STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

INTRODUCTION
Civilisation as a whole es very largely dependent on the usage of structures
is many shapes and forms. Implements such as clubs or screwdrivers;
machines like a wheeled vehicle or aeroplane; buildings from mud huts to
skyscrapers; waterworks like aqueducts or hidroelectric dams; sophisticated
apparatus such as oil drilling rigs and interplanetary satellites; and living
things such astrees and plants and even animals have structural
embodiments. When one looks back at some of the marvellous structures
like the pyramids or the parthenom or the roman aqueducts, it is evident
that design and construction of such things was a combination of a
knowledge of material, basic concepts of stability, imaginative choice of
from and inherited or hard won experience.
Nowadays structures vary so much in shape and purpose that the subject of
design and construction tends to be divided between civil, structural,
mechanical, architectural building, wter and environmental services
engineering. Nevertheless the general principles of structural mechanics are
common througghut and are straightforward in themselves. Their
application to structural elements can be readily grasped, and this leads the
way to an understanding of the behaviour of more complicated assemblies
of the elements.
Analysis and design
In the beginning there is no doubt that structures were accidents which were
observed and remembered. For examples, a tree fell across a river and
formed a bridge. A delibrate copy of this was a first step in design. Later
the question of how much load (that is people, animals, barrows, etc .) could
be safely supported by strength of the bridge would have been a crude
attempt at analysis.
Analysis is the evaluation of a structure in therms of the size of its elements
and the strength and elasticity of the materials from which it is made. The
two most important objetives are to determine a safe loading and the
flexibility of the structure. To perfomr analysis the structure must exist
either in reality or as a proconceived idea.
Design starts from the other end. A specified loading has to be supported to
achieve. Before much calculation can be done the form of a structure, in this
case a bridge, has to be chosen. Then in the easier examples the proposed
structure can be chosen. Then in the easier examples the proposed
structure can be pre-determined by calculation. Alternatively for more
elaborate structures it may be necessary to guess the size and shape in
order to carry out an analysis of the strength and flexibility.
Practical experience

The obvious question is how one can guess the size and shape of the initial
structure. The answer is by having a practical knowledge of the way
structure behave; by knowing the strengths and weaknesses of materials
and structural elements; and by observing what has already been built. To
concentrate the adquisition of such experience into as few years as possible
it is usual to follow a course of study specially arranged to teach structural
mechanics. An essential part of the study is afforded by hands-on
experience en the laboratory rigth up to the stage of total collapse where
necessary. The balance betweenpure theory and practical laboratory work
that produces good engineers varies from one student to another, but many
students find a bias toward the practical side is a successful way to
undestanding structural analysis and design.

Understanding structural mechanics

Theory of structures is a major subject within the overall education of a

student civil engineer. This must mean thah a good adeal of time has to be
spent learning the basic of the subject. The object of this book is to carry on
from where structuralmechanics by durka, morgan & williams finishes by
delivering the additional theory while minimising dependence on the
mathematics involved. Provided that students are prepared to accept the
formulae derived at the end of the theory, and can see how the assumptions
made influence the application of the formulae, then they can make good
use of their knowledge.
As with most activities, practice aids learning. This is typically offered in the
form of examples and exercises accompaying the text. These are part of the
study and sould be used as a test of undestanding. Inevitably memory is an
essential ingredient which expands as the learning procceds, and in the long
run becomes the data base of experience. Thus a clear undertanding of
structural mechanics is within the reach of all who apply themselves to this
interresting subject.
Equilibrium
Structural mechanics, or theory of structures, is concerned with the analysis
an design of rigid bodies thet are in equilibrium with the forces acting upon
them. Although many structures like buildings or bridges are generally seen
as stationary, it is true to state that a railway carriage or an aeroplane
moving at a uniform velocity can be regardedin the same way as structures
the forces acting on a structure may be static, like self weight, moving like
vehicles on a bridge, developed by wind pressure or the forces due to
change of velocity in the case of a railway carriage coming to a halt or
travelling round a curve. In alla these cirsumstances it is possible to freeze
the forces and the structure and instantaneously consider the state of

equilibrium. This is how the term statical equilibrium is used when dealing
with structures.
To analyse the parts, or elements, that make up a structure it is usual to
insolate each part and study it in detail. The equilibrium of parts of a somple
structure has been dealt with in the elementry book on structural mechanics
by F. Durka, W. Morgan and W. T. Williams. * In applying the methods given
therein to complete strucures there are different approaches. When
desgning a bulding, the analysis of the parts must follow a logical
progression starting with the loads on the roof slabs, see 1 in figure 1. The
next step is to deal with the beams carrying the slab such as at the outer
edges 2, and the inner edges 3 which carry the slab on either side of the
beam. The columns such as 4,5 and 6 must now support the loads from the
beams. The procedure then repeats for the next lower storey, noting that
the columns will have to carry a columns above. Finally at the ground each
column, for example 7, is supported by a base 8 which distributes the load
over an area that can withstand it.
Alternatively, for a bridge truss the loading on the deck is transfered to the
lower boom at the joints and the total load is supported at

The end bearings. It is then possible to find the force in each member
separately and independently.

Elastic deformation

As the subject of structural mechanics develops in this book, a stage is

quickly reached where consideration of equilibrium alone are insufficient to
solve for of the forces acting on or within a

Structure. To overcome this difficulty it is necessary to investigate the elastic

deformations of the structure due to the loading. The simplest examples of
this is the cantilever beam shown in figure 1.3(a) carrying a distributed load
which causes the beam to deflect as indicated. In figure 1.3(b) a jack has
been introduced at the free end to push the end upward. The force exerted
by the jack is determined by the final deflection at the end.
A slightly more dificult example to visualise is that in figure 1.4 where three
members share in holding up a vertical load. There are three unknown
forces and only two simple equations of equilibrium. The third equation has
to be whitten to arrange that the end D of each member concides in space
with the ends of the other two members.
This is referred to as a condition of compatibility, and would apply whether
the elasticity was linear or non-linear. Generally one is dealing only with
linear elasticity. In this method the force in one of the memebers is regarded
as the unknown.
There is, however, an alternative approach to the solution of the problem in
figure 1.4 in wich the displacement of the point D is taken as the unknown.
For convenience the vertical an horisontal components are used, so in fact
there are two unknown values of displacement for each of which a
corresponding state of equilibrium involving these unknowns can be written.
These new equations are in addition to the simple conditions of equilibrium
involving to be analysed. This approach, if appied to the prpped cantilever in
figure 1.3(b), would have used the deflection and rotation

Elements and the strength and elasticity of the materials from which it is
made. The two most important objectives are to determine a safe loading
and the flexibility of the structure. To perform analysis the structure must
exist either in reality or as a preconceived idea.
Design starts from the other end. A specifield loading has to be supported