Assignment

Subject:

I.C.T
Submitted To:

Sir. Ghulam Yasin

Submitted By:

Muhammad Alamgir
6671
B.S (IT)
Morning (A)

University Of Education Lahore

(Multan Campus)
Q.NO.1
RAM

Random-access memory (RAM /rm/) is a form of computer data storage. A random-access memory
device allows data items to be accessed (read or written) in almost the same amount of time irrespective of the
physical location of data inside the memory. In contrast, with other direct-access data storage media such ashard
disks, CD-RWs, DVD-RWs and the older drum memory, the time required to read and write data items varies
significantly depending on their physical locations on the recording medium, due to mechanical limitations such as
media rotation speeds and arm movement.
Today, random-access memory takes the form of integrated circuits. RAM is normally associated with volatile types
of memory (such as DRAM memory modules), where stored information is lost if power is removed, although many
efforts have been made to develop non-volatile RAM chips.[1] Other types of non-volatile memory exist that allow
random access for read operations, but either do not allow write operations or have limitations on them. These
include most types of ROM and a type of flash memory called NOR-Flash.
Integrated-circuit RAM chips came into the market in the late 1960s, with the first commercially available DRAM
chip, the Intel 1103, introduced in October 1970.

There are two basic types of RAM :

(i) Dynamic Ram
(ii) Static RAM

Dynamic RAM : loses its stored information in a very short time (for milli sec.) even when power supply is on. DRAMs are cheaper & lower.
Similar to a microprocessor chip is an Integrated Circuit (IC) made of millions of transistors and capacitors.
In the most common form of computer memory, Dynamic Memory Cell, represents a single bit of data. The capacitor
holds the bit of information a 0 or a 1. The transistor acts as a switch that lets the control circuitry on the memory

chip read the capacitor or change its state. A capacitor is like a small bucket that is able to store electrons. To store a
1 in the memory cell, the bucket is filled with electrons.

To store a 0, it is emptied. The problem with the capacitors bucket is that it has a leak. In a matter of a few
milliseconds a full bucket becomes empty. Therefore, for dynamic memory to work, either the CPU or the Memory
Controller has to come along and recharge all of the capacitors holding it before they discharge. To do this, the
memory controller reads the memory and then writes it right back. This refresh operation happens automatically
thousands of times per second.

This refresh operation is where dynamic RAM gets its name. Dynamic RAM has to be dynamically refreshed all of
the time or it forgets what it is holding. The downside of all of this refreshing is that it takes time and slows down the
memory.

Static RAM uses a completely different technology. S-RAM retains stored information only as long as the power
supply is on. Static RAMs are costlier and consume more power. They have higher speed than D-RAMs. They store
information in Hip-Hope.

In static RAM, a form of flipflop holds each bit of memory. A flip-flop for a memory cell takes four or six transistors
along with some wiring, but never has to be refreshed. This makes static RAM significantly faster than dynamic
RAM. However, because it has more parts, a static memory cell takes up a lot more space on a chip than a dynamic
memory cell. Therefore, you get less memory per chip, and that makes static RAM a lot more expensive. Static RAM
is fast and expensive, and dynamic RAM is less expensive and slower. Static RAM is used to create the CPUs
speedsensitive cache, while dynamic RAM forms the larger system RAM space.

Some other RAMS are :

(a) EDO (Extended Data Output) RAM : In an EDO RAMs, any memory location can be accessed. Stores 256
bytes of data information into latches. The latches hold next 256 bytes of information so that in most programs,
which are sequentially executed, the data are available without wait states.

(b) SDRAM (Synchronous DRAMS), SGRAMs (Synchronous Graphic RAMs) These RAM chips use the same
clock rate as CPUuses. They transfer data when the CPU expects them to be ready.

(c) DDR-SDRAM (Double Data Rate SDRAM) : This RAM transfers data on both edges of the clock. Therefore
the transfer rate of the data becomes doubles.

ROM
Read-only memory (ROM) is a type of non-volatile memory used incomputers and other electronic devices. Data
stored in ROM can only be modified slowly, with difficulty, or not at all, so it is mainly used to
storefirmware (software that is closely tied to specific hardware and unlikely to need frequent updates).
Strictly, read-only memory refers to memory that is hard-wired, such asdiode matrix and the later mask
ROM (MROM). Although discrete circuits can be altered in principle, integrated circuits (ICs) cannot and are useless
if the data is bad or requires an update. That such memory can never be changed is a disadvantage in some
applications. More recently,ROM has come to mean memory that is read-only in normal operation, but a technician
using special equipment can erase or reprogram to updating firmware or to correct an error.
Other types of read-only memory, in the newer sense of the term, includeerasable programmable read-only
memory (EPROM) and electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM). These types of memory
can be erased and re-programmed multiple times, but only by using equipment and processes unavailable to typical
end users

TYPES

Programmable read-only memory (PROM), or one-time programmable ROM (OTP), can be written to
or programmed via a special device called a PROM programmer. Typically, this device uses high voltages to
permanently destroy or create internal links (fuses or antifuses) within the chip. Consequently, a PROM can only
be programmed once.

Erasable programmable read-only memory (EPROM) can be erased by exposure to strong ultraviolet light
(typically for 10 minutes or longer), then rewritten with a process that again needs higher than usual voltage
applied. Repeated exposure to UV light will eventually wear out an EPROM, but the endurance of most EPROM
chips exceeds 1000 cycles of erasing and reprogramming. EPROM chip packages can often be identified by the
prominent quartz "window" which allows UV light to enter. After programming, the window is typically covered
with a label to prevent accidental erasure. Some EPROM chips are factory-erased before they are packaged, and
include no window; these are effectively PROM.

Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory (EEPROM) is based on a similar semiconductor

structure to EPROM, but allows its entire contents (or selected banks) to be electrically erased, then rewritten
electrically, so that they need not be removed from the computer (or camera, MP3 player, etc.). Writing
or flashing an EEPROM is much slower (milliseconds per bit) than reading from a ROM or writing to a RAM
(nanoseconds in both cases).

Electrically alterable read-only memory (EAROM) is a type of EEPROM that can be modified
one bit at a time. Writing is a very slow process and again needs higher voltage (usually around 12 V) than is
used for read access. EAROMs are intended for applications that require infrequent and only partial
rewriting. EAROM may be used asnon-volatile storage for critical system setup information; in many
applications, EAROM has been supplanted byCMOS RAM supplied by mains power and backed-up with
a lithium battery.

Flash memory (or simply flash) is a modern type of EEPROM invented in 1984. Flash memory can be
erased and rewritten faster than ordinary EEPROM, and newer designs feature very high endurance
(exceeding 1,000,000 cycles). Modern NAND flash makes efficient use of silicon chip area, resulting in
individual ICs with a capacity as high as 32 GB as of 2007; this feature, along with its endurance and

physical durability, has allowed NAND flash to replace magnetic in some applications (such as USB flash
drives). Flash memory is sometimes called flash ROM orflash EEPROM when used as a replacement for
older ROM types, but not in applications that take advantage of its ability to be modified quickly and
frequently.

.
Q.NO.2

a. CMOS:Complementary metaloxidesemiconductor (CMOS) /sims/ is a technology for constructing integrated

circuits. CMOS technology is used in microprocessors,microcontrollers, static RAM, and other digital logic circuits.
CMOS technology is also used for several analog circuits such as image sensors (CMOS sensor), data converters,
and highly integrated transceivers for many types of communication. In 1963, while working for Fairchild
Semiconductor, Frank Wanlass patented CMOS (US patent 3,356,858).
CMOS is also sometimes referred to as complementary-symmetry metaloxidesemiconductor (or COS-MOS).
[1]
The words "complementary-symmetry" refer to the fact that the typical design style with CMOS uses
complementary and symmetrical pairs of p-type and n-type metal oxide semiconductor field effect
transistors (MOSFETs) for logic functions.[2]
Two important characteristics of CMOS devices are high noise immunity and low static power consumption.[3] Since
onetransistor of the pair is always off, the series combination draws significant power only momentarily during
switching between on and off states. Consequently, CMOS devices do not produce as much waste heat as other
forms of logic, for example transistortransistor logic (TTL) or NMOS logic, which normally have some standing
current even when not changing state. CMOS also allows a high density of logic functions on a chip. It was primarily
for this reason that CMOS became the most used technology to be implemented in VLSI chip

b.Access time:Access time is the time delay or latency between a request to an electronic system, and the access being completed
or the requested data returned.

In a telecommunications system, access time is the delay between the start of an access attempt and
successful access. Access time values are measured only on access attempts that result in successful access.

In a computer, it is the time interval between the instant at which an instruction control unit initiates a call
for data or a request to store data, and the instant at which delivery of the data is completed or the storage is
started.

c.port:In computer hardware, a port serves as an interface between the computer and other computers or
peripheral devices. In computer terms, a port generally refers to the female part of connection. Computer ports have
many uses, to connect amonitor, webcam, speakers, or other peripheral devices. On the physical layer, a computer
port is a specialized outlet on a piece of equipment to which a plug orcable connects. Electronically, the several
conductors where the port and cable contacts connect, provide a method to transfer signals between devices.
Electronically, hardware ports can almost always be divided into two groups based on the signal transfer:

Serial ports send and receive one bit at a time via a single wire pair (Ground and +/-).

Parallel ports send multiple bits at the same time over several sets of wires

Q.NO 3
Input devices:In computing, an input device is a peripheral (piece of computer hardwareequipment) used to provide data
and control signals to an information processing system such as a computer or information appliance. Examples of
input devices include keyboards, mouse, scanners, digital cameras and joysticks.
Many input devices can be classified according to:

modality of input (e.g. mechanical motion, audio, visual, etc.)

whether the input is discrete (e.g. key presses) or continuous (e.g. a mouse's position, though digitized into a
discrete quantity, is fast enough to be considered continuous)

the number of degrees of freedom involved (e.g. two-dimensional traditional mice, or three-dimensional
navigators designed for CAD applications)

1.mouse:Pointing devices are the most commonly used input devices today. A pointing device is any human
interface device that allows a user to input spatial data to a computer. In the case of mouse and touchpads, this is
usually achieved by detecting movement across a physical surface. Analog devices, such as 3D mice,joysticks,
or pointing sticks, function by reporting their angle of deflection. Movements of the pointing device are echoed on
the screen by movements of thepointer, creating a simple, intuitive way to navigate a computer's graphical user
interface (GUI).

2.keyboard:-

In computing, a computer keyboard is a typewriter-style device which uses an arrangement of buttons

or keys to act as mechanical levers or electronic switches. Following the decline of punch cards and paper tape,
interaction via teleprinter-style keyboards became the main input device for computers.
A keyboard typically has characters engraved or printed on the keys and each press of a key typically corresponds to
a single written symbol. However, to produce some symbols requires pressing and holding several keys
simultaneously or in sequence. While most keyboard keys produce letters, numbers or signs (characters), other keys
or simultaneous key presses can produce actions or execute computer commands.

3.scanner:In computing, an image scanneroften abbreviated to just scanner, although the term is ambiguous out of context
(barcode scanner, CAT scanner, etc.)is a device that optically scans images, printed text, handwriting, or an object,
and converts it to a digital image. Commonly used in offices are variations of the desktop flatbed scanner where the
document is placed on a glass window for scanning. Hand-held scanners, where the device is moved by hand, have
evolved from text scanning "wands" to 3D scanners used for industrial design, reverse engineering, test and
measurement, orthotics, gaming and other applications. Mechanically driven scanners that move the document are
typically used for large-format documents, where a flatbed design would be impractical.

4. Digital cameras:A digital camera or digicam is a camera that encodes digital images and videosdigitally and stores them for
later reproduction.[1] Most cameras sold today are digital,[2] and digital cameras are incorporated into many devices
ranging from PDAsand mobile phones (called camera phones) to vehicles.

Digital and film cameras share an optical system, typically using a lens with a variable diaphragm to focus light onto
an image pickup device.[3] The diaphragm and shutter admit the correct amount of light to the imager, just as with
film but the image pickup device is electronic rather than chemical. However, unlike film cameras, digital cameras
can display images on a screen immediately after being recorded, and store and delete images from memory. Many
digital cameras can also record moving videos with sound. Some digital cameras can crop and stitchpictures and
perform other elementary image editing.

5.Joystick:A joystick is an input device consisting of a stick that pivots on a base and reports its angle or direction to the
device it is controlling. A joystick, also known as the control column, is the principal control device in the cockpit of
many civilian and military aircraft, either as a center stick or side-stick. It often has supplementary switches to
control various aspects of the aircraft's flight.
Joysticks are often used to control video games, and usually have one or more push-buttons whose state can also be
read by the computer. A popular variation of the joystick used on modern video game consoles is the analog stick.
Joysticks are also used for controlling machines such as cranes, trucks, underwater unmanned vehicles, wheelchairs,
surveillance cameras, and zero turning radius lawn mowers. Miniature finger-operated joysticks have been adopted
as input devices for smaller electronic equipment such as mobile phones.