouddha have been completely
transformed during restorations (Slusser, 1982). Nothing is known of the original
structures but the pointed finial with 13 stages became standard only after the
11thcentury (it increased from 5 to 9 to 13). The practice of painting eyes on the
Harmika may also have begun only after the 15th century (Slusser, 1982).
TEMPLES
Twenty-four temples are mentioned in the Lichchavi inscriptions. Pashupati and
Dolashikharaswami (Changu Narayan) were of greatest importance. Changu predates
Manadeva, whereas he is credited with the construction of Maneshwara, current
Manamaneshwari where Siva linga is placed inside the temple (Tiwari, 2001).
Jalasayi Narayana (Budhanilkantha) was established by Vishnugupta. Other important
temples were Kailashwara, Narasimhadeva, Rameshwara, Hansagrihadeva etc.
The Lichchavis used specific suffixes to denote the dedicated god. Swami was used to
denote Vishnu, Iswara to denote Shiva, Deva to denote Vishnu avatars and Devakula
to denote Kirata temples or temples housing more than one image Temples were not
the major elements of central urban spaces such as palace squares. This form was
developed much later by the Mallas (Tiwari, 2001).
Multi-tiered temples of brick and timber probably existed during Lichchavi time. This
can be determined partly by Wang Hsuan tses description of Lichchavi structures but
mainly from Amshuvarmans 610 AD edict where he had donated funds for the
restoration of a temple in Matingrama (Sundhara tol, Patan) because the bricks had
been disturbed and the timber of the doors and windows had become old and broken
(Slusser, 1982). This brick and timber temple Matin-devakula, which housed mother
goddesses, was obviously non-Lichchavi and of Kirata origin.

12

Italian excavation at Hadigaon discovered the foundations of a temple dating to the

2nd century BC. The foundation was of a typical Navagraha plan (nine holes in
foundation) based on Vastupurushamandala (Tiwari, 2001). This is an example of a
brick and timber temple, square in plan, probably with sloping roofs. The temple is
credited to the Kirata period but such structures must definitely have influenced
Lichchavi construction. Lichchavi period small temples were built of timber posts
with bricks as infill. Such temples were common in India in the early Gupta period. It
was only during the Malla period when the structural materials were reversed, with
bricks serving as the structural element and timber as the filler material.
According to chronicles, Haridattavarman, an undocumented Lichchavi king is
credited with the construction of four hilltop temples dedicated to Narayana: Changu
Narayan, Ichangu Narayan, Sikhara Narayan and Lokapalasvamin. The last temple
along with the town of Hamsagrihadranga where it was located exists no more.
Currently Bishankhu Narayan is referred to as the lost temple.
Gunakamadeva is credited with the repair of the 5 storied Pashupati temple and
remodeling it into a 3 storied temple. Since the technology of constructing more than
two tiers was developed much later, this does not seem plausible. Both types of
ambulatory temples, the chariot and palanquin (ratha and khata) were familiar in
Lichchavi times. The jatra of Machchindranatha was regulated by Narendradeva.
Stone and brick shikara type of temples, familiar in India, were also probably known
in Lichchavi period. Nepali worship is fundamentally an individual matter so Nepali
temples have no provision for congregation as in the Indian temples.

MALLA SETTLEMENTS AND ARCHITECTURE

Much of the Malla architecture that can be observed today began with the coming to
power of Jayasthitimalla in 1382. The time of the Mallas, especially after the breakup
of the kingdom, is often referred to as the golden period of art and architecture in
Nepal. The relative political stability and wealth from agriculture and trade as well as
the rivalry among the three cities to outdo each other led to highly developed urban
spaces and architectural forms.
After the establishment of Tripura palace at the western end of Bhaktapur in 1147 by
Anandadeva, efforts were made to reshape the city along the Astamatrika plan,
whereby the matrikas were placed around the periphery of the town with the temple of
Tripura Sundari at the centre. The theoretical pattern could not be strictly followed
because of the elongated shape of the town. In Kathmandu the perimeter goddesses
were believed to be placed on the periphery of a sword shaped plan during the reign
of Gunakamadeva (c. 10th century). By encircling the city with the statues of
Astamatrikas, the king achieved the twin objectives of sanctifying the city as well as
demarcating its territorial limits. The shrines also acted as a barrier to check
unplanned urban sprawl and in effect the city grew through infill development.
In Nepal the passage from rural to urban did not imply an abrupt change in
construction patterns or difference in economic activities as in the west. The majority
of the city dwellers were engaged in agriculture and the buildings and settlement
13

patterns of the rural areas resembled those of the cities and towns. Tar land was not
good for agriculture so all settlements were built on the uplands. The fertile low lands
were reserved for agricultural purposes. This practice was continued until recent times
and was disregarded during the rapid urbanization during the 80s and 90s.
Movements within the city were designed for the Gods, the living and the dead. The
movement of the Gods was designed along major streets for the movement of chariots
and festivals from temple to temple, palace and piths. The movement of the living was
designed to allow them to fulfil their functional requirements: performing the daily
religious rituals such as bathing in rivers and sacred ponds and offering pujas to Gods,
going to farms and markets. These movements generated a pattern of movement
connecting the rivers, ponds, temples, farms and markets to the residences. Towns
were normally located on high lands close to water sources to meet such requirements
and temples were even located at river sides so a person could retain his purity after
the ritual bath before offering puja. As farmlands were all around the settlements,
there was growth of radial roads leading out to the farms and rivers. The streets would
join as they reached the town and the nodal points developed into squares. The
squares gained social importance as they got progressively closer to the city centre,
finally converging on the Durbar square which was the central nodal point.
It was considered inauspicious for the dead to encounter the gods on the way to the
funeral ghats. Thus the route for the dead followed narrow back lanes, avoiding the
routes of the wheeled chariots of Gods, never going over bridges and only when it
was physically impossible, the route of lesser Gods was taken. The stoppage and
intermingling was designed only for the Gods and the living, resulting in squares,
while no nodes were designed for the dead (Tiwari, 1989).
The streets were always designed in straight line segments; at every turn a temple or
religious landmark was placed. The reduction of the streets into short straight sections
reduced the visual effect of narrowness. Intersections were usually developed into a
small square so as to bring in more light and sky into visual play. The bounding
surfaces of the streets were designed and treated for visual harmony, through
uniformity in building sections, elevational treatment of doors and windows, roofs
and horizontal elements. The sloping ga-jhya on the upper floor allowed observance
of the street activities from the privacy of the house. It was designed not for sun and
sky but for a better field of vision of the street below (Tiwari, 1989).
Hierarchy of squares was maintained in Malla towns in accordance to social cultural
activity: the Durbar square or central square, the market square, the residential
neighbourhood square and the private residential square. All except the private
residential square were located at nodal points or where directional change occurred
in the streets (Tiwari, 1989).
The private residential square was bounded by houses of the same extended families
and was connected to the street through a doorway. The square could have a votive
miniature temple or a well. The residential neighborhood square often housed a large
number of extended families, often belonging to the same clan. It differs visually from
the private residential square in that two or more streets come to meet there. They

14

have public religious edifices such as temples or a large water spout. Being basically
residential squares, the temples are not of dominating volume.
The market square is remarkable for its heightened sense of urban space. It is the
typical nodal square located at street intersections and often has more than one
element of visual focus. The element of surprise is heightened by the fact that the
main focus is often the last to be seen e.g. Nyatapola square. The tiered temples are
visually dominant bounded by the uniform faade of commercial residential
buildings. The axes of movement is changed leading to a different focus. Platforms
are located for the transaction of produces but the squares are most active during
times of cultural events.
The Durbar square is the apex in the hierarchy of urban open spaces. All the streets
lead to it and it is flanked by the palace on one side and a whole phalanx of temples
on the other side. Major temples or their replicas are located there. By royal decree all
major festivities either began, passed through or ended in these squares and they came
alive during the continuous cycle of festivities.
Temples became the dominant feature of the Durbar squares during the Malla period.
It began with the construction of the lineage goddess Taleju Bhawani in the palace
precincts of Tripura (c. 1300 AD) followed by the construction of temples in the
palace foregrounds, ultimately rivaling the palaces for dominance of the squares. The
temple building activity was so extensive that temples began to be erected even in the
secondary and even smaller squares of the city, e.g. Kumbeshwara temple area (c.
1390 AD), Datratraya Matha area (c. 1450 AD), Nyatapola square (c. 1704),
Jaisideval area and Indrachowk. Even street ends and corners began to look imposing
with the introduction of the temples (Tiwari, 1989).
The main streets were paved with stones while side streets were paved with bricks.
Water supply was based on a system of springs, wells and ponds. Natural underground
water flows were connected to hitis. Water was also brought from distant sources to
feed the hitis. Water for household and religious purposes was often drawn from
wells. Water from the hitis and springs were collected in open tanks (pokharis) which
were used for commercial and household purposes.
Jayasthitimalla had designated 36 kar or occupational groups such as Tamrakar,
Silpakar, Chitrakar etc. and population was settled according to their occupation. The
central palace was immediately ringed by the Pradhans, Amatyas etc. and other castes
were settled in concentric patterns on a decreasing hierarchical order with the
untouchables occupying the outermost outskirts of the city.
Occupational groups also tended to be loosely grouped in specified areas of the city.
For example, in Patan, Jyapus were concentrated in the NE quarter of the town,
bronze casters in the SE, goldsmiths in the NW, coppersmiths in the city centre.
Certain towns also had specialized functions: Bhaktapur in dyeing and printing of
cloth, Thimi in pottery, Khokana in oil pressing, Patan in metallurgy etc.
Mallas preferred bricks as the main structural material and used timber, richly carved ,
as the filler material, as opposed to the timber and stone preferred as structural
elements by the preceding Lichchavis. Although wood carving probably existed
15

during the Lichchavi period, the richly carved windows were a contribution of the
Mallas. The Lichchavis were familiar with bricks but brick making was much more
advanced during the Malla period. They introduced the polished telia bricks and the
highly decorative brick moldings, which was not known to the Lichchavis.
Expansion of palaces was done through addition of quadrangles to an existing
structure as it would require only two to three sides to complete the enclosure.
Expansion took place normally in a geometric fashion, however, squares were often
added in an informal pattern depending on the need or site/street layout.
Because of the religious dogma that dwellings should not be higher than the house of
Gods, the settlements upto the 14thcentury probably did not exceed two storeys.
Mahendra Malla is believed to have received divine inspiration to construct a three
tiered temple dedicated to Taleju in Kathmandu. The architects were at a loss as to
how to construct it and they built it in 1564 only after they had been enlightened by
a sanyasi(Slusser, 1982). Thus it is apparent that temples with three or more tiers
appeared only from the mid 16th century. This allowed the secular buildings also to be
raised in height beginning from the late 16th century. The rationale for building
vertically was necessitated by the growing population and the scarcity of inner urban
land (Parajuli, 1986).
For the Malla period structures, foundations were generally built of bricks with or
without footings as sometimes the width of the wall was considered adequate enough
to serve as foundation. Floors consisted of wooden joists placed 4-6" apart laid over
with wooden planks, clay and tiles. The roofs had ridges. The central post supporting
the ridge beam was raised like a king post but without the supporting struts.
The roofing rafters were closely spaced, covered with planks and laid over with a
thick layer of clay and tile on top. The heavy roof overhangs were supported on struts.
The doors and windows were non-load bearing and were richly carved.

MALLA PALACES
Residence of kings was similar to wealthy homes except that it was more elaborate
and had more space and quadrangles. Woodworks were more intricately carved,
double columns and brackets were used and floor joists were extended beyond the
walls and carved at the ends. These were meshed with elaborate courses of decorative
tiles and carved wood.
Sajhyas were expanded to form continuous galleries and projected as short brackets.
Carved nonfunctional panels were attached on either side of doors with toranas over
the doorways. Facing bricks of deep red lustrous glazed finish were used and tiles
were used as protective cornices
Ground floors were used as guard room, reception (phalacha) and functions of the
royal office. The royal chapel was a separate agamchem and other temples were
scattered throughout the compound. The treasury was located in an attached garden
known as the Bhandarkhal. There were no cat-windows in palaces suggesting dining
areas were someplace else.
16

Expansion was made by attaching quadrangles instead of wings. Bhaktapur was once
believed to have 99 quadrangles, Kathmandu 55 but Patan had less than a dozen
(Slusser, 1982). Palaces served as forts and were referred to as kvachem. Tripura
palace was known as kvachem and Patan palace aschaukota or four-cornered fort after
a fortified building standing at its northern end. Palaces had pleasure pavilions, ponds,
fountains, baths and gardens.
Despite the larger scale and richer embellishment, the palaces still retained the scale
and harmony with the other buildings surrounding them, unlike the European palaces
and the durbars of the Ranas. They had no special orientation and the addition of
quadrangles was done in an informal manner so that the palaces did not require the
wide axes and the large gardens of the Indian and Western palaces.
After the conquest of Prithvi Narayan Shah, Kathmandu served as the capital so the
palace structures of Patan and Bhaktapur stopped functioning as the residence of
kings and instead housed various departments. After 1885, the royal residence was
shifted to the Narayan Hiti Durbar, which earlier belonged to Jung Bahadurs brother
Rana Uddip Singh, and the Hanuman Dhoka palace came to be used only for royal
ceremonies such as coronations, marriages, festivals etc.

CAUKOT DURBAR: PATAN PALACE

The palace is located at the center of the city facing a large temple filled square. It
consists of four quadrangles and since it has been spared large scale remodeling, it has
best preserved the Malla period character. Unlike the other palaces at Kathmandu and
Bhaktapur where foreign design elements and plastered surfaces were introduced, the
Patan durbar maintains a completely traditional appearance with brick walls, carved
doors, windows, struts and cornices and tiled tiered roofs.
During Lichchavi times Patan existed as Yupagrama, suggesting the Lichchavis had
built upon an earlier Kirata settlement. The ancient city was situated at the crossroads
and nobles or mahapatras built their mansions along the crossroad during the
transitional period. Caukot, or four-cornered fort, from which the name of the palace
has been derived, had stood at the northern end of the palace complex next to
Manidhara prior to the construction of other palace buildings. This is where the Kirata
palace is also supposed to have existed. The existing Mani Kesar Narayan Chowk still
maintains pavilions at the corners of the roof which was common in forts.
Some of the earliest structures of the durbar square are the temples to Vishnu built by
Purandarasimha who ruled Patan as the mahapatra for much of the late sixteenth
century: Cara Narayan, a temple with two tiered roofs built over a two stage plinth
and shikhara temple of Narayan built in 1566 and 1589 respectively.
Patan was annexed in 1597 AD by the Kathmandu king Sivasimhamalla and came to
be ruled by the Malla kings. The chronicles confirm that Sivasimha built a temple to
Degutale. He also adopted the buildings of the mahapatras and constructed other
buildings. The Caukot or the four-cornered fort was already in existence at the
northern end of the current complex near the Manidhara.
17

The current palace structures are credited mainly to the father-son pair of
Siddhinarsimha and Srinivasa who together reigned between 1619-1684).
Siddhinarasimha built the Degutale over a four storied structure in 1641 and gave it
five roofs, however, the temple was destroyed by fire during the early reign of
Srinivasa. In 1646/47 Siddhinarsimha built Sundari Chowk and a tank and fountain of
Bhandarkhal to please his tutelary Taleju. The Sundari Chowk was a totally new
construction which expanded the existing palace southward and was built at the site of
Hatko bahal which was dismantled and translocated to another site west of the square
at the present site of Haka-bahal (Ratnakara Mahavihara) (Slusser, 1982). He also
built Visvesvara in 1627 and the stone shikhara Krishna temple in 1637. The Krishna
temple is a square three-storied stone structure with a shikhara roof, topped by a
gilded amalaka and gajur. It is built on a raised plinth and has important scenes from
the Mahabharat and Ramayana carved in bas-relief. Three miniature pavilions with
inverted lotus domes, gilded amalakas and gajurs occur on each side of the first and
second floors. The ground floor has a colonnaded circumambulatory passageway.
Srinivasan undertook to rebuild the palace structure from one end to the other. He
rebuilt Degutale which was destroyed by fire, but with only three roofs over a five
storey structure. This design was copied by Pratapmalla during the construction of the
Kathmandu Degutale. The temple was destroyed in the 1934 earthquake and was
reconstructed. It was again restored in 1969. In 1666 he totally restored Mulchowk
and introduced the practice of celebrating Dasain in the chowk by building a Taleju
temple in the southern wing of the court. The images of Ganga and Jamuna flank the
temple doorway as in the Mulchowk temples of Kathmandu and Bhaktapur. He built
the chief roof top temple of Taleju with odd octagonal shaped roofs, probably over a
previous temple, at the north east corner of Mulchowk. He built a new agamchem in
the NW corner of Mulchowk with three different shaped roofs: rectangular, octagonal
and circular. This temple was destroyed in the 1934 earthquake and was not restored
in its original structure. In the two storied wings of the courtyard lived the palace
priests. The courtyard was used to perform various dances and ceremonies to which
the people of Patan were invited. In 1680 he restored or enlarged the northernmost
Caukot quadrangle also currently known as Mani Keshar Narayan Chowk after the
small Vishnu temple in the courtyard. The southern side fell down a half century later
and was razed and rebuilt by Vishnumalla. Extensive renovations were made in the
19th century when a 4th floor and golden door (Lumjhya) were added. Srinivasan also
constructed the Bhimsena temple in 1680.
Unlike the other palaces where the temples are built in different directions, the
temples of Patan durbar square all face the palace. The quadrangles of the palace also
appear to have no interconnection to each other and were probably built as separate
units. They are also nearly perfect squares and probably most closely resemble the
original. Their main gates lead to the palace square while a small gate leads to the
gardens at the rear. The main gates are flanked by small gates which are too small for
use and are apparently not functional doors as entry to the rooms is obtained from the
courtyards.
The Sundari Chowk was the main living quarter of the king. Entrance to the courtyard
is gained through a gate on the central axis of the building. The gate is guarded by
18

statues of Ganesh and Narasimha. A one metre wide walkway runs around the
courtyard which is at a lower level than the street. The floor of the courtyard is paved
with square stone slabs. The courtyard has a bathing tap (hiti) at the centre, Tusa Hiti,
which is exquisitely designed and apparently was copied by Pratap Malla in his
Kathmandu palace. The water fountain is gilded and the walls are adorned with
exquisite stone carvings of deities. Most of the doors and windows face the courtyard
for privacy. The open dalans on the ground floor served as rest areas and stables while
the rooms housed arsenals and palace guards. Four stairs at the ends provide access to
long narrow living quarters on the first floor, apparently with no interconnection
among them. These were obviously four separate and distinct living quarters.
The second floor probably was added later. The plan of the building appears to
resemble the design of the viharas and very well could have been influenced by them.
Like the bahals the palace also probably had two storeys initially. The second floor
had a projecting lattice covered walkway facing the courtyard which provided
connection to the rooms along the different wings as well as to the lower floor.
Whereas the rooms on the first floor served mainly as the living and sleeping areas,
the rooms on the second floor served as kitchen and eating halls. The space below the
roof served no useful purpose.

TRIPURA LAYKU: BHAKTAPUR PALACE

The Bhaktapur palace, unlike the palaces of Kathmandu and Patan, is located at the
western end of the city, away from the main trading route. It was built in the midtwelfth century by Anandadeva as Tripura (three cities) with three courtyards.
Quadrangles were continuously added until it grew to 99 courtyards and extended up
to Sukul Dhoka in the east. During Oldfields visit when the capital had already
shifted to Kathmandu, he noted that the Bhaktapur palace was the largest and most
costly of any in Nipal (Slusser, 1982). Much of the palace was destroyed in the 1934
earthquake and very little of its original structure remains. Until 1742 AD 12
courtyards existed which has been reduced today to only 6 courtyards.
Only three chowks display the square form and could suggest that they are of the
original design?: the Mulchowk, Kumari Chowk and Bhairav Chowk. Unlike the
other two palaces of the Valley, the Bhaktapur palace is unique in that it has no tower
temples built above the palace structure. The Mulchowk is dedicated to the worship of
Taleju and her chief shrine is built into and occupies the southern wing. This court is
believed to be one of the oldest structures and could probably be one of the three
original puras of Tripura. Since other buildings of the same period still exist today
such as the Kasthmandap (1143) and Indreswara Mahadev (1294), the Mulchowk
could well date from the time of the Tripuras (Slusser, 1982).
The Bhairav Chowk had already been built in 1580. It was also known as the
Sadashiva Malla Chowk after the Kathmandu ruler (1574-1580) who was once held
prisoner there. Jagajjyotir Malla (1614-1637) built the pleasure pavilion of Vasantpur
Durbar (spring palace) for his queens to the west of the existing palace structures.
These were later restored and rebuilt by Bhupatindra Malla. Nothing of the durbar
remains except the stone guardian lions at the gateway.
19

The temples in the palace square form three temple groups: in front of the palace to
the south, in the east and in the south-west, earlier separated from the south grouping
by a dharamshala. The southern group was dominated by Yakseswara which was built
by Yakshamalla and was supposed to be a replica of Pasupati. The eastern group was
dominated by a three tiered Shiva temple on a five stepped plinth. The temple is
noticed in the sketch by Gustave LeBon in 1885 but was destroyed in the 1934
earthquake. Only the guardian lions of the temple remain today. The largest temple in
the western group was the Narayan temple of Badrinath.
Much of the constructions of the Bhaktapur palace can be attributed to Jitamitramalla,
his son Bhupatindra and his grandson Ranajit. In 1677, Jitamitramalla made extensive
renovation of Kumari Chowk, also known earlier as the Ita Chowk, which is possibly
as old as Mulchowk. He constructed a stone water spout in the courtyard with
instructions not to contaminate the water or desecrate the area. He also built the
palace wing of Thanthu Durbar to the northeast of Mulchowk and the Siddhi Chowk
which does not exist anymore. He also constructed the gardens and the sikhara temple
dedicated to Vatsaladevi. He repaired the Nag Pokhari to the north-east corner of the
existing palace complex which was built by Jagajjyotir Malla (1614-1637 AD). The
sunken pond had a gilded water spout and was decorated with stone sculptures. A
wooden post with the gilt head of Vasuki (snake god) was erected in the centre of the
pond. If the tank served as the bathing area of the kings as is commonly believed, then
it would have to be assumed that it was enclosed by a quandrangle (Korn, 1976).
His son Bhupatindramalla continued to repair and renovate the palace. He
reconstructed the Malati Chowk and installed huge stone lions and idols of Hanuman
and Narasimha guarding the entrance. This chowk was later rebuilt in the 19th century
and has preserved little of the original character. The reconstructed building is of
colonial design with plastered and whitewashed surface. The 55 window gallery is
also attributable to him although it was reconstructed after the 1934 destruction.
According to the sketch of Gustave LeBon (1885) the gallery originally projected out
from the building and was supported on struts. The reconstructed new gallery of
windows follows the original design but now no longer leans outwards as before but
remains flush with the vertical surface.
The most outstanding works of Bhupatindramalla are the two temples in Taumadi Tol.
In 1702, he built the Nyatapola, one of two 5 tiered temples of Nepal. In 1717 he
enlarged and restored the Bhairava temple which had earlier been built as a single
storied building by Jagajjyotir Malla. Within the durbar square proper he is credited
with the construction of three very modest shrines in the western cluster. The largest
temple of Badrinath was already in existence during his time when he restored it. The
smaller shrines he built formed the rest of the Char Dham, namely Jagannath,
Kedarnath and Rameswaram.
The main gate was gilded by Ranajit Malla in 1754 and was called the Sun Dhoka
(golden gate). The gate was an offering to Taleju and led to her temple compound. It
also was an indication of the wealth amassed by the kingdoms from the north-south
trade.

20

MALLA PERIOD BASIC HOUSE

A typical Malla period Newar house consisted of a narrow brick-walled rectangle,
usually 6 metres wide and of variable length divided by a central bearing wall.
Typically it was of 3 stories topped by a storey attic with tiled double-pitched
saddle roof, however, inner city houses close to the center had 4 or 5 storeys while
poorer sections at the outskirts had only two storeys. The vertical floor addition was
necessitated by the need to conserve limited irrigated agricultural land. Along with
bricks, timber formed the structural elements and was used for doors and windows.
Houses were joined end to end and built around a courtyard. Monotony was avoided
by variations in height, length and treatment of facades. This form of compact
settlement was followed even in the rural houses, giving credence to the belief that
Newars were more inclined towards trading and considered agriculture a necessary
but secondary occupation (Korn, 1976).
The courtyards around which housing units were built had a multipurpose function,
providing both utilitarian as well as social communal space. It was used as a
childrens playground, area for washing, grinding grains, sitting in the sun, feasts etc.
Access to the courtyard from the street was through a narrow door. Staircases at the
corners provided access to the individual housing units. They were narrow with trap
door shutters, probably a relic of the earlier days when it was necessitated by defense
requirements.
Foundations were shallow and constructed of crushed rocks or river stones. Plinths of
finished bricks or dressed stones were common but these were not bonded to the
foundations. Walls rose from the foundation and were of handmade bricks, kiln burnt
for exterior walls, often sun-dried bricks for interior walls, laid with clay mortar.
When facing bricks were used, they were not well bonded nor tied at the corners.
Thus lower level bricks tended to erode, fall out or bulge out and develop cracks
under heavy stress or tremors. Because walls were poorly bonded, they were at least
15 24 inches thick.
The houses were normally set on a raised podium, generally of stone or brick. The
podium acted as an intermediary zone which separated the street from the house, the
private from the public. It acted as a semi-private space shared by neighbors, where
men and women worked and children often played. Steps to the house were either
recessed in the podium or projected out in the street. A stone vedi in the shape of a
lotus was inscribed on the pavement in front of the steps which was worshipped each
morning. This point referred to as pikhalakhumarked the interface between the house
and the street.Pikhalakhu ( pin-outside, kha-door, lamkhu-stream) symbolized the
street as a stream of flowing humans coming out of individual houses.
Often a part of the ground floor facing the street or courtyard was left as open porch
with double row wooden columns and capitals replacing walls. Otherwise openings
were kept at a minimum in the lower walls for structural purposes as well as privacy.
The ground floor was otherwise rarely used as living areas because of dampness. Only
the shops had well ventilated wooden floors, otherwise they were either covered with
clay or brick tiles.

21

Doors were narrow and low (5 ft height) but had corbelled lintels and divergent walls.
Double hinged swing doors were bolted by wooden bars. Doors sometimes had
framing bands. There were few windows in the ground floor. Sometime there were
blind windows or tikijhyas. Tikijhyas were common on the next floor for reasons of
privacy and structural strength in walls. Corbelled lintels and divergent walls helped
to spread light to the interior. The number of windows on each floor were generally
kept as odd numbers for reasons of symmetry.
A slightly protruding brick course demarcated floors and the top row often served as
bracing cornice for tunalas. Outside walls were decorated through symmetry of
elevation and carved doors and windows. Interior walls were left unfinished or were
plastered and whitewashed.
Normally the top floor (traditionally the third but could be the fourth or fifth floor)
had large windows, the sajhyas (windows to be opened). Sajhyas were large windows
with moveable vertical swinging latticed shutters and wide interior window seats.
The sajhyas were intricately carved and formed the primary design element of the
faade. It was either set flush with the walls, slightly projected (Gajhya)or supported
on short brackets and leaning forward as an angular bay window
(Vimanjhya). Vimanjhyas were especially designed to view the many processions
taking place in the streets below.
The interior of the house was divided lengthwise by the load bearing walls to form
long narrow rooms which were further partitioned breadth-wise to form smaller
rooms. In the third or top-most room the middle wall was replaced by wooden column
to form a large hall. Because of the sajhyas the room was bright, large and airy and
was used for working or living purposes.
Each floor was supported on closely spaced wooden joists overlaid with wooden
planks or later with brick and covered with a thick layer of clay which was kept
smooth and hard by daily scrubbing with a mixture of water, clay and cow-dung.
Sometimes small unglazed square tiles were laid over the floor but this was done
primarily in the corridors. The joists were kept exposed outside just below the
projecting layer of bricks and kept flush with the wall.
The roofs were low, generally less than 6 ft., and consisted of a framework of wooden
beams, rafters, trusses and posts pegged together. Wooden planks, split bamboo or
laths were laid over the rafters over which a thick layer of clay was laid and small
interlocking tiles (jhigatis) were pressed into it. Longer tiles were used at joints and
curved corner tiles (kumpa) were laid at roof ends. One or two small openings were
made in the roof for light and ventilation, known as cat windows (bhauvajhya),
protected by specially shaped tiles. Sometimes small dormer windows were also used
to light the attic. Roofs were normally sloped at 30-40 degrees but more recent
constructions have reduced slopes of about 20 degrees. Roofs with wide projecting
eaves tended to be heavy so wooden brackets (tunalas) were used to support the
projecting roofs. They were set at 45 degrees and were supported on brick cornices or
slightly projected beam ends.
Vertical division of floors were as follows:
22

Chelli or ground floor

- farmers used it for barn, stable, tool shed, storage of wood and manure
- craftsmen used it as a workshop
- merchants used it as a store
- street facing columned porches served as a shop
- in well to do families, a segment was used as guardroom or reception (phalaca)
Mata or middle floor
- sleeping quarters in smaller cubicles
Chota or top floor
- all purpose room devoted to work, recreation, storage, entertaining, drying space for
farm products
Baiga or attic (half storey)
- kitchen and dining area
- family chapel (agama) usually housed in a small separate attic room kept closed and
locked. Wealthy families may build a full-scale temple calledagamachem. Strangers
or low caste people were not allowed access to the top floor because of the family
shrine.
- storeroom for precious things
Symmetry was maintained in the faade around a central axis. As far as possible odd
number of windows were placed on each floor. Each floor was arranged
independently in symmetric fashion and if any asymmetrical element existed on the
ground floor, it was not repeated in the upper floors. Earlier, the typical windows were
square latticed tikijhyas andsajhyas were heavily carved. About 200 years ago the
latticed windows were elongated vertically, probably for more light and ventilation,
and the sajhyas were simpler and less ornate. By the turn of the century, to introduce
more light, the lattice windows and sajhyas were replaced by narrow almost fulllength windows with railing and shutters ( Korn, 1976).
Water was collected from private wells or from public wells or recessed fountains
nearby. Washing and bathing was done around the wells and fountains, in courtyards,
roof terraces or even in the street.
Latrines were considered unclean and so were not attached to the house. Children
used the streets or open spaces while adults sought segregated public toilets hidden
behind alley walls or used the riverside. Latrines were later constructed in the ground
floors.

BUDDHIST RELIGIOUS ARCHITECTURE

23

VIHARAS : BAHAS AND BAHIS

During the time of Buddha, monks had no permanent residence, leading nomadic
lives, staying under trees and caves. During the monsoon, because of the incessant
rain and the dilemma about trampling and killing newly sprouted plants, they were
required to stay within a prescribed area. Resting places called aramas were built all
over to serve the monks and the period of the rainy season became for them a time of
retreat and introspection. In course of time, these resting places came to be called
viharas or residences (Rajesh & Kelly, 1998). The modern Indian state of Bihar was
so named because of its vast number of viharas. With the spread of Buddhism among
the laity and with their support, viharas became permanent institutions. With plenty of
time at their disposal, the monks and nuns engaged in creative activities such as
philosophy, literature, medicinal texts, grammatology etc.
Vihara thus became a Buddhist monastery where presumably celibate monks
(bhikshus) and nuns (bhikshunis) lived. The community of the monks or nuns was
known as the sangha. Initially, in India, viharas were purely residential units and
chaitya-grihas were the prayer halls. With the advent of Mahayana, the viharas were
transformed into both a place of residence as well as a place of worship. This is
evident in the rock architecture of Ajanta and Ellora. This transformation of the
viharas led to the extinction of chaitya-grihas (Flon, 1994).
In India, with the passage of time, viharas became mahaviharas. The prefix maha is
used to imply grandeur. Apart from being larger, consisting of a cluster of viharas or a
large vihara which had many branches, a qualitative change had occurred. The
mahaviharas became primarily focussed on education and advanced learning and
came to be recognized more as monastic universities or doctrinal colleges (Rajesh &
Kelly, 1998). Great mahaviharas were established in as far north as Taxila and Orgyan
to as far east as Magadha and Bengal. Great monastic universities of Nalanda,
Vikramashila and Odantapuri were filled with scholars and students from many Asian
countries.
In Nepal the term is loosely used for all types of viharas, even small ones. The basic
design of the Nepali viharas is quite similar and can be broadly categorized into three
types: i)bahas ii) bahis and iii) baha-bahis. Gellner, however, believes that the bahabahi is not a separate type of vihara but a branchbaha with a verandah, which forms
part of the living quarters. Father Locke (Locke, 1985) defines a baha or bahi as a
Newar Buddhist institution with a consecrated Buddha (kwapa-dya) shrine
and agama to which a sangha of initiated Bare are attached. The Nepali word bahal is
a corruption of the Sanskrit term vihara, changing from vihara
to vahara to bahara tobahala to bahal and finally to the Newari term baha.
Similarlybahil is derived from the Sanskrit term bahiri which means outside.
From bahiri the word changed to bahira-bahil- and the Newari term of bahi.
Viharas are most numerous in Patan and Kathmandu but relatively few in Bhaktapur.
They are also found scattered in other towns and villages of the valley. In 1985 John
K. Locke had estimated that in Patan there were 141 bahas (18 main and 123
branches) and 25 bahis, in Kathmandu there were 90bahas and 16 bahis while in
Bhaktapur there were 20 bahasand 3 bahis (Locke, 1985).
24

The basic plan of the viharas have remained unchanged for over 2000 years as the
layouts are very similar to the cave monasteries of earlier times which in turn were
probably based on the single storey house of the Indus Valley civilization built around
an atrium (Korn, 1976). In India viharas gradually disappeared after the Muslim
conquest while in Nepal their function as monasteries also declined and the term came
to be associated with Buddhist buildings, not monasticism.

BAHAS
Bahas were founded as establishments for communities of married Bares but not
all bahas were former viharas. It is not certain whether at a certain in history all
monks married and became householder monks or the custom of marriage was
introduced and gradually became more acceptable until celibacy in monks died out
altogether. It is difficult to say with confidence whether bahis existed earlier
than bahas, althoughbahis practiced an older form of Buddhism. There are no
confirmed dates for existing bahis earlier than 1200 A.D. Many bahis were founded in
the time of Jayasthitimalla and Yaksha Malla such as Uba Bahi and Iba Bahi in Patan,
Nhaykan Bahi and Syangu Bahi in Kathmandu. Also Buddhist manuscripts were not
copied in bahis except in a few exceptions. Manuscripts were usually copied by
Vajracharyas in bahas. It is the contention of Father Locke that bahas andbahis coexisted since the earliest times. Because of the ascendancy of the Vajracharyas and
Tantric Buddhism, the celibate monks succumbed to the dominant institution and
gradually became married monks. This led to a slow decline in the tradition of
the bahis.
Each baha has its own sangha which is a closed and self-sufficient unit looking after
the affairs of the bahas. In contrast the bahis belong to one large overall organization
(sarva-sangha) and the elder of each bahi must be present at all bahiinitiations.
Many bahas have branches. Kwa-baha (Bhaskaradeva Samskarita Hiranyavarna
Mahavihara), also known as the golden temple, was probably built during the reign of
Bhaskaradeva
N.S.165-67.
It
has
7
official
branches
and
the
largest sangha comprising of 1400 Sakyas and 350 Vajracharyas (Locke, 1985).
Similarly, Uku-baha (Sivadevavarma Samskrita Rudravarma Mahavihara) has the
largest number of branches, 29, and the second largest sangha.
The bahas were set on a low plinth and consisted of a quadrangle with wings built
around a central sunken courtyard. The courtyard was paved with tiles and had a
passage all around it. The buildings were normally 2 storeys high, constructed of
brick structural walls, wood and tile. They were closed in and generally unobtrusive
from the outside, presenting a bleak and shuttered exterior to the secular world
outside. The ground floor walls were windowless or fitted with a few blind windows
or tikijhyas flanking the entrance. Entry was through a single door in the main faade,
guarded by lions. The doorway was surmounted by a torana and flanked by the
guardian images of Ganesh and Mahankal, one a Hindu and the other a Buddhist
tantric deity (Slusser, 1982).
The phalca was situated at the entrance with platforms or low benches, designed as an
assembly for singing devotional songs. The vihara shrine was placed on the opposite
25

side of the entrance facing the entry. The Buddhist image on the ground floor was a
non-tantric deity known as kwapa-dya (guardian deity). The agama deity on the upper
floor comprised of a pair of tantric deities where access was restricted. The kwapadyawas mainly the image of Sakya Muni Buddha and sometimes of Akshobya.
The kwapa-dya was open to the public but only the initiated members of
the sangha were permitted to enter the shrine. The shrine was designed to be taller
than the rest of the structure, either through the addition of a roof or placement
of gajurs.
The wings were divided by masonry walls to provide rooms for storage and quarters
for married monks. Staircases were provided at each end of the wings which led to
three roomed apartments which were not interconnected. These apartments were
occupied by the families of the Bare. Colonnaded bays were provided on the ground
floors at the center of the side wings. Light and ventilation to the upper rooms was
provided by tikijhyas. The space above the phalca usually had a sajhyaand served as a
common room. The space below the roof was generally unused.
The design of the external faade was symmetrical and sections of the walls were
projected and recessed in relation to the width of the wings. The exterior bricks were
of better quality and the entrance and the shrine doors were decorated. Interior walls
were plastered and white washed.
Today many of the bahas have not maintained the earlier traditional architecture and
have undergone many changes at different times. The shrines have become much
more elaborate and modified into multi-roofed temples built into the complex of
buildings around the courtyard. Because viharas were houses of gods, the decorations
sometimes surpassed even that of the palace, with carved wooden members,
decorative moldings, carved brackets etc. Exquisite toranas were placed above the
entrance of the bahas and baha-bahis. Gild metal was extensively used particularly in
the roof and faade, including doors. Kwa-baha is a good example of such a shrine.
The sunken courtyard was considered a sacred area and was filled with
lotus, agnishala, chaityas, shrines, images of gods and donors, pillars, bells,
inscriptions, mandalas etc., often aligned along the central axis. Mandalas usually
faced the entrance door and were raised on a pedestal with the symbolic thunderbolt,
the bajra.

BAHIS
Korn (Korn, 1976) has suggested that bahis were generally built outside the
settlements and were founded by a single patron such as a king or a celebrated monk.
It was designed as a place for training, teaching, preaching epics and to give shelter
and food to visiting monks. With the growing popularity of Vajrayana in which
marriage was allowed, the monks desirous of marriage had to leave the bahi and had
to found or join a baha where family accommodations were possible and monks lived
as grihastha bhikshus. Because of the families, the bahas were located within the
cities. There seems to be an underlying presumption that bahis preceded thebahas and
were inhabited by celibate monks and nuns. Records have shown that members
26

of bahis who referred to themselves as brahmacharya bhikshus were actually married

and that many bahis were established during Malla period (Locke, 1985). Thus as
Father Locke has suggested, the two probably co-existed since early times and
celibacy in bahisgradually disappeared as tantric Buddhism gained popularity.
Initially the bahis tried to preserve their tradition, which was quite different from that
of the bahas. Their efforts were doomed, however, as they were trying to maintain the
tradition of celibate monks whereas they were not celibate themselves. Vajracharya
priests had to be arranged to perform many of their family rituals since their studies
did not cover family rituals.
It has also been suggested that bahis housed celibate monks and served as schools
of dharma where Buddhists from bahascame to learn the basics of dharma. After
learning the basics the students went back to the baha for further study and training to
become a Vajracharya. Members of bahis were considered to be of slightly lower
status than those of thebahas, thereby suggesting that bahis were a lower form of
Buddhist institution than the bahas. Although there were tantric agama gods, there
were no consecrated tantric priests who usually had to be called in for family or
occasional rituals. Families of the bahis were usually poorer and getting smaller. As a
consequence bahis were usually in a state of disrepair and more closely retained their
traditional architectural features. As bahas were more prosperous they have made
continuous improvements and markedly changed the original physical appearance. On
the other hand once the bahi building collapsed, it was not rebuilt and disappeared
altogether.
The bahis were situated on a knoll (Pulchowk) or were raised on stepped plinth so
that entry was gained through stairway. Another distinguishing feature was that there
was often an imposing balcony over the entrance so there was no space for setting up
the toranas. The guardian lions were not installed at the entrance. This, however, was
not always the case as somebahis did have stone lions and toranas, e.g. Iba-bahi and
I-bahi. Another feature was the small square shrine with a narrow circumambulatory,
set in the wing facing the entrance. The shrine normally contained the image of
Sakyamuni Buddha. It had a dark room on the first floor for the agamadeity above the
shrine and had a temple structure protruding beyond the roof.
In the bahis, except for the outer wall and the shrine which were constructed of brick,
the rest of the building was generally of timber construction. The external wall in the
ground floor had no opening except for the entry door with its flanking blind
windows. Much of both the ground and the first floor were open colonnade. This type
of open construction did not lend itself easily as family quarters, which probably was
the intention during the time of occupancy by celibate monks. In the upper storey the
floor joists were extended over the courtyard, passing even in front of the agama and
were screened with lattice. Unlike the bahas which had staircases at each corner
leading to family quarters, the bahis had a single flight of broad masonry stairs.
The faade was symmetrical and left plain and without any decorative brickwork or
projecting sections. The upper floor normally had 3 or 5 lattice windows except for
the rear faade which had 2 or 4 as the section behind the shrine was left blank. The
windows were too small to provide adequate light and ventilation. This was obtained
from the courtyard side which was banked with lattice screen.
27

The third type of vihara, the baha-bahi, was a combination of the baha and the bahi.
Two floors were built in the form of abaha while the third floor consisted of open
colonnade like that of the bahi with sajhyas in each wing, outward leaning windows
or even a continuous latticed balcony. Gellner, however, considers the baha-bahi to be
a branch baha, not a separate category of monastery.
Apart from the above three categories there were familybahas, great bahas and
temple bahas. The family bahas or modern bahas, all built within the past 150 years,
consisted of family quarters built around a courtyard with a small shrine inserted into
one wing. Sometimes the shrine was free-standing and placed at the centre of the
courtyard or set against one wall of the courtyard building. This was often a reflection
of the deteriorating economic condition of the bahacommunity. The great bahas were
large squares surrounded by residential quarters with at least one shrine built into one
side. The square could contain other shrines and chaityas. Tebaha, Yatka Bahal and
Itum Bahal of Kathmandu and Bu-baha of Patan are typical examples. In the
temple baha, an important temple was placed in the centre of a square surrounded by
residential or rest houses such as in Machendra Bahal.

MATHAS
Mathas were the Hindu equivalent of the viharas but are now mostly defunct. They
had no well defined plans/elevations and served mainly as quarters for a group of
male Hindu ascetics gathered around a religious leader (mahanta ). They served as
centres for teaching and learning Hindu philosophy and study of appropriate
manuscripts. There are 17 major mathas in the three cities of the Valley.
Because they had no distinct design or orientation, they normally resembled the
standard dwelling units. They were only distinguishable because of their superior
wood carving and extravagant decoration. Because Bhaktapur was the most Hindu
city during the Malla period, it contains the largest number of mathas with the biggest
concentration around Dattatreya temple at Tachapal Tol in eastern Bhaktapur.
The ground floor was generally used as stables, stores, servants quarters. The upper
floors were used as grain stores, guestrooms, meeting halls and bedrooms. The
kitchen was located in the top floor or the attic. There were one or more courtyards
around which ghars were built whose size and arrangement varied considerably. The
faade was symmetrical with the main door and the upper floor windows set about a
central axis.

THE TIERED TEMPLES

The term multi-storied for Nepali temples is a misnomer because only in a few cases
where a shrine occurs on the upper floor, the temples have multi-tiered roofs without
the intervening floors. The space above the cella is wastage space and even the
windows on the upper floors are blind windows for visual purposes only. The space
above the roofs has been deliberately left open so as to keep open the vertical axis for
the easy movement of the gods to heaven.
28

There is no clear indication of when the style began but it seems to have been existent
during the time of the Lichchavis as indicated by their inscriptions. That the style was
a novelty to the Chinese can be ascertained from their description of the Nepali tiered
system. The temple designs seem to have evolved over the different periods; the
existing temples have been renovated or reconstructed at various times and so do not
mirror the actual original designs.
The origin of many of the oldest temples are surrounded in legends and because of the
continuous renovations, it is difficult to confirm their original dates. According to
legends, one of the oldest temples the Pasupati is believed to have been built by the
first Lichchavi king Supuspadeva while another Lichchavi king Haridattavarmen is
said to have built the four Narayan temples. The kings cannot be historically
confirmed but the temples exist, albeit the structures of today are a result of several
renovations and re-constructions. The respect for the tradition and practice of
reconstructing temples according to the original guidelines probably prevented
innovations in construction and style and despite many renovations and
reconstruction, it is believed the temples have faithfully retained as much of the
original character as possible.
Despite its mass and weight the Nepali temple is not an aesthetically heavy building.
The decreasing size of the tiered roofs point upwards; the curved tiles or birds ready
to take flight at the roof edges carry ones view skywards instead of following the
downward roof line. The swaying bells and leaves lend lightness while the flags,
birds, perforated borders and cloth banners lend delicacy to the structure. The temple
is, however, tied to the earth by the red brick and timber which belong to the earth and
whose harmonious combination is responsible for the pleasing aesthetics.
A paved area around the temple demarcates the sacred ground and shoes are often
taken out when entering this area. It is paved with small square tiles or stone. The
temple is usually set upon one or more plinths of diminishing pattern which helps to
raise the temple and give it prominence and symbolic value. The plinth also has
practical value to protect the building against damp and raise it above the muddy
street level and away from the activities of children and animals.
The composition of the plinths is not known as undertaking any kind of excavations
would bricks or stone rubble with shallow foundations. Nepali temples probably
followed the same method. However, it is not known whether the temple walls rest on
the plinths or have separate walls with the intervening space filled with various
materials. The visible portion of the plinth is covered with brick and the edge of each
step is topped with stone paving. Ornamental molded bricks are set below the stone
slabs. Secondary shrines are sometimes built at the corners of the raised plinths. The
stairways are guarded by stone lions, guardian beasts, minor deities etc. and each
successive guardian is supposed multifold powers.
The number of steps of the platform often correspond to the number of roofs,
however, the steps sometimes are completely different as in the case of Maju-deval.
Nyatapola is 276 square in plan and has a platform height of 23 ft. The Taleju
temple of Kathmandu is raised on a platform of 20 ft. Temples, primarily of Taleju,

29

were sometimes positioned on top of a storied building as was normal in the valley
palaces.
Bricks were extensively used in the main supporting structures. As brick does not lend
itself easily to decoration, wood was used as a complementary material and was
heavily carved. Bands of timber at various levels such as at cornice level, roof support
level and cross ties provided additional structural strength to the walls.
The most common plan is the square, the perfect absolute figure full of cosmic
symbolism. Rectangles are also common, however, a few octagonal or circular plans
exist, more as exotic structures. Kathmandu temples were based on an odd number of
squares: 1,9,25,49,81,121,..981. The most commonly used was the square of 81 ,i.e.
9x9 (Tiwari, 1989).
The form of the temple is associated with the god within:
Square Siva, Vishnu, Ganesh, Mother Goddess alone
Rectangle Bhairav, Bhimsen, Mother Goddess, ensemble of mother goddesses
Octagon Krishna, although Krishna can have other plans
Another variation in the plan is the type of sanctum:
- Sanctums are exposed for Mother Goddesses and Ganesha although complex
superstructures may exist. The open sanctum is closely related to the hypaethral (open
roofless) shrines that preceded them.
- Sanctums can be a simple room entered by a single door with the image facing the
door and set at the rear wall.
- The square temple can be a mandala where the sovereign of the mandala occupies
the centre of the sanctum. The image is then placed in the centre and the sanctum is
pierced by four doors at the centre of each faade. This form of temple is appropriate
for worship of Sivalinga, chaturvyuha Vishnu or four-faced Brahma which are meant
to be viewed from all sides. Other manifestations of these gods would be placed in a
different type of sanctum.
- Some gods prefer having an upper floor, particularly Bhimasena, agama gods of
viharas, some Bhairavs and some Mother Goddesses. In free standing temples, the
sanctum is a small partitioned space on the upper floor and the surrounding hall like
space is used by the guthiars for religious functions.
- Some temples have second outer wall so the space between the inner walls serves as
a circumambulatory space. However, this space is rarely accessible to the public and
is used primarily by the priests.
- In many temples the outer wall is replaced by columns so that the space becomes
public and is used for circumambulation.
- Some temples were built on top of other buildings. Common among these are the
temples built on some of the courtyard wings of the palaces such as Taleju temples or
Degutale. Rich families also often builtagamchen temples on their houses.
30

- The rectangular temples are never placed on high bases or on top of buildings.
Unlike the square temples, the rectangular temples attempt to have an orientation with
the entrance faade heightened.

The Bhairavnatha temple of Bhaktapur was built as a small structure of only one
storey by king Jagat Jyoti Malla (1614-1637) and was later restored and enlarged by
Bhupatindra Malla in 1718 with the addition of two more tiered roofs. It has an
unusual feature of three small gajuras and metal flags protruding from the centre of
the lowest roof. This probably indicates the original pinnacle of the one storey temple.
The temple was destroyed in the 1934 earthquake but was rebuilt in its original form
along with the Nyatapola. The temple has a striking entrance facing the square which
is false. The actual entry to the temple is from the back through a small back door and
the god is in an upper floor cella.
Distinct feature of the temple is its tiered hipped roof which number from 1-5. Most
roofs are square or rectangular corresponding to the plan but there are few examples
of round or octagonal roofs over square plans.
The first stage of a multi roof is supported by the cell wall (in case of a single
enclosure) or outer enclosing wall (in case of double enclosure) or colonnade (in case
colonnade surrounding the main enclosure). For the next stage, in case of single
enclosure wooden beams support the inner walls which support the upper roof. In case
of double enclosure or outer colonnade, the inner wall supports the upper roof. If there
are more roofs, timber beams support the recessed walls which support the roofs.
A thick layer of clay was laid over the roof to delay percolation and prevent leakage.
However, the disadvantage was that the moisture was often absorbed by the clay
which came in contact with the wooden members, causing their decay. This has
caused temples to require extensive repairs from time to time. The heavy roofs were
supported on slanted carved brackets which rested on wooden or brick cornices. The
end brackets were longer and larger and supported the larger projection of the roof.
The roof rafters were closely spaced and laid in a fan shape pattern at the corners and
on the topmost roof. Erotic scenes were often carved on the brackets on the belief that
it would avert the evil or shy eyes of the thunderbolt, who was conceived of as a
maiden and would be abashed by the carvings. The lowermost roof was sometimes
covered with wooden latticework aligned to the sloping supporting roof struts which
were exquisitely carved.
Some temples were gifted with a gilded roof. The sheets were laid over wooden
boards and overlaps were placed over wooden beads (runners). The ends were
covered by carved metal images. The eaves were carved with intricate motifs and had
hanging leaves. Birds on the verge of taking flight were placed on the four corners of
the roofs.
A special feature of the tiered temples was a band of stringed cornices supporting the
struts of each roof tier. The lowermost layer of the cornice band was composed of
lotus petals followed by a band of nagapasa, a symbolic representation of snakes
tying the temple together, then by a string with lion faces called simhamvah and other
31

decorative courses. The layers of wooden cornices in fact acted as horizontal ties
providing structural strength to the temples. Wooden ties were also provided at
various levels for structural support. Just above the simhamvah level, at the four
corners, the cornices were projected out as two layers of flat rectangular pieces with
curved ends, supported on cantilevered wooden projections.
Exquisitely carved doors, often covered in gilded repouse metal or silver, were special
features of the temples. The doors had toranas, extended heads and bases, carved
flanges and in the case of larger temples, additional panels.
The number of roof tiers are determined by the god within (Tiwari, 1989).
- 1 or (7) Guru, Ganesh, Siddhi, Buddhi, Chaitanya
- 2 or (6) Brahma, Agni, Savitri, Susumni
- 3 or (5) Bishnu, Jeeb, Avidhya, Laxmi
- 4 Rudra, Uma
Thus a Siva temple could be 3,4 or 5 tiered. The two existing 4 tiered temples are
Bhagawati at Nala and Harisiddhi Bhawani, both dedicated to Uma. The UmaMaheshwora temple at Kirtipur was once believed to have been 4 tiered but was
damaged in 1934 and later rebuilt with 3 tiers. Of the two 5 tiered temples, the
Kumbeshwara is dedicated to Siva and the Nyatapola to a tantric goddess, probably
Bhairavi.
Temples were of varying sizes and opulence. The largest plan is that of Changu
Narayan with 32 ft. sides. The Indreswara Mahadev at Panuati (1294-earliest known
Newar style temple) has a plan dimension of 30 ft. Cornices around temples were
decorative as well as functional and symbolic (circle of protection such as Nagpasa)
and support roof brackets. The end bracket at the corners are larger and exquisitely
carved with the figure of Vyala, a winged horse-like aquatic creature, symbolizing
water.
Quadrangle incorporated temples of viharas were later concepts as earlier viharas had
no image to worship.
SHIKHARA AND DOME TEMPLES
The shikhara temple style was developed by the Guptas in the 6 th century. Thereafter,
it was introduced by the Lichchavi and continued into the later period. This style was
used for both Hindu and Buddhist temples.
The shikhara temples were normally of dressed stones but were often of brick
construction as well. They consist of a square cell with tapering tower, symbolizing
the cave and the mountain (Mt. Meru). Temples were usually set on stepped plinth,
followed by molded courses. This was done to protect the temple from damp and to
give it respectability. The cella and the tower ends in a flattened ribbed disc known as
theamalaka. The amalaka is often surmounted by a gajur. Entrance to the cella is
through one or four porticos. The Nepali shikhara temples have been found to have a

32

wooden frame of posts and beams enclosed within the walls to give it added structural
strength and resilience.
Nepali shikhara temples lack the additional ardhamandappaand mandappas of the
Indian temple designs as worship in Nepal tends to be more personal, rather then
congregational. (Korn, 1976) They also lack the rich embellishment of the Indian
temples.
The octagonal shikhara temple in Patan dedicated to Krishna is an exception. The
Krishna Mandir and Mahaboudhha in Patan are examples of elaborately ornamented
shikhara temples. The Mahabouddha, whose design was based on the Bodhgaya
temple design, was started by Abhaya Raj in 1565 but was completed by his
grandsons and great-grandsons only in 1601. It is covered with tiles bearing the image
of Buddha and was included in the World Heritage list. It was withdrawn from the list
after the government failed to restrict development in the surroundings, despite
repeated warnings.
Towards the end of the Malla period, the shikhara shrines adopted a different outline,
that of the shape of an inverted flower bud. These became popular due to ease of
construction.
Domed temples were influenced by Mughal architecture and are believed to be Rana
imports. Actually, they were introduced during the Malla period. Domed temples were
favored by the Shah and Rana rulers and were built around Kathmandu. Bhimsen
Thapa built the domed temples of Bhimeswara and Ranamukteshwara. The Jagannath
temple near the jail built by Rana Bahadur Shah and the Kalomochana (Vishnu
temple) and Vishwaroop at Pashupati constructed by Jung Bahadur Rana in 1874 are
other examples of domed temples in Nepal. The temples are plastered and
whitewashed, an imitation of the white marble used in the Indian structures. Recessed
niches with arches flank the doors on the four sides and bands of floral motifs are
used at the base of the dome and upper part of the structure supporting the dome,
typical of Muslim architecture. Small pavilions are also built at the four corners in
imitation of the Indian buildings. The encircling sattals are, however, done in
traditional style.

DHARAMSALAS
The principal function of the dharamsala was to provide a shelter, place to rest, work
and socialize for wayfarers. It was customary to pair this with a water
source. Dharamshalaswere common in India since ancient times and Nepali version
was probably derived from them.
Lichchavi inscription make mention of public rest houses, however, there are no
surviving examples of the period. Nevertheless, it is believed that the typical pati and
themandapa have not changed much since the early times.

33

The most basic structure was the pati. The pati is raised on a platform with wooden
floor and is normally a free-standing structure or attached to an existing building as a
lean-to. It is a post and lintel construction structure with a rear brick wall. It can be
found everywhere, not only in towns and villages, but also along roads, water sources
and temples.
The mandapa is probably the oldest form of public shelter. The mandapa was usually
a free standing pavilion of square or rectangular plan, with roof supported by 16
columns. It was designed for gathering people within or around it and was always
found within settlements. The mandapa served many functions besides shelter such as
town hall, market etc. Of the two mandapas situated at the north end of Patan durbar,
the southern mandapa was used as a municipal weighing house and the place to fix
market prices while the more recent northern structure was used for coronation by
Patan kings and by priests and astrologers to determine favorable dates for the festival
of Machendranath.
Sattals were multi-storied patis or mandapas. Sattals were designed for longer stays
by gurus and sadhus besides transient travelers so it had additional floor and shrine
over apati type structure. The upper floor was screened for privacy. Thus they were
half shelter half shrine. The most famous is the 11-12 th century Kasthamandap which
is roughly 18.7 m. square in plan and 16.3 m. in height. Despite it being referred to as
a sattal for Siva ascetics, it served as a meeting place or town hall. Legend has it that
it was constructed from a single tree. It consists of 3 large halls on top of each other
without any divisions. In contrast to normal temples, it has wide stairs leading to the
first floor. Loads are carried by brick walls and large wooden pillars. The brickwork is
plastered and whitewashed and the roof is tiled.
The chapa is a community hall of guthi association. It is not intended for longer stays.
It is typically a long rectangular two storey building whose rear is divided by masonry
walls into storerooms for guthiars affairs while the front serves as apati. The
colonnaded upper hall serves as a hall for guthiarsfeasts and communal activities.
STUPAS
Stupas were probably derivatives of the practice of raising a circular tumulus over
skeletal remains and demarcated with a circle of stones. This practice of raising a
tumulus over tombs is evident even in the western world since pre-historic times.
Slusser believes the Patan stupas to be of similar origin. According to tradition there
were 6 previous Buddhas while other traditions speak of 23 previous Buddhas. Thus
the tradition of corporeal stupas probably existed long before Buddhas time.
Stupas are supposed to contain relics of Buddhas, Bodhisattvas or saints. Ashoka is
believed to have broken up the original eight stupas over the remains of Buddha and
distributed the remains to construct over 84000 stupas in India. Nepali stupas are
distinguished as: i) dhatu stupa (mortal remains of Buddha) ii) paribhog stupa (things
belonging to Buddha such as garments, bowl etc.) iii) dharma stupa (text of his
teachings) and iv) udeshya stupa (amulets, mantras, jewel etc)
The elements of the Nepali stupa are:

34

- The original mound is represented by the egg (anda), womb (garbha) and pot
(kumbha). The stupa consists of a drum pedestal (medhi), the drum and the finial. The
drum or medhi is indistinguishable consisting simply of a drum of varying height
slightly larger in diameter than the mound it supports. The drum is set in a modest
circular platform or sometimes on a square platform composed of a number of
superimposed terraces (Pimbahal, Chilancho of Kirtipur and Bouddhanath).
- The anda or dome is of varying shape, hemispherical in the early times to vertical or
flattened dome during the transitional and early Malla period.
- According to Oldfield the construction of stupa commenced with the construction of
square masonry chamber of 9 equal parts in the centre of the medhi (Slusser,
1982).. Precious wood, grains, images and scenes from Buddhas life and human
relics if so designed were placed in the outer 8 chambers. The central 9 th chamber
served as a mortise for the yasti,a great central timber mast piercing the stupa and to
which the finial is attached. The chambers were filled after the ceremony, over it a
mound of brick, earth and clay was constructed. The outer rounded surface was faced
with bricks, plastered and whitewashed. Four chapels facing the four cardinal points
were then joined to the dome. These contained the images of Dhyani Buddhas
(Akshobhya-E, Amitabha-W, Amogsiddhi-N and Ratnasambhawa-S representing the
different aspects of the activities of Buddha). The fifth was called Vairochana and was
thought to reside in the centre of the stupa, represented by the eyes of
the harmika. The painting of the eyes is a unique Nepali practice and began during the
Malla period after the 15th century.
- The design of the finial varies but consists of 3 principal parts: i) the cube ii) the
tapered mid-section and iii) the crowning parasol. The cube or theharmika is derived
from the pavilion that surmounted the early Indian stupas which was supposed to be
the home of the gods. The tapering 13 stages symbolizes the 13 stages to perfection or
the 13 Buddhists heavens and is capped by the parasol. The 13 stages became
standard during the transitional period after the 11th century. The conical or pyramidal
spire is known as Chura Mani. In the earliest Indian stupas, these consisted of
flattened stone discs, 3-7 in numbers, attached to the yasti symbolizing the parasol
provided to respected personages. The eyes of the harmikas were the eyes of the
Adibuddha but were sometimes believed to represent the Lokpalas who survey the
quarter of the universe accorded to them. The finial is either simple or elaborately
gilded along with the parasol.
Vrisadeva is credited with the construction of Svayambhu, one of the earliest stupas.
The stupa has been repaired and extensively changed during the later renovations so
that it has become difficult to imagine the earlier structure. The hemisphere is
constructed of brick, plastered and whitewashed. The dome is flattened at the top and
the harmikais elongated to correct for this shape. The harmika would have been a
cube if the dome had followed its regular curve. Gildedtoranas are placed over the
eyes of the harmika while the 13 layers of the finial are made of circular metal discs
supported on the timber pole, the yasti. Above it is the decorative parasol and
the gajur. At the circumambulatory level the dome has chapels with images of the
four Adibuddhas in the four cardinal points and four Taras in the diagonals. An
additional chapel dedicated to the vajra is built in the east and a mandalawith
35

a vajra is placed in front of it. All the chapels are believed to have been added during
the Malla period.

UTILITIES
WATER
Ghats with stepped or circular platforms were built at river edges for ritual bathing
and cremation.
Pokharis were large brick lined tanks eg. Rani Pokhara, Tawa Pokhari and
Siddhapokhari of Bhaktapur. They were used for commercial and household purposes
such as dyeing and washing.
Ghaidharas (gahiti) or deep sunken pit taps were provided for larger community
uses.
Tutedharas consisted of tanks filled with water and drawn out through stoppered
spigots.
Inars or brick lined wells were built primarily for private use but also served
communal function.

SHAH AND RANA PERIOD ARCHITECTURE

Prithvi Narayan Shah adopted the traditional Newari architecture when he built the
Nautale durbar, also known as Basantapur at the southern end of Nasal Chowk of
Kathmandu palace in 1770. The building was created as a pleasure palace and was a
tall building of four roofs and nine stories. Compared to the earlier Malla period, the
scale tended to be larger with larger doors and windows, more storeys etc. The motifs
used were, however, similar and some struts had erotic carvings. An attempt was
made to merge the temple and the palace form. He also built the adjoining four-storey
quadrangle originally called Lohan Chowk but later known as Basantapur or Tejarat
Chowk. These buildings were thought to have been built vertically over smaller
buildings. The quadrangle has three pavilions at the corners of superficial Mughalized
design representing Kirtipur (NW), Bhaktapur (NE) and Patan (SE). Lohan Chowk is
of single bay construction. Prithvi Narayan Shah probably did not construct all the
pavilions as it is believed Pratap Singh Shah and Rana Bahadur Shah built some of
the pavilions.
Earlier the Valley architecture had influenced construction taking place outside. Prior
to his conquest of the valley, Prithvi Narayan Shah had employed Newar architects
and artisans for the construction of his palaces at Gorkha and Nuwakot. Both are
mountain-top palaces designed as defendable watchtowers. A courtyard design palace
was later constructed in Gorkha bazaar which was recently renovated by HMG. All of
these buildings are strongly influenced by the Malla architecture.
The Nuwakot palace is a 6 storey tower, vertically broken by horizontal strings of
balconies, string courses, window frames and roof edges. The fifth storey is capped by
36

a shrine. It is built on 3 load bearing walls with the central wall bisecting the building
along its length. Its design influenced the design of the Nautale Durbar at Basantapur.
Just as in the earlier Lichchavi period when art form and use of stone was influenced
by the Guptas/Kusans, during Malla and Shah period some Indian influence was
perceived in paintings and buildings, e.g. in the northern wing of the Nasal Chowk,
arches with 7 and 9 foils have been used. Similarly, many buildings with dome roofs
were constructed which had recessed arch niches with foils and decorative motifs
borrowed from Mughal buildings.
Dharahara, a free standing minaret-like structure of Mughul design, was erected by
General Bhimsen Thapa (prime minister between 1806-1839) in 1826. It was
originally 250 ft. but was destroyed during the 1934 earthquake and was subsequently
restored by Juddha Sumshere to its current height of 203 ft. A viewing platform was
also added during restoration. There does not appear to be a need for such a structure,
unless as suggested, it was to maintain contact with Chouni barracks and summon the
army at short notice. The palace of Bag Durbar was also built for Bhimsen Thapa,
however, it was severely damaged during the earthquake and Hari Bhawan was built
in its place. The Finance Ministry currently resides in Hari Bhawan.
Bhimsen Thapa built Bhim Mukteswora and Rana Mukteswora in Moghul style with
dome roofs, using horizontal bands of motifs of floral design and plastering the outer
surface and painting it white, probably an imitation of white marble of Mughal
architecture. Like the Indian structures, the temples have small domed pavilions at the
four corners surrounding the large dome roof. Rana Mukteswora has doors on all
sides flanked by arched recesses of Mughal design. The enclosing sattal structure is
however done in traditional Malla architecture with exquisitely carved doors and
windows.
In 1828, during the time of Bhimsen Thapa, Queen Lalit Tripura Sundari offered to
Bagmati the three tiered temple of Tripureshwore in memory of her husband Rana
Bahadur Shah. The temple is an imposing structure with three tiered roof raised on a
pyramidal platform and done in traditional style. Four small shrines are placed at the
four corners of the first layer of the platform. The enclosing structure is a traditional
structure constructed in bricks with carved doors and windows and jhingati roof. The
large courtyard is paved with brick tiles. The temple is currently being renovated but
the sattal is in a dilapidated condition and in need of urgent repairs.
Following the usurpation of power by the Ranas, there was a dramatic change in the
palace architecture of the country. Traditional architecture was completely rejected in
favour of style borrowed from outside. As a projection of their autocratic hold on
power and the inclination to outdo each other in the grandeur of buildings, the Ranas
bequeathed to the nation a style of buildings completely different in scale and design.
Many of the buildings were done in neo-classical, Baroque or industrial style with
columns of different orders, French windows and white plaster, a style much in use in
Europe and in neighboring India by the British. The scale of the buildings was
monumental so they required to be set along an axis, had a symmetrical design and
had formal gardens. Because of the lack of space within or close to the old city to
provide the wide axis necessary for the visual appreciation of such monumental
37

design, the Rana palaces were built much further away from the city area, mainly to
the east and north-east. While the earlier buildings were dictated by the roof forms,
the Rana buildings paid little heed to roof forms as the tiles had been replaced by CGI
sheets which allowed various roof forms. Iron girders were also later introduced to
replace timber beams and lintels. The warm brick exteriors of the Malla period were
replaced by the white stucco surface. The first floor was normally the entertainment
and living area so the halls were much grander with great detailing. Pressed metal
ceiling, wall pilasters, mirrors, framed photographs etc. were employed to expressly
impress the visitors and other Rana brothers with its grandeur. Despite the complete
switch over from the traditional designs, the Rana buildings were quite artistic and
attractive in appearance.
Development of ghats was undertaken by Jung Bahadur Rana. To atone for his sins of
the Kot massacre, he constructed the Hiranya Narayan temple and the enclosing sattal
in 1875. The temple was built in Moghul style with a large central dome flanked by
small domed pavilions at the four corners and painted flower motifs. The surrounding
quadrangle was built in traditional style. He also constructed the embankment
structure from Panchyami to Kalamochan. The temple was renovated very recently
but many of the ghat structures are in a dilapidated condition and are occupied by
squatter families.
Narayan Hiti Durbar was built in 1847 by Jung Bahadur Rana for his brother Rana
Uddip Singh in neo-classical style. It eventually was used as the palace of the kings
after Rana Uddips death in 1885. The building was remodeled and enlarged in 1889.
Part of the building was demolished and a new palace building was constructed in
modern style by King Mahendra in 1969.
Jung Bahadur Rana built the Thapathali Durbar beside the Bagmati for himself. The
building was in colonial style. Much of the palace has been demolished.
Before the earthquake, Ranipokhari was the central city space and the Ranas had
developed it into an area surrounded by public buildings such as Durbar High school,
town hall to its south, Bir Hospital and the Military Hospital, Tri Chandra College and
the clocktower. All the structures were of colonial design done in simple plastered and
whitewashed exteriors. Bir Sumshere had built Bir Hospital in 1890. Except for a
small annex much of the older building has been demolished to construct the new
OPD building of the hospital. Chandra Sumshere constructed the Durbar High School
on the western side and the Tri Chandra College along with the clock tower in 1919
on the eastern side. These structure are still existing and being used as per their
original function. The previous clock tower was designed by Kumar and Kishore
Narsing Rana, Nepals first engineers trained in India and abroad. It was destroyed
during the 1934 earthquake and rebuilt in simpler colonial design. The brother team
was to go on to design many of the subsequent Rana palaces.
Chandra Sumshere built Singha Durbar in 1903 as his residence. It was designed by
the Narsingh brothers in neo-classical design. The palace had more than 1000 rooms
arranged around seven quadrangles and was among the largest building in South Asia.
It was set amid a large park with formal gardens, pavilions, fountains etc. The palace
was serving as the main Secretariat building when the entire building except for the
38

front wing was destroyed by fire in 1973. The first courtyard was reconstructed using
modern construction techniques but with the original elevational treatment. The
building currently houses the prime ministers offices and the office of the National
Planning Commission. The front wing which was of exquisite neo-classical design
was saved from the fire. It houses the Belayati Baithak which is still used for various
national ceremonies.
Bahadur Bhawan was constructed in 1889 and was later refurbished into the first hotel
of Nepal, the Royal Hotel. The building was renovated and is currently in use by the
National Election Commission. Lal Durbar was built for Bir Sumshere in 1890 and it
got its name because of the red bricks used. It was one of the few buildings with
exposed brickwork built by the Ranas. A part of the building has been renovated and
incorporated into the Hotel Yak and Yeti complex.
Seto Durbar was also constructed by Bir Sumshere in 1893. Most of the palace
building was destroyed by fire during the 1934 earthquake. Only a small wing of the
original building remains and is visible on the west side of Kings Way behind the
Mercantile Office Systems.
Phora Durbar was constructed by Bir Sumshere next to his palace in 1895 with
gardens and fountains. Its name was derived from the large number of fountains. It
was used mainly for cultural programs and cinema. The building was completely
dismantled in 1960.
Agni Bhawan was built in 1894 for Agni Sumshere, son of Juddha Sumshere. It was
remodeled into a hotel in 1964 and is still functioning as the Hotel Shanker. Keshar
Mahal was built in 1895. It was built around a courtyard and was surrounded by
gardens and water bodies. It is currently being used as the Ministry of Education and
the Keshar Library.
The old Sital Niwas was completed in 1923 and was designed by Kumar Narsingh
Rana. The building was extensively damaged in the 1934 earthquake and had to be
rebuilt. The current design was prepared by Kishore Narsingh Rana. The building is
being used by the Foreign Ministry.
Following the devastating earthquake of 1934, the Ranas tried to restructure the city
according to the changing times. They built thoroughfares connecting the old city to
the palace complexes which were constructed outside the city cores. Juddha Sumshere
introduced wide thoroughfare into the city core area of Kathmandu, opening up the
Durbar square and constructing a new centre within the city. He maintained the
uniform faade of Juddha Sadak, built Bhugol Park, Nepal Bank, the fire brigade and
a sabha griha (Jan Sewa cinema). Many of the buildings of New Road also followed
the colonial design although it was not uniform as in Juddha Sadak as they were built
as individual structures. Much of Juddha Sadak still retains its original faade while
that of New Road has been completely modernized. The Bhugol Park is a small
sandwiched space, its openness reduced by the construction of the new large Nepal
Bank building built in the open space in front of the original building which also has
been demolished and replaced by a new annex. The Jan Sewa building was destroyed
by fire in 1961 and a shopping centre has been built in its place.
39

The Ranas also built many gardens in formal classical design with well laid out
gardens, summer houses, fountains, statuaries etc. Exotic plants were often imported
for the gardens from Brazil and Japan. Many of the gardens have been destroyed or
built over but some remain such as the gardens of Kaiser Mahal and Nepal Rastra
Bank.

SYMBOLISM AND PROPORTION IN NEPALESE ARCHITECTURE

SYMBOLISM
The Himalayas were revered as the home of the gods, thus the temples with their
pedestals and diminishing roofs could be an imitation of the mountains. Temples were
often modeled after the mountain form of Mount Kailash; circumambulation around
the temple representing circling of the mountain. It is not surprising Amshuvarman
named his palace after Kailash. The development of the early stupa form as well as
shikhara temple form was also supposed to imitate Mount Meru.
The gods were believed to require easy passage between heaven and earth and the
diminishing size of the roofs with thegajur on top was believed to facilitate gods
flight to heaven. The birds ready to take flight at the roof corners were artistic
manifestation of this concept and signify lightness sought in temple form.
The square was considered the perfect form. Ziggurats, pyramids and Aztec temples
were all based on the square form. The circle and the sphere which was evident
everywhere was easily identifiable as Gods representation. However, because of its
association with movement, lack of cardinality and infiniteness of symmetry, it was
considered unsuitable by the Hindu seers. Thus the square with its centre, cardinality
and limited symmetry was used to symbolize the universe. The centre of the square,
the garbha griha, where gods image was placed was considered the centre of the
universe (Tiwari, 1989).
The proto-Hindu temple form symbolized the centre of the universe, Mt Meru where
the Gods lived. The people lived to the south. This concept was probably derived
from the fact that the Vedic settlements on the Gangetic plains lay to the south of the
Himalayas and the Himalayas were identified as the abode of the Gods.
The temple plan was based on the Vastupurushamandala- a unified design principle
based on the square- and the temple represented the centre of the universe. The temple
elevation was also a geometric representation of Mt. Meru.
The concept of a pyramid within a circular lake generated the concept of
circumambulation as a first step in worshiping the God in the temple. While circling
the temple it was theorized that the devotee would absorb and pay homage to the
radiant energy emanating from the centre. Windows were set at the cardinal points,
sometimes with images of guardians, to allow the energy to radiate out.
No temple was oriented to the north as symbolically the people were supposed to live
to the south. The temple structure with its central axis pointing to the sky symbolized
the heavenly movement of the godly energy which was supposed to have taken up
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temporary residence in the temple to allow people to worship it on earth. In Hindu

temples the Gods did not occupy the temple all the time so worshippers were
supposed to call out to the Gods to ensure they would be there when the devotee was
in the temple. Thus without worshipers the temple were not visited by the Gods.
Although very few temples are actually built in the middle of a lake (Ranipokhari), all
Nepali temples are conceptualized as lying on a subterranean water body. The rituals
associated with the study of the temple site picturize underground formation of white
nagas which represent water. Certain elements are used in the temple to convey to the
layperson the concept of the encircling water body. Each corner strut of the temple
depicts a Vyala, a winged horse-like aquatic creature. At various levels, the
entablatures depict Nagpasa, the snake chain. Similarly, the torana above the entrance
ways include images of the Makara, nagas and fish which also represent water.
Temples were planned according to the rules and guidelines of the
Vastupurushamandala but were often modified as per site conditions and terrain.
According to descriptions of old Indian writings, while laying the temple the ground
was demarcated into squares representing the sacred nagas that lived underground.
Nagabhanda was the chief Naga and it was the great serpent Ananta which carried the
earth on its head and encircled the building site with its body. His form was divided
into eight parts corresponding to the eight Digpalas, the presiding deities of the eight
quarters. The serpent was believed to move under the earth making a full revolution
every 3 months. His head was supposed to lie east in the middle of Ashwin. The
location of the temple doorway was determined by the location of the serpents head.
(Bernier,)
The doorway of the temple was the passage of transformation between the profane
and mundane world and the holy space of the sanctum. Sometimes the devotee was
stopped at the door with the priest taking over his religious duties. The toranasabove
the doors symbolized the window to the sacred interior. The central figure in
the torana was the deity of the temple, whether Hindu or Buddhist.
The toranas gained significance when the devotees were denied access to the inner
sanctum. Images of Garudas, Makaras and Nagas were arranged symmetrically
around the central figure. (Bernier,)
The eyes on temple doors could be interpreted as the all-seeing eyes of Adibuddha in
the case of Buddhist temples and of Siva in Hindu temples. The eyes had the power to
deflect and nullify the effects of the evil eye (Bernier, ). Circumambulation around the
temple symbolizes circling of the lake. Devotees move along the passageways
surrounding the garbha griha. In the case of double core wall, circumambulation
along the inner wall is generally limited to the priests.
A lotus, agnishala and the pillar with the gods vehicle were set along the central axis
of the temple. The lotus defined the temple area while the pillar probably defined the
sacred area surrounding the temple, a line beyond which the devout never entered
with shoes on.
In Buddhism life was considered to be an endless cycle of births and rebirths and the
circular form was used to indicate the endless path. Just as the square plan of the
temples, the spherical dome symbolized the infinite cosmos, the home of the Gods.
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The anda contained the garbha or the relic bija of a monk or Buddha. The 13 tiers
supporting the parasol symbolized the 13 steps required to attain nirvana and break
from the continuous cycle of rebirths. The eyes of the harmikasymbolized the energy
radiating out. The yasti was a symbol of the tree rising from the earth.
Kings were considered gods, an incarnation of the Lord Vishnu so the palace
contained some of the symbolic elements of a temple. It was the highest and grandest
secular building, its height surpassed only by that of the agamachem temples.
Guardian images often flanked the entrance.

PROPORTIONS
The vastushastras have presented the square as one or divided into 4,9,16,251024
squares called padas. The Nepali builders apparently restricted themselves to using
the vastupurushamandalas which were divided into odd number of squares eg.
1,9,25,49,81, 121..961. The most commonly used plan in the temples of Kathmandu
was one using 81 squares. The odd number is also apparent in the temples plans
where odd number of bays is selected, normally 3 to 5 (Tiwari, 1989).
The design module (pada for the mandala) of the temple is determined by dividing the
outer measurement of the temple by 2n-1 where n is the number of tiers in a temple
when odd or the number of bays in the lowest core when tiers are even. When both
conditions apply, n will be the greater of the number of tiers of bays. The lion face
motif (simhamvah) one of the smallest temple decorations is an indication of the
artisans working module as their numbers are always equal on each face of the
temple. The standard design module determines the sizes of the temple core and the
roof above. The reduction in size of the successive roofs is determined by reducing
the roof size by one or more modules (Tiwari, 1989).
The temple symbolically represents the mountain. In determining the ideal height of a
temple, the Nepali builders appear to have followed the dictates of Matsyapurana
which prescribes that the total height of the temple should be twice or three times the
width of the temple plan. Some old handwritten texts show two or three triangles
raised on each other to reach the finial height. However, the height of the triangles
drawn have been found to vary from the actual width e.g. w, 8/9w, 7/9w, 6/7w, 4/5w
(Tiwari, 1989).
An old manuscript outlining steps for the repair and maintenance of temples shows
the use of 3 proportioning triangles to determine the heights of important elements in
elevation e.g. eave level of roofs, level of neck band of lion faces (simhamvah),
junction level of lower roofs and upper core walls. Applying this principle to the
elevation of Narayan Dega, the proportions of the different elements appear to
conform to the given principle.
If H is the height of the proportioning triangle, the height of the temple is 3H.
According to the manuals, the lowest downturned triangle extends from the ritual
base to the ritual roof of the temple. The level of the first triangle normally ends at
the simhamvah level, however, the base of the triangle may not exactly coincide with
42

the base plan of the temple. In a linga temple, the base of the triangle coincides with
the level of the jalahari (Tiwari, 1989).
Rectangular temples are dedicated to Bhairav, Bhimsen, Balkumari and specific devis.
The proportion of the plans differ from 5:9 for Jayabageswori, Bhuvaneswori and Bag
Bhairav to 5:7 for Balkumari (Patan) to 5:6 for Bhagawati temple at Nala and 3:4 for
Bhimsen Patan.

References
(n.d.). Retrieved from http://web.gps.caltech.edu/~avouac/nepal_trip/geography.htm
(n.d.). Retrieved from http://archirokka.blogspot.com/2010/07/history-of-nepalesearchitecture.html
Nepal

Treck
Adventures
and
Expidition.
(n.d.).
Retrieved
http://www.nepaltrekadventures.com/religion-and-beliefs.html

from

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