POWER AND POLITICS

POWER AND POLITICS

A Definition of Power
1. Refers to a capacity that A has to influence the behavior of B, so that B acts in
accordance with As wishes.
Power may exist but not be used. It is, therefore, a capacity or potential.
2. Probably the most important aspect of power is that it is a function of dependency.

The greater Bs dependence on A, the greater is As power in the relationship.

Dependence, in turn, is based on alternatives that B perceives and the
importance that B places on the alternative(s) that A controls.
A person can have power over you only if he or she controls something you
desire.

Contrasting Leadership and Power

1. Leaders use power as a means of attaining group goals. Leaders achieve goals, and
power is a means of facilitating their achievement.
2. Differences between Leadership and Power:
Goal compatibility:
a) Power does not require goal compatibility, merely dependence.
b) Leadership, on the other hand, requires some congruence between the goals of
the leader and those being led.
The direction of influence:
a) Leadership focuses on the downward influence on ones followers.
b) Leadership research, for the most part, emphasizes style.
c) Power does not minimize the importance of lateral and upward influence
patterns.
d) The research on power has tended to encompass a broader area and focus on
tactics for gaining compliance.

2. Reward Power:
The opposite of coercive power is reward power.
People comply because doing so produces positive benefits; therefore, one who
can distribute rewards that others view as valuable will have power over those
others.
These rewards can be anything that another person values.
Coercive power and reward power are actually counterparts of each other.
a) If you can remove something of positive value from another or inflict something
of negative value upon him/her, you have coercive power over that person.
b) If you can give someone something of positive value or remove something of
negative value, you have reward power over that person.
3. Legitimate Power:
In formal groups and organizations, the most frequent access power is ones
structural position. It represents the power a person receives as a result of
his/her position in the formal hierarchy.
Positions of authority include coercive and reward powers.
Legitimate power, however, is broader than the power to coerce and reward. It
includes acceptance of the authority of a position by members of an
organization.
4. Information Power:
Refers to power that comes from access to and control over information. When
people have needed information, others become dependant on them. (For
example, managers have access to data that subordinates do not have).
B. Personal Power

Bases of Power

1. Expert Power:
"influence wielded as a result of expertise, special skill, or knowledge."
Expertise has become a powerful source of influence as the world has become
more technological. As jobs become more specialized, we become increasingly
dependent on experts to achieve goals.

A. Formal Power
1. Coercive Power:
The coercive power base is being dependent on fear.
It rests on the application, or the threat of application, of physical sanctions such
as the infliction of pain, the generation of frustration through restriction of
movement, or the controlling by force of basic physiological or safety needs.
At the organizational level, A has coercive power over B if A can dismiss,
suspend, or demote B, assuming that B values his or her job.

2. Referent Power:
Its base is identification with a person who has desirable resources or personal
traits. If I admire and identify with you, you can exercise power over me because
I want to please you.
Develops out of admiration of another and a desire to be like that person; it is a
lot like charisma.
Explains why celebrities are paid millions of dollars to endorse products in
commercials.

Similarly, if A can assign B work activities that B finds unpleasant or treat B in a manner
that B finds embarrassing, A possesses coercive power over B.

3. Charismatic Power:

POWER AND POLITICS

Is an extension of referent power stemming from an individuals personality and

interpersonal style?
Others follow because they can articulate attractive visions, take personal risks,
demonstrate follower sensitivity, etc.

Dependency: The Key to Power

1. The General Dependency Postulate:
The greater Bs dependency on A, the greater the power A has over B.
a. When you possess anything that others require but that you alone control, you
make them dependent upon you and, therefore, you gain power over them.
Dependency, then, is inversely proportional to the alternative sources of supply.
a. This is why most organizations develop multiple suppliers rather using just one.
b. It also explains why so many of us aspire to financial independence.
2. What Creates Dependency?
Importance
a. To create dependency, the thing(s) you control must be perceived as being
important.
b. Organizations actively seek to avoid uncertainty.
c. Therefore, those individuals or groups who can absorb an organizations
uncertainty will be perceived as controlling an important resource.
Scarcity
a. A resource needs to be perceived as scarce to create dependency.
b. Low-ranking members in an organization who have important knowledge not
available to high-ranking members gain power over the high-ranking members.
c. The scarcity-dependency relationship can further be seen in the power of
occupational categories.
d. Individuals in occupations in which the supply of personnel is low relative to
demand can negotiate compensation and benefit packages, which are far more
attractive than can those in occupations where there is an abundance of
candidates.
Nonsubstitutability
The more that a resource has no viable substitutes, the more power that control
over that resource provides.
Power Tactics
1.Using power tactics to translate power into action
Research has identified nine distinct influence tactics.

a. Legitimacy. Relying on ones authority position; request is in accord with

organizational policies or rules..
b. Rational persuasion. Logical arguments and factual evidence; request is
reasonable.
c. Inspirational appeals. Enveloping emotional commitment; appeal to values,
needs, hopes, and aspirations.
d. Consultation. Increase motivation and support; involve people in deciding
how the pan will be implemented.
e. Exchange. Reward with benefits or favors in exchange for following a request.
f. Personal appeals. Ask for compliance based on friendship or loyalty
g. Ingratiation. Use flattery, praise, or friendship prior to making request
h. Pressure. Use warnings, demands, and threats.
i. Coalitions. Enlist other people to persuade others.
2. People in different countries tend to prefer different power tactics.
3. The organizations culture
The organizational culture in which a manager works, therefore, will have a
significant bearing on defining which tactics are considered appropriate.
The organization itself will influence which subset of power tactics is viewed as
acceptable for use by managers.
Power in Groups: Coalitions
1. Those out of power and seeking to be in will first try to increase their power
individually.
2. If ineffective, the alternative is to form a coalitionan informal group bound
together by the active pursuit of a single issue.
3. The natural way to gain influence is to become a power holder but this may be
difficult, risky, costly, or impossible.
In such cases, efforts will be made to form a coalition of two or more outs who,
by joining together, can combine their resources to increase rewards for
themselves.
Successful coalitions have been found to contain fluid membership and are able
to form swiftly, achieve their target issue, and quickly disappear.
4. Predictions about Coalition Formation
First, coalitions in organizations often seek to maximize their size.
a. Decision-making in organizations does not end just with selection from among a
set of alternatives.
b. The decision must also be implemented.
c. The implementation of and commitment to the decision is at least as important
as the decision.
d. It is necessary for coalitions in organizations to seek a broad constituency.
e. This coalition expansion is to facilitate consensus building
f. In political science theory, coalitions move the other waythey try to minimize
their size.

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Sexual Harassment: Unequal Power in the Workplace
Another prediction relates to the degree of interdependence within the organization.
a. More coalitions will likely be created where there is a great deal of task and
resource interdependence.
b. In contrast, there will be less interdependence among subunits and less coalition
formation activity where subunits are largely self-contained or resources are
abundant.
Finally, coalition formation will be influenced by the actual tasks that workers do.
a. The more routine the task of a group, the greater the likelihood that coalitions
will form.
b. The more that the work that people do is routine, the greater their
substitutability.

1. Importance:

A Kentucky jury awarded $2 million to a Philip Morris plant supervisor after

suffering through more than a year of sexual harassment from the men she
supervised.

2. Sexual Harassment Defined:

"Any unwanted activity of a sexual nature that affects an individuals
employment."
The U.S. Supreme Court clarified the definition by adding that the key test for
determining if sexual harassment has occurred is whether comments or behavior
in a work environment would reasonably be perceived, and is perceived, as
hostile or abusive.
There continues to be disagreement as to what specifically constitutes sexual
harassment:
a. Overt forms of sexual harassment of female employees. This includes unwanted
physical touching, recurring requests for dates when it is made clear the woman
is not interested, and coercive threats that a woman will lose her job if she
refuses a sexual proposition.
b. The problem todaysubtle forms of sexual harassment such as unwanted looks
or comments, off-color jokes, sexual artifacts like nude calendars in the
workplace, etc.
Most studies confirm that the concept of power is central to understanding sexual
harassment.
Politics: Power in Action
1. Those activities that are not required as part of ones formal role in the organization,
but that influence, or attempt to influence, the distribution of advantages and
disadvantages within the organization.
2. This definition encompasses key elements.
a. Political behavior is outside ones specified job requirements.
b. It encompasses efforts to influence the goals, criteria, or processes used for
decision-making.
c. It includes such varied political behaviors as withholding key information from
decision makers, whistle blowing, spreading rumors, leaking confidential
information, etc.
3. The Legitimate-Illegitimate Dimension
Legitimate political behavior refers to normal everyday politicscomplaining to
your supervisor, bypassing the chain of command, forming coalitions, etc.
Illegitimate political behaviors that violate the implied rules of the game, such as
sabotage, whistle blowing, and symbolic protests, etc.
The vast majority of all organizational political actions are legitimate. The
extreme illegitimate forms of political behavior pose a very real risk of loss of
organizational membership or extreme sanction.

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A. The Reality of Politics
1. Politics is a fact of life in organizations.
2. Organizations are made up of individuals and groups with different values, goals, and
interests. This sets up the potential for conflict over resources.
3. Resources in organizations are also limited, which often turns potential conflict into
real conflict. Because resources are limited, not everyones interests can be provided
for causing the conflict.
Gains by one individual or group are often perceived as being at the expense of
others.
These forces create a competition.
4. The most important factor leading to politics within organizations is the realization
that most of the facts that are used to allocate the limited resources are open to
interpretation.
a.
b.

What is good performance?

Whats an adequate improvement?

5. Most managerial decisions take place in the large and ambiguous middle ground of
organizational life.
6. Because most decisions have to be made in a climate of ambiguity, people within
organizations will use whatever influence they can to taint the facts to support their
goals and interests. These are activities we call politicking.
7. It is possible for an organization to be politics free, if all members of that organization
hold the same goals and interests, however, that is not the organization most people
work in.

Factors Contributing to Political Behavior

1. Individual factors:
Researchers have identified certain personality traits, needs, and other factors that are
likely to be related to political behavior.
a. Employees who are high self-monitors, possess an internal locus of control, and
have a high need for power are more likely to engage in political behavior.
b. The high self-monitor is more sensitive to social cues and is more likely to be skilled
in political behavior than the low self-monitor.
c. Individuals with an internal locus of control are more prone to take a proactive
stance and attempt to manipulate situations in their favor.
d. The Machiavellian personality is comfortable using politics as a means to further
his/her self-interest.

An individuals investment in the organization, perceived alternatives, and expectations

of success will influence the tendency to pursue illegitimate means of political
action.
a. The more that a person has invested and the more a person has to lose, the less
likely he/she is to use illegitimate means.
b. The more alternative job opportunities an individual has, a prominent reputation,
or influential contacts outside the organization, the more likely he/she will risk
illegitimate political actions.
c. A low expectation of success in using illegitimate means diminishes the probability
of its use.

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2. Organizational factors:

Political activity is probably more a function of the organizations characteristics

than of individual difference variables.
When an organizations resources are declining, when the existing pattern of resources is
changing, and when there is opportunity for promotions, politics is more likely to
surface.
a.

Cultures characterized by low trust, role ambiguity, unclear performance

evaluation systems, zero-sum reward allocation practices, democratic decisionmaking, high pressures for performance, and self-serving senior managers will
create breeding grounds for politicking.

b.

When organizations downsize to improve efficiency, people may engage in

political actions to safeguard what they have.

c.

Promotion decisions have consistently been found to be one of the most political
in organizations.

d.

The less trust there is within the organization, the higher the level of political
behavior and the more likely it will be illegitimate.

e.

Role ambiguity means that the prescribed behaviors of the employee are not
clear. There are fewer limits to the scope and functions of the employees
political actions. The greater the role ambiguity, the more one can engage in
political activity with little chance of it being visible.

f.

Subjective criteria in the appraisal process: Subjective performance criteria

create ambiguity. Single outcome measures encourage doing whatever is
necessary to look good. The more time that elapses between an action and its
appraisal, the more unlikely that the employee will be held accountable for
his/her political behaviors.

g.

The zero-sum approach treats the reward pie as fixed so that any gain one
person or group achieves has to come at the expense of another person or
group. If I win, you must lose! This encourages making others look bad and
increasing the visibility of what you do.

h.

Making organizations less autocratic by asking managers to behave more

democratically is not necessarily embraced by all individual managers. Sharing
their power with others runs directly against some managers desires. The result
is that managers, especially those who began their careers in the 1950s and
1960s, may use the required committees, conferences, and group meetings in a
superficial way as arenas for maneuvering and manipulating.

i.

The more pressure that employees feel to perform well, the more likely they are
to engage in politicking. If a person perceives that his or her entire career is
riding on the next whatever, there is motivation to do whatever is necessary to
make sure the outcome is favorable.

j.

When employees see top management successfully engaging in political

behavior, a climate is created that supports politicking.

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A. How Do People Respond to Organizational Politics?
1. There is very strong evidence indicating that perceptions of organizational
politics are negatively related to job satisfaction.
2.

The perception of politics leads to anxiety or stress. When it get too much to
handle, employees quit.

3.

It is a de-motivating force and performance may suffer as a result.

4.

The effect of politics is moderated by the knowledge the individual has of the
decision making system and his/her political skills:
High political skills individuals often have improved performance.
Low political skills individuals often respond with defensive behaviors
reactive and protective behaviors to avoid action, change, or blame.

5.

Reaction to organizational politics is also moderated by culture. In countries that

are more unstable politically, workers will tolerate higher levels of politicking that
more politically stable counties.

B. Impression Management
1.

2.

The process by which individuals attempt to control the impression others form of
them
We know that people have an ongoing interest in how others perceive and
evaluate them.
Being perceived positively by others should have benefits for people in
organizations.
Who engages in IMthe high self-monitor
Low self-monitors tend to present images of themselves that are consistent with
their personalities, regardless of the beneficial or detrimental effects for them.
High self-monitors are good at reading situations and molding their appearances
and behavior to fit each situation.

3.

IM does not imply that the impressions people convey are necessarily false.
Excuses and acclaiming, for instance, may be offered with sincerity.
You can actually believe that ads contribute little to sales in your region or that
you are the key to the tripling of your divisions sales.

4.

Misrepresentation can have a high cost. If the image claimed is false, you may be
discredited.

5.

Situations that are characterized by high uncertainty or ambiguity that provide

relatively little information for challenging a fraudulent claim increase the likelihood
of individuals misrepresenting themselves.

6.

Studies have been undertaken to test the effectiveness of IM techniques.

These have been essentially limited to job interview success.

The evidence is that IM behavior works.

7.

In one study, interviewers felt that those applicants for a position as a customer
service representative who used IM techniques performed better in the interview and
the interviewers seemed somewhat more inclined to hire these people. When the
applicants credentials were also considered, it was apparent that the IM techniques
alone that influenced the interviewers.

8.

Another employment interview study looked at which IM techniques worked best.

The researchers compared IM techniques that focused the conversation on
themselves (called a controlling style) with techniques that focused on the
interviewer (referred to as a submissive style).
Those applicants who used the controlling style were rated higher by
interviewers on factors such as motivation, enthusiasm, and even technical skills
and they received more job offers.
A more recent study confirmed the value of a controlling style.

C. The Ethics of Behaving Politically

1.

Three ethical decision criteria are utilitarianism, rights, and justice. See
Exhibit 13-8 for an illustration of a decision tree to guide ethical actions.

2.

The first question you need to answer addresses self-interest versus

organizational goals. Ethical actions are consistent with the organizations
goals.

3.

The second question concerns the rights of other parties.

4.

The final question that needs to be addressed relates to whether or not the
political activity conforms to standards of equity and justice.

5.

Unfortunately, the answers to these questions are often argued in ways to

make unethical practices seem ethical. Powerful people can become very
good at explaining self-serving behaviors. They can persuasively argue that
unfair actions are really fair and just.

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Communication
The transference and the understanding of meaning.
Communication Functions
1. Control member behavior.
2. Foster motivation for what is to be done.
3. Provide a release for emotional expression.
4. Provide information needed to make decisions.
Elements

of the Communication Process

The sender
Encoding
The message
The channel
Decoding
The receiver
Noise
Feedback

The Communication Process

Channel
The medium selected by the sender through which the message travels
to the receiver.
Types of Channels
Formal Channels

Are established by the organization and transmit messages that

are related to the professional activities of members.
Informal Channels

Used to transmit personal or social messages in the organization.

These informal channels are spontaneous and emerge as a
response to individual choices.

Disadvantages: Time consuming and lacks feedback.

Nonverbal Communication

Advantages: Supports other communications and provides observable

expression of emotions and feelings.

Disadvantage: Misperception of body language or gestures can influence

receivers interpretation of message.

Grapevine

Grapevine Characteristics

Informal, not controlled by management.

Perceived by most employees as being more believable and reliable than

formal communications.

Largely used to serve the self-interests of those who use it.

Results from:

Desire for information about important situations

Ambiguous conditions

Conditions that cause anxiety

Computer-Aided Communication

E-mail

Advantages: quickly written, sent, and stored; low cost for distribution.

Disadvantages: information overload, lack of emotional content, cold and

impersonal.

Instant messaging

Advantage: real time e-mail transmitted straight to the receivers

desktop.
Disadvantage: can be intrusive and distracting

Intranet

A private organization-wide information network.

Extranet

An information network connecting employees with external suppliers,

customers, and strategic partners.

Videoconferencing

An extension of an intranet or extranet that permits face-to-face virtual

meetings via video links.

Interpersonal Communication

Oral Communication

Advantages: Speed and feedback.

Disadvantage: Distortion of the message.

Written Communication

Advantages: Tangible and verifiable.

Knowledge Management (KM)

A process of organizing and distributing an organizations collective wisdom so
the right information gets to the right people at the right time.
Why KM is important:
Intellectual assets are as important as physical assets.

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When individuals leave, their knowledge and experience goes with them.
A KM system reduces redundancy and makes the organization more efficient.
Choice of Communication Channel

Establish connection and intimacy.

Criticize men for not listening.
Speak of problems to promote closeness.
Express regret and restore balance to a conversation.

Channel Richness
The amount of information that can be transmitted during a communication
episode.
Characteristics of Rich Channels
1. Handle multiple cues simultaneously.
2. Facilitate rapid feedback.
3. Are very personal in context.

Politically Correct Communication

a.

Certain words stereotype, intimidate, and insult individuals.

b.

In an increasingly diverse workforce, we must be sensitive to how words might

offend others.

Removed: handicapped, blind, and elderly

Replaced with: physically challenged, visually impaired, and senior.

c.

Removing certain words from the vocabulary makes it harder to communicate

accurately.

Removed: death, garbage, quotas, and women.

Replaced with terms: negative patient outcome, postconsumer waste

materials, educational equity, and people of gender.

Barriers to Effective Communication

a. Filtering
A senders manipulation of information so that it will be seen more favorably
by the receiver.
b. Selective Perception
People selectively interpret what they see on the basis of their interests,
background, experience, and attitudes.
c.

Information Overload
A condition in which information inflow exceeds an individuals processing
capacity.

d. Emotions
How a receiver feels at the time a message is received will influence how
the message is interpreted.
e. Language
Words have different meanings to different people.
f.

Communication Apprehension
Undue tension and anxiety about oral communication, written
communication, or both.

Communication Barriers Between Men and Women

Men talk to:

Emphasize status, power, and independence.

Complain that women talk on and on.

Offer solutions.

To boast about their accomplishments.

Women talk to:

Cross-Cultural Communication
Cultural Barriers

Semantics

Word connotations

Tone differences

Differences among perceptions

Cultural Guide

Assume differences until similarity is proven.

Emphasize description rather than interpretation or evaluation.

Practice empathy.

Treat your interpretations as a working hypothesis.

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Communication Barriers and Cultural Context

High-Context Cultures
Cultures that rely heavily on nonverbal and subtle situational cues to
communication.

Decision implementation
Putting a decision into action; includes conveying the decision to the
persons who will be affected by it and getting their commitment to it

Making Decisions: The Rational Model

Low-Context Cultures
Cultures that rely heavily on words to convey meaning in communication.

Foundations of Decision Making

Certainty
The implication that the outcome of every possible alternative is known
Uncertainty
A condition under which there is not full knowledge of the problem and
reasonable probabilities for alternative outcomes cannot be determined.

Risk

The probability that a particular outcome will result from a given decision

Decision-making

Decision-making process
A set of eight steps that includes identifying a problem, selecting a
solution, and evaluating the effectiveness of the solution
Problem
A discrepancy between an existing and a desired state of affairs
Decision criteria
Factors that are relevant in a decision

Examples of Planning-Function Decisions

What are the organizations long-term objectives?

What strategies will best achieve those objectives?
What should the organizations short-term objectives be?
What is the most efficient means of completing tasks?
What might the competition be considering?
What budgets are needed to complete department tasks?
How difficult should individual goals be?

The Decision-Making Process

Assumptions of Rationality
Making Decisions: The Rational Model

Rational
Describes choices that are consistent and value-maximizing within
specified constraints
Bounded rationality
Behavior that is rational within the parameters of a simplified model that
captures the essential features of a problem
Satisfice
Making a
good enough
decision

Three Elements of

Creativity

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Creativity
The ability to produce novel and useful ideas
Common Decision-making Errors

Heuristics: Using judgmental shortcuts

Availability heuristic
the tendency for people to base their judgments on information
that is readily available to them
Representative heuristic
The tendency for people to base judgments of probability on
things with which they are familiar
Escalation of commitment
An increased commitment to a previous decision despite
negative information

How Do Problems Differ?

Well-structured problems

Straightforward, familiar, easily defined problems

Ill-structured problems

New problems in which information is ambiguous or incomplete

Programmed decision

A repetitive decision that can be handled by a routine approach

Nonprogrammed decisions

Decisions that must be custom-made to solve unique and nonrecurring

problems
Programmed Decision-Making Aids

Policy
A general guide that establishes parameters for making decisions about
recurring problems

Procedure
A series of interrelated sequential steps that can be used to respond to a
well-structured problem (policy implementation)

Rule
An explicit statement that tells managers what they ought or ought not
to do (limits on procedural actions)
Types of Problems, Types of Decisions, and Level in the Organization

Technology And Decision Making

Expert systems
Software that acts like an expert in analyzing and solving ill-structured
problems
Use specialized knowledge about a particular problem area
rather than general knowledge
Use qualitative reasoning rather than numerical calculations
Perform at a level of competence higher than that of nonexpert
humans.

Neural networks
Software that is designed to imitate the structure of brain cells and
connections among them
Decision Making: Styles

Directive style
Characterizes the low tolerance for ambiguity and a rational way of
thinking of individuals who are logical and efficient and typically make
fast decisions that focus on the short term.
Analytic style
Characterizes the high tolerance for ambiguity combined with a rational
way of thinking of individuals who prefer to have complete information
before making a decision.
Conceptual style
Individuals who tend to be very broad in outlook, to look at many
alternatives, and to focus on the long run and often look for creative
solutions.
Behavioral style
Individuals who think intuitively but have a low tolerance for uncertainty;
they work well with others, are open to suggestions, and are concerned
about the individuals who work for them.

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Decision-Making

Styles

Group Decision

Making
Conflict and Negotiation

Advantages
Make more accurate decisions
Provides more complete information
Offers a greater diversity of experiences and perspectives
Generates more alternatives
Increases acceptance of a solution
Increases the legitimacy of a decision.
Disadvantages
Is more time-consuming and less efficient
Minority domination can influence decision process
Increased pressures to conform to the groups mindset (groupthink)
Ambiguous responsibility for the outcomes of decisions

Improving Group Decision Making

Brainstorming
An idea-generating process that encourages alternatives while
withholding criticism
Nominal group technique
A decision-making technique in which group members are physically
present but operate independently
Electronic meeting
A type of nominal group technique in which participants are linked by
computer

Conflict

A process that begins when one party perceives that another party has
negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect, something that the first party
cares about

That point in an ongoing activity when an interaction crosses

over to become an interparty conflict

Encompasses a wide range of conflicts that people experience in

organizations

Incompatibility of goals

Differences over interpretations of facts

Disagreements based on behavioral expectations

Transitions in Conflict Thought
Traditional View of Conflict
The belief that all conflict is harmful and must be avoided
Causes

Poor communication

Lack of openness

Failure to respond to employee needs

Human Relations View of Conflict
The belief that conflict is a natural and inevitable outcome in any group
Interactionist View of Conflict
The belief that conflict is not only a positive force in a group but that it is
absolutely necessary for a group to perform effectively
Functional versus Dysfunctional Conflict

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Stage II: Cognition and Personalization
Functional Conflict
Conflict that supports the goals of the group and improves its performance
Dysfunctional Conflict
Conflict that hinders group performance
Types of Conflict

Perceived Conflict
Awareness by one or more parties of the existence of conditions that create
opportunities for conflict to arise
Felt Conflict
Emotional involvement in a conflict creating anxiety, tenseness, frustration, or
hostility

a. Task Conflict

Conflicts over content and goals of the work

b. Relationship Conflict

Conflict based on interpersonal relationships

c. Process Conflict
Conflict over how work gets done
The Conflict Process

Stage III: Intentions

Intentions
Decisions to act in a given way
Cooperativeness

Attempting to satisfy the other partys concerns

Assertiveness

Attempting to satisfy ones own concerns

Dimensions of Conflict-Handling Intentions

Stage I: Potential Opposition or Incompatibility

Communication

Semantic difficulties, misunderstandings, and noise

Structure

Size and specialization of jobs

Jurisdictional clarity/ambiguity

Member/goal incompatibility

Leadership styles (close or participative)

Reward systems (win-lose)

Dependence/interdependence of groups
Personal Variables

Differing individual value systems

Personality types

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Source: K. Thomas, Conflict and Negotiation Processes in Organizations, in M.D. Dunnette and L.M.
Hough (eds.), Handbook of Industrial and Organizational Psychology, 2nd ed., vol. 3 (Palo Alto, CA:
Consulting Psychologists Press, 1992), p. 668. With permission.

Competing
A desire to satisfy ones interests, regardless of the impact on the other party to
the conflict
Collaborating
A situation in which the parties to a conflict each desire to satisfy fully the
concerns of all parties
Avoiding
The desire to withdraw from or suppress a conflict

Conflict Resolution Techniques

Problem solving

Superordinate goals

Expansion of resources

Avoidance

Smoothing

Compromise

Authoritative command

Altering the human variable

Altering the structural variables

Accommodating
The willingness of one party in a conflict to place the opponents interests above
his or her own

Conflict Management Techniques

Conflict Resolution Techniques

Communication

Bringing in outsiders

Restructuring the organization

Appointing a devils advocate

Compromising
A situation in which each party to a conflict is willing to give up something
Stage IV: Behavior

Stage V: Outcomes

Conflict Management
The use of resolution and stimulation techniques to achieve the desired level of
conflict

Conflict-Intensity Continuum

Functional Outcomes from Conflict

Increased group performance

Improved quality of decisions

Stimulation of creativity and innovation

Encouragement of interest and curiosity

Provision of a medium for problem-solving

Creation of an environment for self-evaluation and change

Creating Functional Conflict

Reward dissent and punish conflict avoiders

Dysfunctional Outcomes from Conflict

Development of discontent

Reduced group effectiveness

Retarded communication

Reduced group cohesiveness

Infighting among group members overcomes group goals

Negotiation
A process in which two or more parties exchange goods or services and attempt to agree
on the exchange rate for them.
Source: Based on S.P. Robbins, Managing Organizational Conflict: A Nontraditional Approach (Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall, 1974), pp. 9397; and F. Glasi, The Process of Conflict Escalation and
the Roles of Third Parties, in G.B.J. Bomers and R. Peterson (eds.), Conflict Management and
Industrial Relations (Boston: Kluwer-Nijhoff, 1982), pp. 11940.
Conflict Management Techniques

BATNA
The Best Alternative To a Negotiated Agreement; the lowest acceptable value (outcome)
to an individual for a negotiated agreement

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Bargaining Strategies
Distributive Bargaining
Negotiation that seeks to divide up a fixed amount of resources; a win-lose
situation

The Negotiation Process

Integrative Bargaining
Negotiation that seeks one or more settlements that can create a win-win
solution

Distributive versus Integrative Bargaining

Bargaining
Characteristic
Goal
Motivation
Focus
Information Sharing
Duration of

Distributive
Bargaining
Get as much of pie as possible
Win-Lose
Positions
Low
Short term

Staking Out the Bargaining Zone

BATNA
The Best Alternative To a Negotiated Agreement; the lowest
acceptable value (outcome) to an individual for a negotiated
agreement
Issues in Negotiation

Integrative
Bargaining
Expand the pie
Win-Win
Interests
High
Long term

The Role of Mood and Personality Traits in Negotiation

Positive moods positively affect negotiations

Traits do not appear to have a significantly direct

effect on the outcomes of either bargaining or
negotiating processes (except extraversion, which is
bad for negotiation effectiveness)

Gender Differences in Negotiations

Women negotiate no differently from men,

although men apparently negotiate slightly better outcomes

Men and women with similar power bases use the same negotiating
styles

Womens attitudes toward negotiation and their success as negotiators

are less favorable than mens

Why American Managers Might Have Trouble in Cross-Cultural Negotiations

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Italians, Germans, and French dont soften up executives with praise before they
criticize. Americans do, and to many Europeans this seems manipulative. Israelis,
accustomed to fast-paced meetings, have no patience for American small talk.
British executives often complain that their U.S. counterparts chatter too much.
Indian executives are used to interrupting one another. When Americans listen
without asking for clarification or posing questions, Indians can feel the
Americans arent paying attention.
Americans often mix their business and personal lives. They think nothing, for
instance, about asking a colleague a question like, How was your weekend? In
many cultures such a question is seen as intrusive because business and private
lives are totally compartmentalized.

Third-Party Negotiations
Mediator
A neutral third party who facilitates a negotiated solution by using reasoning,
persuasion, and suggestions for alternatives
Arbitrator
A third party to a negotiation who has the authority to
dictate an agreement.
Conciliator
A trusted third party who provides an informal communication link between the
negotiator and the opponent
Consultant
An impartial third party, skilled in conflict management, who attempts to
facilitate creative problem solving through communication and analysis
Conflict and Unit Performance

Use Competition

When quick, decisive action is vital (in emergencies); on important issues

Where unpopular actions need implementing (in cost cutting, enforcing
unpopular rules, discipline)
On issues vital to the organizations welfare
When you know youre right
Against people who take advantage of noncompetitive behavior

Use Collaboration
To find an integrative solution when both sets of concerns are too important to be
compromised
When your objective is to learn
To merge insights from people with different perspectives
To gain commitment by incorporating concerns into a consensus
To work through feelings that have interfered with a relationship
Use Avoidance
When an issue is trivial, or more important issues are pressing
When you perceive no chance of satisfying your concerns
When potential disruption outweighs the benefits of resolution
To let people cool down and regain perspective
When gathering information supersedes immediate decision
When others can resolve the conflict effectively
When issues seem tangential or symptomatic of other issues

Use Accommodation

When you find youre wrong and to allow a better position to be heard
To learn, and to show your reasonableness
When issues are more important to others than to yourself and to satisfy others
and maintain cooperation
To build social credits for later issues
To minimize loss when outmatched and losing
When harmony and stability are especially important
To allow employees to develop by learning from mistakes

Use Compromise

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When goals are important but not worth the effort of potential disruption of more
assertive approaches
When opponents with equal power are committed to mutually exclusive goals
To achieve temporary settlements to complex issues
To arrive at expedient solutions under time pressure
As a backup when collaboration or competition is unsuccessful

Four types of antecedents to misbehaviorindividual, job, group, and organizational For

example, when individuals perceive they are being mistreated by a manager, their
preference for misbehaving may increase. This attitude can then become internalized
and impact co-workers. If, for example, co-workers agree that mistreatment has
occurred, they can join in with their own misbehavior. The intentional work misbehavior
of the individual who perceives himself to be mistreated could have negative
consequences for the person (dissatisfaction), the work group (dissatisfaction), and the
organization (increased absenteeism). This assumes that all misbehaviors (outcomes)
are voluntarily committed.
Mediators
A core concept is the intention to misbehave. Accidental behaviors on the part of
individuals are excluded. The intention to misbehave is defined as the behavior exhibited
by an individual or group that is purposeful (intentional) and can be harmful to the
person and others, as well as financially and socially costly.
Outcomes
The examples of misbehaviors (outcomes) presented in are some of the more
researched, reported, and analyzed misbehaviors, but more examples exist. Five specific
categories that are discussed in the literature are interpersonal, intrapersonal,
performance, property, and political.

Managing Misbehavior

Misbehavior in organizations is exhibited in many different forms. In general, the

management of employee misbehavior (MEM) is the responsibility of managers in a
formal sense. The groups to which misbehaving employees belong also have an
informal role to play correcting or sanctioning misbehavior of colleagues.

The MEM has a cross-disciplinary theme. A number of theories, studies, and

models are available to trace antecedents, mediators, outcomes, and costs of
organizational misbehavior.

The intention to misbehave is proposed to mediate the relationship of

antecedents and outcomes. These intentions are considered normative or
instrumental.

Management has a number of choices to intervene and correct or stop

misbehavior.

Included in the managers choice set are interventions at the hiring point (before
entry), to impact normative or instrument behaviors, and to bring about deterrence.

The possible misbehaviors confronted by managers and non-managers range

from cyberslacking to sexual harassment to violence. If permitted to go unchecked,
these misbehaviors result in lost productivity, higher costs, and lower morale.

The consequences of misbehavior also include damaged, destroyed, or harmed

equipment, information, and data. There can also be significant health costs.

There is no one best way remedy for misbehavior. Individual differences,

different goals, varied organizational cultures, and managerial knowledge and skill are
all
Antecedents

Costs
The potential costs of employee misbehavior to individuals, groups, organizations, and
other societal groups can be substantial. Some believe that managers have been given a
free ride in the social cost responsibility area.
Management Interventions
Management interventions are the actions taken by managers (representing the
organization) to prevent, control, or respond to harmful misbehavior
A Model of Organizational Misbehavior

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The list of potential employee misbehaviors faced by managers is extensive. These are
the significant and widely publicized and researched misbehaviors.
Sexual Harassment
Unwelcome advances, requests for sexual favors, and other types of verbal,
psychological, or physical abuses.
Several types of sexual harassment
1. Quid pro quo . This form of sexual harassment occurs when an employees
compliance with requests for sexual favors are linked to employment decisions
(e.g., promotion or hiring).
2. Hostile work environment . This sexual harassment occurs when sex-related
behavior interferes with an employees work performance or creates an
intimidating, hostile, or offensive working environment.
3. Psychological . This sexual harassment occurs when an employee feels
harassed regardless of whether or not the sex-related behavior is illegal.
Aggression and Violence
In the work setting this is behavior that brings harm to others with whom the aggressor
works or has worked.
Types of Workplace Aggression Categorized by Buss

Source: Adapted from Yoav Vardi and Ely Weitz, Misbehavior in Organizations: Theory, Research, and
Management (Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2004), p. 251 with modifications .

Selected Misbehaviors
Source: A.H. Buss, The Psychology of Aggression (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1961).

POWER AND POLITICS

Bullying
Deliberate or unconscious repeated actions that are directed at another worker to cause
humiliation or distress.
Incivility
In the workplace this is behavior that is designated as rude, discourteous, or demeaning
toward others.

Organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). Being civil or polite with regard to

others in an organization constitutes

Incivility includes condescending remarks, being disruptive in meetings, ignoring

others, insulting another person, being abrupt, giving negative eye contact, not
answering when asked a question, refusing to say thank you or please,
interrupting others when speaking, and sending flaming e-mails, instant
messages, or texts.
According to recent research, employees who are the recipients of uncivil behavior
experience the following:

Increased job stress and dissatisfaction.

Lower levels of creativity.

Cognitive distraction and psychological distress.

Disrupted relationships at work.

Lower commitment to the organization.

Higher turnover.
WAYS TO PREVENT INCIVILITY AT WORK
1. Create and enforce a zero-tolerance policy.
2. Manage proactively the climate of the organization.
3. Have leaders set the tone and serve as role models.
4. Train employees on what is acceptable (and unacceptable) behavior.
5. Punish those individuals who engage in uncivil behaviors.

Misuse

who access pornography sites in offices may also contribute inordinately to

sexual harassment behaviors.
Being able to eliminate all cyberslacking is not possible. However, having
regulations, communicating them, and using them are needed to discourage this
type of misbehavior.
of the Internet was defined as:
Viewing, uploading, or downloading offensive content.
Violation of company policy.
Excessive personal use.

Sabotage
An extreme form of workplace violence instituted to disrupt, destroy, or damage
equipment, data, a work area, or relationships with key stakeholders.

Sabotage is a tangible expression of aggression or violence. Increasingly, coworkers are purposefully erasing databases and destroying other items.
Employee sabotage can range from simple, pranklike behaviors to vandalism to
computer bombs.

A recent study of call center employees found that daily customer mistreatment
predicted employee sabotage against customers. Sabotage behaviors included
hanging up on customers, putting them on hold for a long time, telling customers
the problem was fixed when it wasnt, and so forth.

Three types of sabotage targets exist: people, equipment, and operations. In

sabotaging people, the objective is to destroy the persons career, progress,
reputation, or work area. The sabotage of equipment or operations involves
physically destroying something.

The use of sabotage is usually the method of choice of people who are bored and
not challenged, believe that something in their work history was very unfair to
them, or want to gain an advantage over a colleague.

The list of successful sabotage now includes lost information, replacing

Fraud
An intentional act of deceiving or misrepresenting to induce another
individual or group to give up something of value.
Substance Abuse at Work
It was found that a permissive workplace culture is the single most significant
risk factor that drives employees to drink. When employees believe the
organization will tolerate social drinking during work hours, there is a greater
possibility that drinking will become a problem.
Cyberslacking
The use of the Internet during office or work hours for personal reasons.

Personal e-mails, Facebook updates, online shopping, recreational

surfing, listening to music, vacation planning, and house or
apartment hunting are performed during working hours. This costs organizations
in lost time and energy being devoted to non-organization matters. Personal
cyberslacking can also burden an organizations computer network. Employees

equipment, and increases in health care costs.

Personal Use of Social Media at Work

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Source: Adapted from Social Media Penetrating the U.S. Workplace but Impact of Productivity Is
Causing Unease, According to Annual Survey by Kelly Services,
June 12, 2012, http://ir.kellyservices.com; and David Schepp , Employees Admit Social Media Is a
Waste of Their Time, AOL Jobs Articles & News, June 13, 2012,
http://jobs.aol.com.

Theft
Unauthorized taking, consuming, or transfer of money or goods owned by the
organization.

Employee theft is assumed to be better controlled at the entry point or when a

person is selected for employment

The cost of theft points to the need for managers to intervene to attempt to
control it through various programs. Electronic surveillance is increasingly used
to stop or catch thieves. Organizations have also increased their use of honesty
or integrity tests to point out theft-prone job candidates before hiring them.

organization for something it has done (e.g., rejected a request, passed over for a
promotion, reprimanded someone for not completing a job on time). Stealing is an
attempt to bring about equity or balance in the mind of an aggrieved employee who acts
to get even.
A pprova L motive: Most managers work to prevent theft. However, in some cases, an
unwritten code of conduct permits (approves) some theft. For example, some managers
permit the theft as a part of the workers reward or may even participate in the stealing.

Facts about Employees Who Steal from Their Companies

The STEAL Model

- refers to four motives behind theft behaviorS(upport), T(hwart), E(ven the score), and
A(pprova)L.
S upport motive: A work group with deviant norms about theft can have a powerful
influence on theft behavior. Through its behaviors the group can display what, when, and
where to steal. The group establishes the plan, shows how to execute it, and rewards
participating members. The colleagues participating in the thefts are considered
members in good standing.

The Four STEAL Motives

Source: Adapted from J. Greenberg, The STEAL Motive: Managing the Social Determinants of
Employee Theft, in Antisocial
Behavior in O r ganizations , R.A. Giacalone and J. Greenberg, eds. (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage
Publications, 1997), pp. 85108.

T hwart motive: The thwart motive opposes group norms that regulate theft. The
rationale is to harm the employer by striking out at members of ones work group. It is
an attempt to thwart the groups attempt to control theft.
E ven the score motive: An antisocial behavior is designed to inflict some form of
harm on the organization. Evening the score is a way of attempting to harm an

Privacy

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A situation or condition that limits or forbids another persons access to an individuals
records, data, or information.
The managerial perspective on privacy includes the right to do drug testing,
electronic workplace searches, surveillance by tape recording or video, and
monitoring off-duty conduct.
E-Mail Privacy
Electronic mail is used widely in organizations. Groupware, instant messaging, and e-mail
allow employees to share information in real time. It has become a communication tool
of choice.

Some believe managerial review of e-mails is morally unacceptable. That is,

management is misbehaving by snooping. Managers who indiscriminately
inspect e-mails are violating the employees moral right to privacy.

The Organizational Threshold

A controversial question is whether employees give up all civil liberties once they cross
into the organization. An employer expects employees not to share proprietary secrets,
yet unless the employer respects employee privacy the reciprocal relationship is broken
or damaged.

Routine examination of employee e-mails damages confidentiality. The e-mail is

no longer confidential since a third party (e.g., management) reads the message
and knows who is involved.
Those who oppose contend that a strict e-mail privacy policy provides employees
with a sense of autonomy, self-confidence, and empowerment. Many employees
value these factors, and they show it with higher morale and more loyalty to the
organization.

Testing Policy
Organizations can utilize testing (e.g., medical, drug, psychological, or lie detector) if the
test is designed to predict a persons ability to perform, is relatively noninvasive, and the
results are private.

For example, the Americans with Disability Act (ADA) limits the use of medical
testing. Employers can require a medical test only after a job offer is made. Also,
the medical test results may not be passed on wholesale to the employer. Only
the medical practitioners conclusion about the persons ability to work without
restrictions can be provided. Data on the medical test must be reviewed only by
those with a need to know.
Once a person becomes employed, the employer can conduct a medical
examination only to determine fitness-to-perform. Again only the examiners
general conclusion is provided.