Introduction of Mechatronics

ME2401-MECHATRONICS
IV/VII
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
A Course Material on
MECHATRONICS
By
MS. T.KOUSALYA
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRONICS & COMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
SASURIE COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

VIJAYAMANGALAM 638 056
T.KOUSALYA AP/ECE
2015-2016
ME2401-MECHATRONICS
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QUALITY CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the e-course material

Subject Code : ME2401
Subject
: MECHATRONICS
Class
: IV- MECHANICAL
Being prepared by me and it meets the knowledge requirement of the university curriculum.
Signature of the Author
Name : T.KOUSALYA
Designation: Assistant Professor
This is to certify that the course material being prepared by Ms.T.KOUSALYA is of adequate quality. She has
referred more than five books among them minimum one is from abroad author.
Signature of HD
Name: E.R. SIVAKUMAR
SEAL
T.KOUSALYA AP/ECE
2015-2016
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ME2401
IV/VII
MECHATRONICS
OBJECTIVE: To understand the interdisciplinary applications of Electronics, Electrical, Mechanical and

Computer Systems for the Control of Mechanical and Electronic Systems.
UNIT I MECHATRONICS, SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS
Introduction to Mechatronics Systems Measurement Systems Control Systems Microprocessor based

Controllers. Sensors and Transducers Performance Terminology Sensors for Displacement, Position and
Proximity; Velocity, Motion, Force, Fluid Pressure, Liquid Flow, Liquid Level, Temperature,Light Sensors
Selection of Sensors
UNIT II ACTUATION SYSTEMS
Pneumatic and Hydraulic Systems Directional Control Valves Rotary Actuators. Mechanical Actuation
Systems Cams Gear Trains Ratchet and pawl Belt and Chain Drives Bearings. Electrical Actuation
Systems Mechanical Switches Solid State Switches Solenoids Construction and working principle of
DC and AC Motors speed control of AC and DC drives, Stepper Motors-switching circuitries for stepper
motor AC & DC Servo motors
UNIT III SYSTEM MODELS AND CONTROLLERS
Building blocks of Mechanical, Electrical, Fluid and Thermal Systems, Rotational Transnational Systems,
Electromechanical Systems Hydraulic Mechanical Systems. Continuous and discrete process Controllers
Control Mode Two Step mode Proportional Mode Derivative Mode Integral Mode PID
Controllers Digital Controllers Velocity Control Adaptive Control Digital Logic Control Micro
Processors Control.
UNIT IV PROGRAMMING LOGIC CONTROLLERS
Programmable Logic Controllers Basic Structure Input / Output Processing Programming

Mnemonics Timers, Internal relays and counters Shift Registers Master and Jump Controls Data
Handling Analogs Input / Output Selection of a PLC.
UNIT V DESIGN OF MECHATRONICS SYSTEM
Stages in designing Mechatronics Systems Traditional and Mechatronic Design - Possible Design
Solutions. Case studies of Mechatronics systems- Pick and place Robot- Autonomous mobile robotWireless suriviellance balloon- Engine Management system- Automatic car park barrier.
TOTAL: 45 PERIODS
TEXT BOOKS:
1. Bolton,W, Mechatronics , Pearson education, second edition, fifth Indian Reprint, 2003 2. Smaili.A and
Mrad.F , "Mechatronics integrated technologies for intelligent machines", Oxford university press, 2008
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REFERENCES:
1. Rajput. R.K, A textbook of mechatronics, S. Chand & Co, 2007 68
2. Michael B. Histand and David G. Alciatore, Introduction to Mechatronics and Measurement Systems,
McGraw-Hill International Editions, 2000.
3. Bradley D. A., Dawson D., Buru N.C. and. Loader A.J, Mechatronics, Chapman and Hall, 1993.
4. Dan Necsulesu, Mechatronics, Pearson Education Asia, 2002 (Indian Reprint).
5. Lawrence J. Kamm, Understanding Electro Mechanical Engineering, An Introduction to
Mechatronics, Prentice Hall of India Pvt., Ltd., 2000.
6. NitaigourPremchandMahadik, Mechatronics, Tata McGraw-Hill publishing Company Ltd, 2003
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S.NO
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.8
1.9
1.10
1.11
1.12
1.13
1.14
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
3.1
3.2
3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
3.11
3.12
3.13
3.14
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CONTENT
UNIT-I
MECHATRONICS , SENSORS AND TRANSDUCER
INTRODUCTION TO MECHATRONICS
MEASUREMENT SYSTEMS
CPNTROL SYSTEM
MICROPROCESSOR BASED CONTROLLER
SENSORS AND TRANSDUCER
PERFORMANCE TERMINOLOGY
SENSORS FOR DISPLACEMENT
POSITION
PROXIMITY
FLUID PRESSURE
LIQUID FLOW
LIQUID LEVEL
TEMPERATURE
SELECTION OF SENSORS
UNIT -II
ACTUATION SYSTEM
PNEUMATIC AND HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
DIRECTION CONTROL VALVES
ROTARY ACTUATORS
MECHANICAL ACUTATORS
ELECTERICAL ACTUATION SYSTEM
AC MOTOR
DC MOTOR
SPEED CONTROL DRIVES
STEPPPER MOTOR
SERVOMOTORS
UNIT -III
SYSTEM MODELS AND CONTROLLERS
BULIDING BLOCK FOR MECHANICAL , ELECTERICAL
ROTIONAL AND TRANSLATIONAL SYSTEM
HYDRALIC AND MECHANICAL SYSTEM
CONTROL MODE
TWO STEP MODE
PROPORTIONAL MODE
DERIVATIVE MODE
INTERGRAL MODE
PID CONTROLLER
DIGITAL CONTROLLER
VELOCITY CONTROLLLER
ADAPTIVE CONTROLLER
DIGITAL LOGIC CONTROLLER
MICRO PROCESS CONTROL
UNIT -IV
PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER
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4.9
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5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
5.6
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PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER

BASIC STRUCTURES
INPUT /OUTPUT PROCESSING
TIMERS
COUNTERS
INTERNAL RELAYS
SHIFT REGISTER
DATA HANDLING
ANALOG INPUTS/OUPUTS
SELECTION OF PLC
UNIT-V
DESIGN OF MECHATRONICS SYSTEM
STAGES IN DESIGNING MECHATRONICS SYSTEM
POSSIBLE DESIGN SOLUTION
PICK AND PLACE ROBOT
AUTONOMOUS MOBILE ROBOT
WIRELESS SURIVIELLANCE BALLOON
ENGINE MANAGEMENT SYSTEM
AUTOMATIC CAR PARKING
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UNIT -I
MECHATRONICS, SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS
1.1MECHATRONICS:
It field of study that implies the synergistic integration of electronic engineering, electrical
engineering, control engineering and computer technology with mechanical engineering for the design,
manufacture, analyse and maintenance of a wide range of engineering products and processes".
SYSTEM:
A system may be defined as a black box which has an input and an output. System concerned only
with the relationship between the input and output and not on the process going inside the box.
Here, the input is the electric power and the output after processed by the system is rotation. The
system is motor.
MECHATRONIC SYSTEM:
Actuators: Solenoids, voice coils, D.C. motors, Stepper motors, Servomotor, hydraulics,
pneumatics.
Sensors: Switches, Potentiometer, Photoelectrics, Digital encoder, Strain gauge,Thermocouple,
accelerometer etc.
Input signal conditioning and interfacing: Discrete circuits, Amplifiers, Filters, A/D,
D/D.
Digital control architecture: Logic circuits, Microcontroller, SBC, PLC, Sequencing andtiming, Logic and
arithmetic, Control algorithm, Communication.
Output signal conditioning and interfacing: D/A D/D, Amplifiers, PWM, Powertransistor, Power Op amps.
Graphical displays: LEDs, Digital displays, LCD, CRT
The actuators produce motion or cause some action;
The sensors detect the state of the system parameters, inputs and outputs;
Digital devices control the system;
Conditioning and interfacing circuits provide connection between the control circuit and theinput/output
devices;
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Graphical displays provide visual feedback to users.

1.2 MEASUREMENT SYSTEM:
A measurement system can be defined as a black box which is used for makingmeasurements. It
has the input as the quantity being measured and the output as a measured value of that quantity.
Example:
Elements of Measurement Systems:
Measurement system consists of the following three elements.
a) Sensor
b) Signal conditioner
c) Display System
Sensor:
A sensor consists of transducer whose function is to convert the one form of energy into electrical
form of energy. A sensor is a sensing element of measurement system that converts the input quantity being
measured into an output signal which is related to the quantity
Example:
Temperature Sensor
Thermocouple
Input
Temperature
Output
E.M.F (Electrical Parameter).
Signal Conditioner:
A signal conditioner receives signal from the sensor and manipulates it into a suitable condition for
display. The signal conditioner performs filtering, amplification or other signal conditioning on the sensor
output.
Example:
Temperature measurement
Single Conditioner function (Amplifier)
Input
Small E.M.F value (From sensor)
Output
Big E.M.F Value (Amplified).
Display System:
A display system displays the data (output) from the signal conditioner by analog or digital. A digital
system is a temporary store such as recorder.
Example:
Display
L.E.D (or) Number on scale by pointer movement
Input
Conditioned Signal (from signal conditioner)
Output
Value of the quantity (Temperature)

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CHANICAL ENGINEERING
1.3 CONTROL SYSTEM:

A black box which is used to control its output in a pre-set
pre
value
OPEN LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM:
If there is no feedback device to compare the actual value with desired one.
No control over its input
CLOSED LOOP CONTROL SYSTEM:
If there is feedback device to compare the actual value with desired one.
Elements of Closed Loop System:

The elements of closed loop control system are
Comparison Unit
Control Unit
Correction Unit
Process Unit
EXAMPLES:
Measurement Device
System of Controlling Room Temperature

Controlled Variable
: Room temperature
Reference Variable
: Required Room temperature (pre-set
(pre
value)
Comparison Element
: Person compares the measured value with required value
Error Signal
: Different between the measured and required temperatures.
Control Unit
: Person
Correction Unit
: The switch on the fire
Process
: Heating by the fire
Measuring Device
: Thermometer.
System of Controlling Water Level
Controlled variable
: Water level in the tank
Reference variable
: Initial setting of the float and lever position
Comparison Element
: The lever
Error signal
: Difference between the actual & initial setting of the lever
positions
Control Unit
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: The pivoted lever

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Correction Unit
: The flap opening or closing the water supply
Process
: The water level in the tank
Measuring device
: The floating ball and lever
SEQUENTIAL CONTROLLERS:
It is used to control the process that are strictly ordered in a time or sequence
DOMESTIC WASHING MACHINE:
Pre Wash Cycle:
wash cycle may involve the following sequence of operations.
Pre-wash
Opening of valve to fill the drum when a current is supplied
Closing the valve after receiving the signal from a sensor when the required level of water is
filled in the washing drum.
Stopping the flow of water after the current is switched off by the microprocessor.
Switch on the motor to rotate for stipulated time.
Initiates the operation of pump to empty the water from the drum.
Pre-wash
wash cycle involves washing the clothes in the d m by cold water.
Main Wash Cycle:
Main wash cycle involves washing the clothes in the drum by hot water and the sequence
of operations in main wash is as follows:
Cold water is supplied after the Pre-wash
Pre
cycle is completed.
Current is supplied in large amount to switch on the heater for heating the cold water.
Temperature sensor switches off the current after the water is heated to required
temperature.
Microprocessor or cam switch ON the motor to rotate the drum
Microprocessor
rocessor or cam switches on the current to a discharge pump to empty the drum.
Rinse Cycle:
Rinse cycle involves washing out the clothes with cold water a number of times and the
sequence of operations in a Rinse cycle are as follows:
Opening of valve to allow cold water into the drum when the microprocessor are given signals to
supply current after the main wash cycle is completed.
Switches off the supply current by the signals from microprocessor
Operation of motor to rotate the drum
Operation of pump to empty the drum and respect this sequence a number of times.
Spinning Cycle
Spinning cycle involves removing of water from the clothes and the sequence of operations
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is
Switching on the drum motor to rotate it at a higher speed than a rinsing cycle.
1.4TRANSDUCERS:
It is an element which is subjected to physical change experience a related change. Example:
Tactile Sensors.
1.5SENSORS:
It is an element which is not subjected to physical change experience a related change. Example:
LVDT
1.6 PERFORMANCE TERMINOLOGY:
Static Characteristics:
Range and Span:
The range of a transducer defines the limits between which the input can vary.
The difference between the limits (maximum value - minimum value) is known as span.
For example a load cell is used to measure force. An input force can vary from 20 to 100 N. Then
the range of load cell is 20 to 100 N. And the span of load cell is 80 N (i.e., 100
10020)
Error:
The algebraic difference between the indicated value and the
the true value of the measured parameter is
termed as the error of the device.
Error = Indicated value true value
For example, if the transducer gives a temperature reading of 30C when the actual temperature is
29 C, then the error is + 1C. If the actual temperature is
3 1 C, then the error is 1C.
Accuracy:
Accuracy is defined as the ability of the instrument
instrument to respond to the true value of the measure
variable under the reference conditions.
For example, a thermocouple has an accuracy of 1 C. This means that reading given by the
thermocouple can be expected to lie within + 1C (or) 1C of the true value.
Accuracy is also expressed as a percentage of the full range output (or) full scale
deflection.
For example, a thermocouple can be specified as having an accuracy of 4 % of full range output. Hence if
the range of the thermocouple is 0 to 200C,
2
then the reading
given can be expected to be within + 8C (or) 8C of the true reading.
Sensitivity:
The sensitivity is the relationship showing how much output we can get per unit input.
sensitivity = Output / Input
Precision:
It is defined as the degree of exactness for which the instrument is intended to perform.
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Hysteresis error:
When a device is used to measure any parameter plot the graph of output Vs value of measured
quantity.
First for increasing values of the measured quantity and then for decreasing values of the measured
quantity.
The two output readings obtained usually differ from each other.
Repeatability:
The repeatability and reproducibility of a transducer are its ability to give the same output for
repeated applications of the same input value.
Reliability:
The reliability of a system is defined as the possibility that it will perform its assigned functions for
a specific period of time under given conditions.
Stability:
The stability of a transducer is its ability to give the same output when used to measure a constant
input over a period of time.
Drift:
The term drift is the change in output that occurs over time.
Dead band:
There will be no output for certain range of input values. This is known as dead band. There will be
no output until the input has reached a particular value.
Dead time:
It is the time required by a transducer to begin to respond to a change in input value.
Resolution:
Resolution is defined as the smallest increment in the measured value that can be detected.
The resolution is the smallest change in the input value which will produce an observable change in
the input.
Backlash:
Backlash is defined as the maximum distance (or) angle through which any part of a mechanical
system can be moved in one direction without causing any motion of the
attached part.
Backlash is an undesirable phenomenon and is important in the precision design of gear
trains.
1.7 SELECTION OF DISPLACEMENT, POSITION & PROXIMITY SENSOR:
Size of the displacement (mm)
Displacement type (Linear or angular)
Resolution required
Accuracy Required
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Material of the object

Cost
1.8 DISPLACEMENT SENSORS
Displacement sensors are contact type sensor
Types of Displacement sensors:
Potentiometer
Strain gauge
Capacitive sensors
Linear variable differential transformer
POTENTIOMETER
PRINCIPLE:
It works on variable resistance transduction principle
Linear or Rotary potentiometer is a variable resistance displacement transducer which uses the
variable resistance transduction principle in which the displacement or rotation isconverted into a potential
differencedue to the movement ofsliding
sliding contact ove
over a resistiveelement
CONSTRUCTION & WORKING:
A resistor with three terminals.
Two end terminal & one middle terminal (wiper)
Two end terminal are connected to external input voltage
One middle and one end terminal as output voltage
The slider determines the magnitude of the potential difference developed
Characteristics:
Resistance element
=
Precision Drawn wire with a diameter of about 25
to
microns, and wad over a cylindrical or a flat
50
mandrel of ceramic, glass or Anodized
Aluminium. 2mm to 500 mm in case of linear pot.

=
For high resolution, wire is made by using ceramic

(cermet) or conductive plastic film due to low noise
levels.
Wipers (Sliders)
Tempered phosphor bronze, beryllium copper or other
precious alloys.
Wire Material
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enamelling or oxidation. Materials &e alloys

of copper nickel, Nickel chromium, and silver palladium.
=
Resistivity of wire ranges from 0.4 m to 13 m
Resistance range
20 to 200K and for plastic 500 to 80K
Accuracy
Higher temperature coefficient of resistance than the
wire and so temperature changes have a greater effect

Accuracy.
STRAIN GAUGE:
Strain gauges are passive type resistance sensor whose electrical resistance change when it is
stretched or compressed (mechanically strained) under the application of force.
The electrical resistance is changed due to the change in length (increases) and cross sectional area
(decreases) of the strain gauge.
This change in resistance is then usually converted into voltage by connecting one, two or four
similar gauges as an arm of a Wheatstone bridge (known as Strain Gauge Bridge) and applying excitation to
the bridge. The bridge output voltage is then a measure of strain, sensed by each strain gauge.
Unbonded Type Strain Gauges:
In unbonded type, fine wire filaments (resistance wires) are stretched around rigid and
electrically insulated pins on two frames.
One frame is fixed and the other is movable.
The frames are held close with a spring loaded mechanism.
Due to the relative motion between two frames, the resistance wires are strained.
This strain is then can be detected through measurement of the change in electrical
resistance since they are not cemented with the surfaces, they can be detached and
reused.
Bonded Type Strain Gauges:
Bonded type strain gauges consists of resistance elements arranged in the form of a grid of fine
wire, which is cemented to a thin paper sheet or very thin Bakelite sheet, and
covered with a protective sheet of paper or thin Bakelite.
The paper sheet is then bonded to the surface to be strained. The gauges have a bonding material
which acts an adhesive material during bonding process of a surface with the
gauge element.
Classification of Bonded Type Strain Gauges:
Fine wire gauges
Metal foil gauges
Semiconductor filament type
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Fine Wire Gauges:

Wire of 3 to 25 microns diameter is arranged in the form of grid consisting of parallel loops
Metal Foil Gauges:
A thin foil of metal, deposited as a grid pattern onto a plastic backing material using
polyimide
Foil pattern is terminated at both ends with large metallic pads
Entire gauge size 5- 15mm
Adhesive directly bonded to the gauge usually epoxy
Semiconductor Filament Type:
The gauges are produced in wafers from silicon or germanium crystals
Special impurities such as boron is added
It is mounted on an epoxy resin backing with copper on nickel leads
Filament about 0.05mm thick 0.25mm wide and 1.25 to 12mm length
CAPACITIVE SENSORS:
It is used for measuring, displacement, velocity, force etc..
Principle:
It is passive type sensors in which equal and opposite charges are generated on the plates due to
voltage applied across the plate which is separated by dielectric material.
Formula:
By Changing the Distance between Two Plates:
The displacement is measured due to the change in capacitance
By Varying the Area of Overlap:
The displacement causes the area of overlap to vary
The capacitance is directly proportional to the area of the plates and varies linearly with changes
in the displacement between the plates
By Varying the Dielectric Constant:

The change in capacitance can be measured due to change in dielectric constant as a result of
displacement.
When the dielectric material is moved due to the displacement, the material causes the dielectric
constant to vary in the region where the two electrodes are separated that
results in a charge in capacitance.
Push Pull Sensor:
Push pull displacement sensor is used to overcome the non-linearity error.
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The sensor consists of three plates with the upper pair forming one capacitor and the lower
pair forming another capacitor.
The displacement moves central plate between the two other plates.
If the central plate moves downwards.
The plate separation of the upper capacitor increases and the separation of the lower one decreases.
LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL TRANSFORMER:
It consists of three symmetrically spaced coils.
The centre coil is primary coil and other two are secondary coil
Secondary coils are connected in series opposition and equally positioned with respect to
primary coil
The output voltage is proportional to the displacement of the core from null position
1.9 PROXIMITY SENSORS
Proximity sensors are non contact type sensor.
Types of Proximity Sensor:
Eddy current proximity sensor
Inductive proximity sensor
Pneumatic proximity sensor
Proximity switches
EDDY CURRENT PROXIMITY SENSOR:
PRINCIPLE:
When a coil is supplied with alternating current, an alternating magnetic field is produced which
induces an EMF on it. If there is a metal near to this alternating magnetic field, on EMF is induced in it.
The EMF cause current to flow. This current flow is eddy current.
It has two identical coils.
One reference coil & another sensing coil which senses the magnetic current in the object.
Eddy current start to flow due to AC(conducting object) close to sensor
Eddy current produce a magnetic field to oppose the magnetic field generated by sensing coil.
Due to this opposition reduction flux is created. To detect 0.001mm
INDUCTIVE PROXIMITY SENSORS:
It consists of coil wound round a core.
Metal is close to coil Inductance changes occurs.
It is suitable for ferrous metals
PNEUMATIC PROXIMITY SWITCHES:
It is suitable for sensing non conducting materials
Air is allowed to escape from the front side of the sensor.
When there is no object air escapes freely.
When there is an object, the escaping air is blocked and return backed to system.
It is used to measure the range 3mm to 12mm
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PROXIMITY SWITCHES:
It is used in robotics for sensing elements
It is also used in NC machines, material handling systems and assembly lines.
Micro switch
Reed switch
Photo sensitive switch
Mechanical switch
Micro Switch:
It is limit switch operated by levers, rollers & cams
It is switch which requires physical contact and small force to close the contacts.
Example a belt conveyor.
Reed Switch:
It is a non contact proximity switch that consists of two magnetic switch contacts enclosed in a
glass tube fined with an inert gas.
When magnet is closed switch is operated.
Used for high speed applications.
Photo Sensitive Devices:
It is used to sense opaque object.
Photo detector receives a beam of light produced by the LED.
Object is passed the beam gets broken or reflected when is detected.
1.10 POSITION SENSOR
OPTICAL ENCODERS
It is used to measure position, velocity, acceleration and direction of movement of rotors.
INCREMENTAL ENCODERS
PRINCIPLE:
When a beam of light passes through slots in a disc, it is sensed by the light sensor opposite
to the light source
When the disk is rotated, a pulsed output is produced by sensor with number of pulsesbeing
proportional to the position of the disc and number of pulses per second
determines the velocity of the disk
It consists three components light source, coded disk and photo detector
The disk is made up of plastic or glass.
The disk consists of opaque and transparent segment alternatively.
The wheel is between light and photo detector.
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The photo detector receives the light signal alternatively which is converted into
electrical signal.
ABSOLUTE ENCODERS
PRINCIPLE:
The principle of operation is that they provide a unique output corresponds to each rotational
position of the shaft.
The output is in the form of binary numbers representing the angular position.
The disc has four concentric slots and four photo detectors to detect the light pulse.
The slots are arranged in such way that they give a binary number.
It consist opaque and transparent segments. This pattern is called as track.
The encoders have 8 to 14 slots.
The number of the track determines the resolution of the encoder.
The number of bits in binary number will be equal to the number of tracks.
HALL EFFECT SENSORS:
Principle:
When a current carrying semiconductor plate is placed in a transverse magnetic field, it experiences
a force (Lorentz force). Due to this action a beam of charged particles are
forced to get displaced from its straight path. This is known as Hall Effect.
A current flowing in a semiconductor plate is like a beam of moving charged particles and thus can
be deflected by a magnetic field. The side towards which the moving
electron deflected becomes negatively charged and the other side of the plate becomes positively
charged or the electrons moving away from it.
This charge separation produces an electrical voltage which continues until the Lorentz force on the
charged particles from the electric field balances the forces produced by the
magnetic field. The result is a traverse potential difference known as Hall voltage.
Construction & Working:
Current is passed through leads 1 and 2 of the semiconductor plate and the output leads are
connected to the element faces 3 and 4.
These output faces are at same potential when there is no transverse magnetic field passing through
the element and voltage known as Hall voltage appears when a
transverse magnetic field is passing through the element.
This voltage is proportional to the current and the magnetic field.
The direction of deflection depends on the direction of applied current and the direction of magnetic
field
1.11 FLUID SENSORS

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FLUID PRESSURE SENSORS:

Diaphragm Type:
In the diaphragm type sensor, when there is a difference in pressure between the two sides then the
centre of the diaphragm becomes displaced.
Corrugations in the diaphragm result in a greater sensitivity.
This movement can be monitored by some form of displacement sensor, e.g: a strain gauge.
A specially designed strain gauge is often used, consisting of four strain gauges with two measuring
the strain in a circumferential direction while two measure strains in a radial
direction
The four strain gauges are then connected to form the arm of a Wheatstone bridge.
While strain gauges can be stuck on a diaphragm, an alternative is to create a silicon diaphragm with
the strain gauges as specially doped areas of the diaphragm.
Capsule and Bellow Types:
Capsules are two corrugated diaphragms combined to give greater accuracy
Capsules and bellows are made up of stainless steel, phosphor bronze, and nickel with rubber
and nylon
Pressure range 103 to 108 Pa
Tube Pressure Sensor:

A different form of deformation is obtained using a tube with an elliptical cross section
Increase in pressure in tube causes it tend to circular cross section
C Shaped tube is generally known as a Bourdon tube.
C opens when pressure in the tube increases
A helical form gives more sensitivity
Tubes are made up of stainless steel, phosphor bronze, and nickel with rubber and nylon
Pressure range 103 to 108 Pa
Piezoelectric Sensors:
Piezoelectric materials when stretched or compressed generate electric charges with one face of the
managerial becoming positively charged and the opposite face negatively
charged.
As a result a voltage is produced. The net charge q on a surface is proportional to the amount x by
which the charges have been displaced, and since the displacement is
proportional to the applied force F.
q =kx= SF
Where k is a constant and S a constant termed the charge sensitivity
Tactile Sensor:
It is used on fingertips of robot hands and for touch display screen
It uses piezoelectric polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) film
Two layers are separated by sift film
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The lower PVDF film has an alternating voltage

mechanicaloscillations
Intermediate film transmits the vibration to upper film
applied
to
it
results
in
1.12 LIQUID FLOW SENSORS:

Turbine Flow Meter:
The turbine flow meter and it consists of a multi-bladed rotor which is supported in the pipe along
with the flow occurs.
The rotor rotation depends upon the fluid flow and the angular velocity is proportional to the flow
rate.
The rotor rotation is determines the magnetic pick-up, which is connected to the coil.
The revolution of the rotor is determined by counting the number of pulses produced in the magnetic
pick up. The accuracy of this instrument is 3%.
Orifice Plate:
It is a simple disc with a central hole and it is placed in the tube through which the fluid flows.
The pressure difference measured between a point equal to the diameter of the tube upstream and
half the diameter of downstream.
The accuracy of this instrument is 1.5%.
1.13 LIQUID LEVEL MEASUREMENT:
Differential Pressure Sensor:
In this the differential pressure cell determines the pressure difference between base of the liquid
and atmospheric pressure.
The differential pressure sensor can be used in either form of open or closed vessel system.
Float System:
In this method the level of liquid is measured by movement of a float.
The movement of float rotates the arm and slider will move across a potentiometer.
The output result is related to the height of the liquid.
1.14 TEMPERATURE SENSORS:
Bimetallic Strips:
A Bimetallic thermostat consists of two different metal strips bounded together and they cannot
move relative to each other.
These metals have different coefficients of expansion and when the temperature changes the
composite strips bends into a curved strip, with the higher coefficient metal on the
outside of the curve.
The basic principle in this is all metals try to change their physical dimensions at different rates
when subjected to same change in temperature.
This deformation may be used as a temperature- controlled switch, as in the simple thermostat.
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Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs):

The materials used for RTDs are Nickel, Iron, Platinum, Copper, Lead, Tungsten, Mercury, Silver,
etc.
The resistance of most metals increases over a limited temperature range and the relationship
between Resistance and Temperature is shown below.
The Resistance temperature detectors are simple and resistive elements in the form of coils of wire
The equation which is used to find the linear relationship in RTD is
Constructional Details of RTDs:
The platinum, nickel and copper in the form wire are the most commonly used materials in the
RTDs.
Thin film platinum elements are often made by depositing the metal on a suitable substrate wirewound elements involving a platinum wire held by a high temperature
glass adhesive inside a ceramic tube.
Thermistors:
Thermistor is a semiconductor device that has a negative temperature coefficient of resistance in
contrast to positive coefficient displayed by most metals.
Thermistors are small pieces of material made from mixtures of metal oxides, such as Iron, cobalt,
chromium, Nickel, and Manganese.
The shape of the materials is in terms of discs, beads and rods.
The thermistor is an extremely sensitive device because its resistance changes rapidly with
temperature.
The resistance of conventional metal-oxide thermistors decreases in a very non-linear manner with
an increase in temperature.
The change in resistance per degree change in temperature is considerably larger than that which
occurs with metals.
The resistance-temperature relationship for a thermistor can be described by an equation of the
form
Rt = Ke/t
Where Rt, is the resistance at temperature t, with K and being constant. Thermistors have
many advantages when compared with other temperature sensors.
The simple series circuit for measurement of temperature using a thermistor and the variation of
resistance with temperature for a typical thermistor.
The thermistor is an extremely sensitive device because its resistance changes rapidly with
temperature.
Thermocouples:
Thermocouples are based on the See back Effect.
The thermocouple temperature measurement is based on a creation of an electromotiveforce
(emf).
"When two dissimilar metals are joined together an e.m.f will exist between the two points A and B, which
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is primarily a function of the junction temperature. The above said

to be principle is See back effect..
The thermocouple consist of one hot junction and one cold junction
Hot junction is inserted where temperature is measured
Cold junction is maintained at a constant reference temperature.
UNIT -II
ACTUATION SYSTEM
2.1PNEUMATIC AND HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
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Hydraulics is a topic in applied science and engineering dealing with the mechanical properties of liquids or
fluids. At a very basic level, hydraulics is the liquid version of pneumatics. Fluid mechanics provides the
theoretical foundation for hydraulics, which focuses on the engineering uses of fluid properties. In fluid
power, hydraulics are used for the generation, control, and transmission of power by the use of pressurized
liquids. Hydraulic topics range through some part of science and most of engineering modules, and cover
concepts such as pipe flow, dam design, fluidics and fluid control circuitry, pumps, turbines, hydropower,
computational fluid dynamics, flow measurement, river channel behavior and erosion.Free surface
hydraulics is the branch of hydraulics dealing with free surface flow, such as occurring in rivers, canals,
lakes, estuaries and seas. Its sub-field open channel flow studies the flow in open channels.
Pneumatic systems used extensively in industry are commonly powered by compressed air or compressed
inert gases. A centrally located and electrically powered compressor powers cylinders, air motors, and other
pneumatic devices. A pneumatic system controlled through manual or automatic solenoid valves is selected
when it provides a lower cost, more flexible, or safer alternative to electric motors and actuators.Pneumatics
also has applications in dentistry, construction, mining, and other areas.
2.2 DIRECTION CONTROL VALVES

Directional control valves are one of the most fundamental parts in hydraulic machinery as well and
pneumatic machinery. They allow fluid flow into different paths from one or more sources. They usually
consist of a spool inside a cylinder which is mechanically or electrically controlled. The movement of the
spool restricts or permits the flow, thus it controls the fluid flow.
Classification
Directional control valves can be classified according to
number of ports
number of positions
actuating methods
type of spool.
Example: A 5/2 directional control valve would have five ports and two spool positions.
Number of Ports
According to total number of entries or exits connected to the valve through which fluid can enter the valve
or leave the valve. There are types such as two way, three way, and four way valves.
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Number of Positions
Including the normal and working positions which a valve spool can take there are types like two position,
three position and proportional valves.
Actuating Methods
Manually Operated
Manually operated valves work with simple levers or paddles where the operator applies force to operate the
valve. Spring force is sometimes used to recover the position of valve. Some manual valves utilize either a
lever or an external pneumatic or hydraulic signal to return the spool.
Mechanically Operated
Mechanically operated valves apply forces by using cams, wheels, rollers, etc., hence these valves are
subjected to wear.
2.3 ROTARY ACTUATORS
A rotary actuator is an actuator that produces a rotary motion or torque.The simplest actuator is purely
mechanical, where linear motion in one direction gives rise to rotation. The most common actuators though
are electrically powered. Other actuators may be powered by pneumatic or hydraulic power, or may use
energy stored internally through springs.The motion produced by an actuator may be either continuous
rotation, as for an electric motor, or movement to a fixed angular position as for servomotors and stepper
motors. A further form, the torque motor, does not necessarily produce any rotation but merely generates a
precise torque which then either causes rotation, or is balanced by some opposing torque.
2.4 CAM
A cam follower, also known as a track follower, is a specialized type of roller or needle bearing designed
to follow cam lobe profiles. Cam followers come in a vast array of different configurations, however the
most defining characteristic is how the cam follower mounts to its mating part; stud style cam followers use
a stud while the yoke style has a hole through the middle.
The modern stud type follower was invented and patented in 1937 by Thomas L. Robinson of the McGill
Manufacturing Company. It replaced using a standard bearing and bolt. The new cam followers were easier
to use because the stud was already included and they could also handle higher loads.
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While roller cam followers are similar to roller bearings, there are quite a few differences. Standard ball and
roller bearings are designed to be pressed into a rigid housing, which provides circumferential support. This
keeps the outer race from deforming, so the race cross-section is relatively thin. In the case of cam followers
the outer race is loaded at a single point, so the outer race needs a thicker cross-section to reduce
deformation. However, in order to facilitate this the roller diameter must be decreased, which also decreases
the dynamic bearing capacity.[4]
End plates are used to contain the needles or bearing axially. On stud style followers one of the end plates is
integrated into the inner race/stud; the other is pressed onto the stud up to a shoulder on the inner race. The
inner race is induction hardened so that the stud remains soft if modifications need to be made. On yoke
style followers the end plates are peened or pressed onto the inner race or liquid metal injected onto the
inner race. The inner race is either induction hardened or through hardened.
Another difference is that a lubrication hole is provided to relubricate the follower periodically. A hole is
provided at both ends of the stud for lubrication. They also usually have a black oxide finish to help reduce
corrosion.
2.6 RATCHET AND PAWL
A ratchet is a mechanical device that allows continuous linear or rotary motion in only one direction while
preventing motion in the opposite direction. Ratchets are widely used in machinery and tools. Though
something of a misnomer, "ratchet".A ratchet consists of a round gear or linear rack with teeth, and a
pivoting, spring-loaded finger called a pawl that engages the teeth. The teeth are uniform but asymmetrical,
with each tooth having a moderate slope on one edge and a much steeper slope on the other edge.When the
teeth are moving in the unrestricted (i.e., forward) direction, the pawl easily slides up and over the gently
sloped edges of the teeth, with a spring forcing it (often with an audible 'click') into the depression between
the teeth as it passes the tip of each tooth. When the teeth move in the opposite (backward) direction,
however, the pawl will catch against the steeply sloped edge of the first tooth it encounters, thereby locking
it against the tooth and preventing any further motion in that direction.
Backlash
Because the ratchet can only stop backward motion at discrete points (i.e., at tooth boundaries), a ratchet
does allow a limited amount of backward motion. This backward motionwhich is limited to a maximum
distance equal to the spacing between the teethis called backlash. In cases where backlash must be
minimized, a smooth, toothless ratchet with a high friction surface such as rubber is sometimes used. The
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pawl bears against the surface at an angle so that any backward motion will cause the pawl to jam against
the surface and thus prevent any further backward motion. Since the backward travel distance is primarily a
function of the compressibility of the high friction surface, this mechanism can result in significantly
reduced backlash.
2.7BEARING
A bearing is a machine element that constrains relative motion to only the desired motion, and reduces
friction between moving parts. The design of the bearing may, for example, provide for free linear
movement of the moving part or for free rotation around a fixed axis; or, it may prevent a motion by
controlling the vectors of normal forces that bear on the moving parts. Many bearings also facilitate the
desired motion as much as possible, such as by minimizing friction. Bearings are classified broadly
according to the type of operation, the motions allowed, or to the directions of the loads (forces) applied to
the parts.
The term "bearing" is derived from the verb "to bear a bearing being a machine element that allows one part
to bear (i.e., to support) another. The simplest bearings are bearing surfaces, cut or formed into a part, with
varying degrees of control over the form, size, roughness and location of the surface. Other bearings are
separate devices installed into a machine or machine part. The most sophisticated bearings for the most
demanding applications are very precise devices; their manufacture requires some of the highest standards
of current technology.
TYPES :
A rolling-element bearing, also known as a rolling bearing, is a bearing which carries a load by placing
rolling elements (such as balls or rollers) between two bearing rings called races. The relative motion of the
races causes the rolling elements to roll with very little rolling resistance and with little sliding.
One of the earliest and best-known rolling-element bearings are sets of logs laid on the ground with a large
stone block on top. As the stone is pulled, the logs roll along the ground with little sliding friction. As each
log comes out the back, it is moved to the front where the block then rolls on to it. It is possible to imitate
such a bearing by placing several pens or pencils on a table and placing an item on top of them. See
"bearings" for more on the historical development of bearings.
A rolling element rotary bearing uses a shaft in a much larger hole, and cylinders called "rollers" tightly fill
the space between the shaft and hole. As the shaft turns, each roller acts as the logs in the above example.
However, since the bearing is round, the rollers never fall out from under the load.
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Rolling-element bearings have the advantage of a good tradeoff between cost, size, weight, carrying
capacity, durability, accuracy, friction, and so on. Other bearing designs are often better on one specific
attribute, but worse in most other attributes, although fluid bearings can sometimes simultaneously
outperform on carrying capacity, durability, accuracy, friction, rotation rate and sometimes cost. Only plain
bearings are used as widely as rolling-element bearings.
2.8 STEPPER MOTOR.

1.Phase.
It refers to the no of independent windings on the stator
e.g two phase motors -used in light duty application
three phase phase motor- used in variable reluctance
2. step angle
The angle through which the rotor rotates for one switching change for stator coils
3. holding torque
The maximum torque that can be applied to o powered motor without moving it from rest and causing
spindle motion
4. pull in torque
The maximum torque against which motor will start or a given pulse rate and reach the synchronism without
lose a step
5.pull out torque
The maximum torque that can be applied to a motor running at given stepping rate , without losing
synchronism
6.pull in rate
The maximum switching rate at which a loaded motor will remain in synchronism as the switching
switching rate is produced
7.slew rate
The range of switching rates between pull in and pull out within which the motor runs in synchronism but
cant reverse
characteristics of stepper motor
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2.8 DC MOTOR .
The major factors in selecting an actuator for mechatronic applications are
Precision
Accuracy and resolution
Power required for actuation
Cost of the actuation device
The most popular actuators in mechatronic systems are direct current (DC) motors. DC motors are
electromechanical devices that provide precise and continuous control of speed over a wide range of
operations by varying the voltage applied to the motor.
The DC motor is the earliest form of electric motor. The desirable features of DC motors are their
high torque, speed control ability over a wide range, speed-torque characteristics, and usefulness in
various types of control applications.
DC motors are well suited for many applications, including manufacturing equipment, computer
numerically controlled systems, servo valve actuators, tape transport mechanisms, and industrial
robots.
The DC motor converts direct-current electrical energy into rotational mechanical energy. It makes
use of the principle that a wire carrying a current in a magnetic field experiences a force. The
windings wrapped around a rotating armature carries current.
The armature is the rotating ember (rotor), and the field winding is the stationary winding (stator).
The rotor has many closely spaced slots on its periphery. These slots carry the rotor windings.
The rotor windings (armature windings) are powered by the supply voltage. An arrangement of
commutation segments and brushes ensures the transfer of DC current to the rotating winding. A
schematic of a DC motor is shown in Figure 4-1.
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Mathematical Model of a DC Motor

The behavior of DC motors can be explained by two fundamental equations. These equations are
known as torque and voltage equations. equations, respectively.
Torque equation: T = kti (4-1)
1)
Voltage equation V = ke u: (4-2)
(4
where
T motor torque in N-m
m (newton
(newton-meters)
V induced voltage in V (volts)
i current in the armature circuit in A (amperes)
kt torque constant in Nm/A
ke voltage constant in V/(rad/sec
DC motors are capable of producing high rotational velocities and comparatively low torque.
When the DC motors are used as actuators, a gearing arrangement is normally utilized to accountfor
decreased
reased speed and increased torque.
DC motors provide torque which is proportional to the armature current. A DC source capable of
supplying positive and negative currents is normally usedin practice. A generally used arrangement
of the DC motor is through DC coupled push-pull
push
amplifiers.
The selection of the DC motor depends upon its application. DC servo motors are used in
numerically controlled machine tools and robot manipulators
2.9 AC SERVOMOTOR
Introduction
An AC servomotor is basically a two phase induction motor except for certain special design features. A
two phase servomotor differs in the following two ways from a normal induction motor.
1.The rotor of the servomotor is built with high resistance, Soo that its X/R (Inductive reactance / Resistance)
ratio is small which results in linear speed torque characteristics.(But conventional induction motors will
have high value of X/R which results in high efficiency and non-linear
non
speed-torque
torquecharacteristics). The
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Speed-torque
torque characteristics of normal induction motor (Curve-a)
(Curve a) and AC servomotor (Curve
(Curve-b) are shown
in figure.
2.The excitation voltage applied of two stator windings should have a phase difference of 90.
Construction of AC Servomotor
The AC servomotor
vomotor is basically a two phase induction motor with some special design features. The
stator consists of two pole pairs (A(A B and C - D) mounted on the inner periphery of the stator, such
that their axes are at an angle of 90 in space. Each pole - pair
air carries a winding. One winding is
called reference winding and the other is called a control winding.
The exciting current in the winding should have a phase displacement of 90. The supply used to
drive the motor is single phase and so a phase advancing
advancing capacitor is connected to one of the phase
to produce a phase difference of 90. The stator constructional features of AC servo motor are
shown in
The rotor construction is usually squirrel cage or drag cup type. Rotor Construction of AC Servo
motor
otor is shown in figure 4. The squirrel cage rotor is made of laminations.
The rotor bars are placed on the slots and short circuited at both ends by end rings. The diameter of
the rotor is kept small in
order to reduce inertia and to obtain good accelerating
acce
characteristic
The Drag - cup construction is employed for very low Inertia applications. In this type of
construction the rotor will be
in the form of hollow cylinder made of aluminum. The aluminum cylinder itself acts as short
circuited rotor
conductors. (Electrically both the types of rotor are identical).
Working Principles of AC Servomotor
The stator winding are excited by voltages of equal rms magnitude and 90 phase difference. These
results in exciting currents i1 and i2 that are phase displayed by 90 and have equal rms values.
These current give rises to a rotating magnetic field of constant magnitude.
The direction of rotation depends on the phase relationship of the two currents ( or voltages). The
exciting current shown in figurE5 produces a clockwise rotating magnetic field and phase shift of
180 in will produce an anticlockwise rotating magnetic field
2.11 DC SERVO MOTOR

PRINCIPLE OF OPERATING
A DC motor is used in a control system where an appreciable amount of shaft power is required.
The DC motors are either armature - controlled with fixed field, or field - controlled with fixed
armature current. DC motors used in instrument employ a fixed
fixed permanent - magnet field, and the
control signal is applied to the armature terminals.
In addition to the torque when conductor moves in magnetic field, voltag e is generated across its
terminals which opposes the current flow and hence called as Back
Ba e.mf.
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Basic Classification
Basically d.c. servo motors are classified as:
(i) Variable magnetic flux motors.
(ii) Constant magnetic flux motors
Derivation of transfer functions for
(i) Field controlled d.c. servo motor
(ii) Armature controlled d.c. servo - motors.
i. Field Controlled DC Servo motor Assumptions
(1) Constant armature current is fed into the motor.
(2) Nf % If. Flux produced is proportional to field current.
Nf = Kf If
(3) Torque is proportional to product of flux and armature current.
% N Ia .
Tm = K` N
Ia = K Kf If Ia
Tm = Km Kf If
Where
Km = K`
Ia = constant
Now shaft torque Tm is used for driving load against the inertia and
frictional torque
finding Laplace Transforms of equations

Tm (s) = Km Kf If(s)
Ef (s) = (SLf + Rf) If (s)
Tm (s) = Jms 2m (s) + Bms2m (s)
Eliminate If (s) from equations (4) and (5)Input = Ef(S)

Output = Rotational displacement 2m (S
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ii.Armature Controlled D.C. Servo Motor

Assumptions:
(i)Flux is directly proportional to current through field winding.
Nm = Kf If = constant
(ii) Torque produced is proportional to product of flux and armature
current.
T = K`m N Ia
T = K`mKf If Ia
(iii) Back e.m.f is directly proportional to shaft velocity Tm, as flux N is
constant
2.12 DC MOTOR
PRINCIPLE AND WORKING
The principle of working of a DC motor is that "when a current carrying conductor is placed in a
magnetic field, it experiences a mechanical force". The direction of this force is given by Fleming's
left hand rule and it's magnitude is given by F = magnetic flux density (B) * current (I) * length (L).
When armature windings are connected to DC supply, current sets up in the winding. Magnetic field
may be provided by field winding (electromagnetism) or by using permanent magnets. In this case,
current carrying armature conductors experience force due to the magnetic field, according to the
principle
stated
above.
Commutator is made segmented to achieve unidirectional torque. Otherwise, the direction of force
would have reversed every time when the direction of movement of conductor is reversed the
magnetic field.
When the armature of the motor is rotating, the conductors also are cutting the magnetic flux
lines and hence according to the Faraday's law of electromagnetic induction, emf induces in the
armature conductors. And the direction of this induced emf is such that it opposes armature current
(Ia) . The circuit diagram below illustrates the direction of the backemf and armature current.
Magnitude of Back emf can be given by the emf equation of DC generator.
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CONSTRUCTION
The magnetic field is produced by the permanent magnet and it forms the stator. The coil of wire act
as the rotor . In conventional D.C motor , several coils of wire are mounted is slots on a cylinder of
magnetic material called armature .
The armature is mounted on bearing and is free to rotate. It is connected to source of D.C current
through a switch mounted on the shaft and it's called as commutator.
CLASSIFICATION OF GENERATORS
Self- excited generators are classed according to the type of field connection they use.
There are three general types of field connections - SERIES - WOUND, SHUNT - WOUND
(parallel), and COMPOUND - WOUND.
Compound - wound generators are further classified as cumulative - compound and differential compound.
Series - Wound Generator or Series connected generator
In the series - wound generator, the field windings are connected in series with the armature.
Current that flows in the armature flows through the external circuit and through the field windings.
The external circuit connected to the generator is called the load circuit
Shunt - Wound Generators

In a shunt - wound generator, the field coils consist of many turns of small wire and relatively high
field resistance.
They are connected in parallel with the load. In other words, they are connected across the output
voltage of the armature.
Compound - Wound Generators
Compound- wound generators have a series - field winding in addition to a shunt -field winding..
The shunt and series windings are wound on the same pole pieces.
2.13 TRIAC and SCR
TRIAC, from triode for alternating current, is a genericizedtradename for an electronic component
that can conduct current in either direction when it is triggered (turned on), and is formally called a
bidirectional triode thyristor or bilateral triode thyristor.
TRIACs are a subset of thyristors and are closely related to silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCR).
However, unlike SCRs, which are unidirectional devices (that is, they can conduct current only in
one direction), TRIACs are bidirectional and so allow current in either direction.
Another difference from SCRs is that TRIAC current can be enabled by either a positive or negative
current applied to its gate electrode, whereas SCRs can be triggered only by positive current into the
gate. To create a triggering current, a positive or negative voltage has to be applied to the gate with
respect to the MT1 terminal (otherwise known as A1).
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2.14 SCR
In many ways the Silicon Controlled Rectifier, or the Thyristor as it is more commonly known, is
similar to the transistor. It is a multi-layer semiconductor device, hence the silicon part of its
name.
It requires a gate signal to turn it ON, the controlled part of the name and once ON it behaves
like a rectifying diode, the rectifier part of the name. In fact the circuit symbol for the thyristor
suggests that this device acts like a controlled rectifying diode.
Thyristor Symbol
The silicon controlled rectifier SCR, is one of several power semiconductor devices along with
Triacs (Triode ACs), Diacs (Diode ACs) and UJTs (Unijunction Transistor) that are all capable of
acting like very fast solid state AC switches for controlling large AC voltages and currents.
So for the Electronics student this makes these very handy solid state devices for controlling AC
motors, lamps and for phase control.
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UNIT III SYSTEM MODELS AND CONTROLLERS BUILDING

3.1BLOCKS OF MECHANICAL SYSTEM:
3.2BUILDING BLOCKS OF ELECTRICAL SYSTEM:
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3.3TYPES OF CONTROL MODES:

The Two Step Mode:
The two-step mode in which the controller is essentially just a switch which is activated by the error
signal and supplied just an on-off correcting signal.
An example of the two-step mode of control is the bimetallic thermoset at that might be used with a
simple temperature control system.
This is just a switch which is switched on or off according to the temperature then the bimetallic ship is
in an off position and the heater is off.
If the room temperature falls below the required temperature then the bimetallic strip moves into an on
position and the heater is switched fully on. The controller in this case
can be in only two positions, on or off.
The Proportional Mode (P):
The proportional mode (P) which products a control action that is proportional to the error. The
correcting signal thus becomes bigger the bigger the error.
Thus as the error is reduced the amount of correction is reduced and the correcting process slows down.
The proportional mode, the size of the controller output is proportional to the size of the error.
K
Change in Output (s)
= 100 / Proportional Band

= Kp * E(s)
Transformer function
= Change in Output (s) / E(s)
Electronic Proportional Controller:
Example for Proportional Controller:
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The Derivative Mode (D):

The derivative mode (D) which products a control action that is proportional to the rate at which are
errors is changing.
When there is a sudden change in the error signal the controller gives a large correcting signal
When there is a gradual change only a small corrections signal is produced. Derivative control can be
considered to be a form of anticipatory control in that the existing rate of
change of error is measured, a coming larger error is anticipated and correction applied
before the larger error has arrived.
Derivative mode of control the change in controller output from the set point value is proportional to the
rate of change with time of the error signal
t IO = KD
Proportional Plus Derivative Mode:

Change in output from the set point = KP e + KD
Iout = KP e + KD
+ I0
The Integral Mode (I):

The integral mode (I) which produces a control action that is proportional to the integral of the error
with time.
Thus a constant error signal will produce an increasing correcting signal. The correction continues to
increase as long the error persists.
The integral mode of control is one where the rate of change of the control output I is proportional to the
input error signal.
Proportional Plus Integral Control:
Iout = KP e + KI
+ IO
Transfer Function =Kp +

=
(S + )
Combinations of Modes:
Proportional plus derivative modes (PD), proportional plus integral modes (PI), proportional plus
integral plus derivative modes (PID).
The term three term controller is used for PID control.
3.4 DIGITAL CONTROLLERS:
The tern digital control is used when the digital controller, basically a microprocessor is in control of the
closed-loop control system.
The controller receives inputs from sensors, executes control programs and provides the output to the
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correction elements.
The controllers require inputs which are digital, process the information in digital form and give an
output in digital form.
Since many control systems have analogue measurements an analogue-to-digital converter (ADC) is
used forth inputs.
A clock supplies a pulse at regular time intervals and dictates when samples of the controlled variable
are taken by the ADC.
The samples are then converted to digital signals which are compared by the
microprocessor with the set point value to give the error signal.
The microprocessor can then initiate a control mode to process the error signal and give a digital output.
The control mode used by the microprocessor is determined by the program of instruction used by the
microprocessor for processing the digital signals, i.e., the
software.
The digital output, generally after processing by a digital-to-analogue converter since correcting
elements generally require analogue signals can be used to initiate the
correcting action
A digital controller basically operates the following cycle of events:
Samples the measured value.
Compares it with the set value and establishes the error.
Carries out calculations based on the error value and stored values of previous
inputs and outputs to obtain the output signal
Sends the output signal to the DAC.
Waits until the next sample time before repeating the cycle.
3.5 VELOCITY CONTROL:
Consider the problem of controlling the movement of a load by means of a motor.
Time will thus be taken for the system to respond to an input signal.
A higher speed of respond, with fewer oscillations, can be obtained by using PD rather than just P
control.
There is, however, alternative of achieving the same effect and this is by the use of a second feedback
loop which gives a measurement related to the rate at which the
displacement is changing.
This is termed velocity feedback.
The velocity feedback might involve the use of a Tachogenerator giving a signal proportional to the
rotational speed of the motor shaft and hence the rate at which the
displacement is changing and the displacement might be monitored using a rotary potentiometer
3.6 ADAPTIVE CONTROL:
An adaptive control system which 'adapts' to changes and changes its parameters to fit the
circumstances prevailing.
The adaptive control system is based on the use of a microprocessor as the controller.
Such a device enables the control mode and the control parameters used to be adapted to fit the
circumstances, modifying them as the circumstances change.
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Stages of Adaptive Control System:

An adaptive control system can be considered to have three stages of operation.
Starts to operate with controller conditions set on the basis of an assumed condition.
The desired performance is continuously compared with the actual system performance.
The control system mode and parameters are automatically and continuously adjusted in order to
minimise the difference between the desired and actual system performance.
Forms of Adaptive Control System:
Adaptive control systems can take a number of forms. Three commonly used forms are:
Gain-scheduled control
Self tuning
Model-reference adaptive systems
Gain Scheduled Control:
With gain-scheduled control or, as it is sometimes referred to, pre-programmed adaptive control, pre-set
changes in the parameters of the controller are made on the basis of some
auxiliary measurement of some process variable.
The term gain-scheduled control was used because the only parameter originally adjusted was gain
Self Tuning:
With self-tuning control the system continuously tunes its own parameters based on monitoring the
variable that the system is controlling and the output from the controller.
Self-tuning is often found in commercial PID controller, it generally then being referred to as autotuning.
When the operator presses a button, the controller injects a small disturbance into the system and
measures the response.
Response is compared to the desired response and the control parameters adjusted, by modified ZieglerNichol rule, to bring the actual response closer to the desired response.
Model-Reference Adaptive Systems:
The model-reference system an accurate model of the system is developed.
The set value is then used as an input to both the actual and the model systems and the difference
between the actual output and the output from the model compared. The
difference in these signals is then used m adjusts the parameter of the controller to minimise the
difference.
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UNIT IV
PROGRAMMING LOGIC CONTROLLERS
4.1 DEFINITION OF PLC:
A programmable logic controller (PLC) Program is a specially designed digital operating
microprocessor-based controller that uses a programmable memory for internal storage of instructing and for
internal storage of instructing and for implementing function such as logic, sequencing, timing, counting and
arithmetic in order to control machines and processes.
BASIC COMPONENTS OF PLC:
The PLC hardware system consists of the basic components are
Processor
Memory
Power Supply
Input I Output modules
Programming device
Monitor
Processor:
It is the heart of PLC
He processor processes the signals from input module and generates controlling signals for the
system
It also scans and solve the logic of the user program
It consists of ALU, microprocessor unit, memory unit and system power supply
Memory:
The memory unit contains the program stored in it
The programs were written with control actions to be executed by the microprocessor for the input
given
RAM is a temporary storage device used to store ladder diagram and for testing and evaluation
Then it is stored in ROM where changes cannot done
Power Supply:
The purpose of a power supply unit is to convert the main A.C voltage into a low - level D.C voltage
(5V).
The D.C. voltage is supplied to the processor and the circuits in the input and output interface modules.
The power supply should be free from heavy loads, noises and voltage fluctuations.
Input / Output Modules:
The Input module receives information from extended devices and sends to processor and
communicates the processed information to the external devices through output
modules.
The Input devices are mechanical switches, photo sensors, temperature sensors, flow sensors, other
type of sensors keypads etc.,
The output devices may include solenoid valves, Relays, contactors, lights, Horns,
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Heating elements, fans, Motor starter, signal Amplifiers. Conveyor belt, lift, automatic door etc.,
I/O devices are also called peripheral devices.
Programming Device:
It is used to enter the required program into the memory of the CPU
The program is developed in programming device and stored into memory unit
BASIC STRUCTURE OR (INTERNAL ARCHITECTURE) OF A PLC SYSTEM:
Central Processing Unit:
The CPU controls and processes all the operations within the PLC.
It is supplied with a clock with a frequency of typically between 1 to 8 MHz.
This frequency determines the operating speed of the PLC and provides the timing and synchronization
for all elements in the system.
The information within the PLC is carried by means of digital signals.
The processor is a microprocessor that executes a program to perform the operations specified in a
ladder diagram or a set of Boolean equations.
The CPU consists of the following units
Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU):
This unit performs data manipulation and arithmetic and logical operations on input I
variable data and determines the proper state of the output variables.
The arithmetic operation includes addition, subtraction etc., and logic operations include AND, OR,
AND, EXCLUSIVE - OR.
Memory Unit:
Memory termed registers located within the microprocessor and used to store information involved in a
program execution.
These programs contain control actions to be executed by the microprocessor for the given input. There
are several memory elements in a PLC system.
System Read-only Memory (ROM) gives permanent storage for the operating system and fixed data
wed by the CPU.
RAM for the user to develop program and acts a temporary memory.
In addition, temporary buffer stores for the I/O channels.
Control Unit:
A control unit is used to control the timing of operations.
The processor functions under a permanent supervisory operating system that directs the overall
operations from data input and output to execution of user programs.
The controller can perform only one operation at a time. So, it scans each of the inputs sequentially,
evaluates the ladder diagram program, provide each output(s), and then
repeat the whole process.
Hence, the timing control's necessary for a PLC system.
Memory Unit:
The sequence of instructions to be executed, programs are stored in the memory unit.
During entering and editing including Debugging, the program is stored in the temporary storages called
RAM (Random Access memory).
Once the program is completely finished (free & from errors).
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It may be 'burned' into ROM

When the ROM is plugged into the PLC, the device is ready to be placed into service in the industrial
environment.
For network programmed PLCs, the final PLCs program is downloaded into a special re-programmable
ROM (EPROM, PROM, and EEPROM) in the PLC.
Memory may be either volatile type or Non-volatile type.
Volatile Memory:
Volatile memory or temporary memory or Application memory is the user memory, where the
user can enter and edit the program.
Volatile memory will lose all its programmed contents if operating power is removed or lost.
Therefore, necessary to provide a battery backup power to all times.
Non Volatile Memory:
Non-volatile memory or permanent memory or system memory is (used) a system memory that stores
the monitor a booting programs, lookup tables etc.,
This usually programmed and supplied by the manufacturer.
This controls the operation of PLC.
It does not lose its content during power failure.
It does not require any battery.
The ROM memory offers the CPU to use only fixed amount of data.
The Different Types of ROMS are
Mask programmed ROM
PROM
EPROM
EEPROM
Mask Programmed ROM:
It is a special type of ROM which is programmed during manufacturing.
The programmed content stored by this type of ROM memory cannot be altered.
PROM:
PROM stands for programmable Read only memory.
It is a special type of ROM usually programed by manufacturer during manufacturing.
It has the disadvantage of requiring special programming device and once programmed cannot be
erased or altered.
EPROM:
EPROM stands for electrically programmable Read only Memory.
Here, the user programs electrically.
One can erase the program completely by shining UV light source or quartz window in package.
After the program chip is erased completely, program changes can be made.
When the program developed in RAM, the manufacturers usually load it in EPROM to make
permanent storage.
EEPROM:
EEPROM - Electrically Erasable programmable Read-only memory.
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Even though, it is a non-volatile memory, it offers some programming flexibility as RAM.

One can erase the program completely by electrical signals.
Program changes can be made very easily with the use of a PC with EEPROM software.
It can be electrically programmable by the user.
Buses:
A set of parallel lines that provides communication between various devices of a system is termed as a
Bus.
The bus system carries information and datas to and from the CPU, Memory and I/O units.
The information is transmitted in binary form as 0 or 1
Digital signals or electrical signals are flowing inside the bus.
It might be tracks on a printed circuit board (PCB) or wires in a ribbon cable.
The PLC system contains four buses.
They are namely Data Bus, Address Bus, Control bus and system bus.
Data Bus:
The data bus contains 8, 16 or 32 parallel signal lines for sending data between the various devices of a
system.
An 8-bit microprocessor has an internal data bus which can handle 8-bit numbers.
The double ended arrows on the bus line show that they are bidirectional.
This means that CPU can read data in from memory or from I/O unit on these lines or it can send data
out to memory or to I/O unit on these lines.
Many devices in a system will have their outputs connected to the data bus, but only one device will
have its output enabled at a time.
Address Bus:
The Address bus contains 16, 20, 24 or 32 parallel signal lines to carry the Address of the memory
locations for accessing stored data.
Every memory location is given a distinct unique address to locate easily and accessed by the CPU
either to read or write data.
Control Bus:
The Control bus contains 4 to 10 parallel signal lines to carry the signals used by the CPU that are
related to internal Control actions. Typical control bus signals are Memory
read Memory write, I/O Read and I/O write.
I/O System Bus:
The I/O system bus provide the communication between the I/O ports and I/O units
Input / Output Unit:
The I/O units provide the interface between the system and the outside world, allowing for connections
to be made through I/O channels to input / output devices.
Programs are entered from a program panel through I/O unit.
4.2 INPUT / OUTPUT PROCESSING:
The sourcing and sinking are used to describe the way in which DC devices are connected
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to PLC
Sourcing:
If a switch is connected to the positive of the battery and current flows from positive to negative, it is
said to be the sourcing the current. So, the input device receives current
from the input module.
For the PLC, input unit, hence input module is the source of the current. For the PLC output unit, output
module is the source of current as it supplies current to the output
devices. Sourcing output units for interfacing with solenoids.
Sinking:
Here, the input device supplies current to the input module. For the PLC input unit, hence the input
module is the sink for the current. Sinking input units are used for
interfacing with electronic equipment.
So, if a switch is connected to the negative of the battery and current flows from positive to negative, by
conventional current flow direction, it is said to be the sinking for
Current. For the PLC output unit, the current flows from output device to the output module then the
output module is the sink for current.
STEPS INVOLVED IN INPUT / OUTPUT PROCESSING:
The sequence followed by a PLC when carrying out a program can be as follows:
Scan the inputs associated with one rung of the ladder program
Solve the logic operation involving those inputs.
Set / Reset the outputs for that rung
Move on the next rung and repeat the operations 1, 2, 3
The two methods of Input/ Output processing operations are
Continuous updating
Mass Input / Output copying
Continuous Updating:
The sequence followed thus in continuous updating is as follows:
Fetch and decode the first program instruction
Scan there relevant inputs
Fetch and decode the second program instruction
Scan the relevant inputs etc. For the remaining program instructions
Update outputs
Report the entire sequence.
Mass Input / Output Copying:
The sequence followed in Mass I/O copying is thus:
Scan all the inputs and copy into RAM
Fetch and decode and execute all the program instructions in sequence
Copy all the output instructions to RAM
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Update all outputs.

Repeat the sequence
PLC LOGIC:
Instruction Code Mnemonics:
AND Logic Function:
AND logic circuit represents series circuit
AND gate is composed with two inputs and one output.
AND gate produce output when both the inputs are HIGH state.
Input A
Input B
Output A.B
OR Logic Function:
OR logic circuit represents the parallel circuit.
OR Gate is composed of two or more inputs and one output.
OR operation is like addition of binary numbers.
OR gate produce output when any one input are HIGH state.
Input A
Input B
Output (A+B)
NOT Logic Function:

NOT function is also known as Inverter.
NOT gate is composed of single input and a single output.
The bubble, or circle, at the output is the standard symbol used to represent inversion.
In NOT gate, there is an output, when there is no input and no output when there is an input
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NAND Logic Function:

NAND is a combination of AND and NOT gates.
Arrangement shows AND gate is followed by NOT gate. Hence it is called NOT AND gate.
Both the inputs A and B have to be at LOW state to get the output at HIGH state.
NAND Gate is composed of two or more input with a single output.
Any one input is in LOW state also output will be HIGH state
NOR Logic Function:
NOR is a combination of OR and NOT gates.
Arrangement shows OR gate is followed by NOT gate. Hence it is called NOT OR gate.
Both the inputs A and B have to be at LOW state to get the output at HIGH state.
NOR Gate is composed of two or more input with a single output.
Any one input is in HIGH state also output will be LOW state
Exclusive OR (XOR) Logic Function:
When both the inputs are at LOW state the output will be at LOW state
When both the inputs are at HIGH state the output will be at LOW state
When any one input is HIGH state the output will be at HIGH state
latching:
It is necessary to hold an output coil energized, even when the input ceases
The term latch is used for the circuit used to carry out such an operation.
Latch circuit is a self maintaining circuit that maintains its output in an energized state until the next
input is updated
4.3 TIMER:
A timer is a special counter ladder function that allows the PLC to perform timing operations based on a
precise internal clock.
Types of Timers:
Delay ON Timers or ON delay timers
Delay OFF Timers or OFF delay timers
Pulse Timers
Cascaded Timers
ON-OFF Cycle Timers
One Shot Timers
Delay ON Timers:
The term delay is used to indicate that this timer burns on, after waiting for a fixed time delay period.
When there is an input, the timer is energised and starts timing, after some pre-set value, the timer
contacts are closed to output.
TON is used to denote ON-delay.
Delay OFF Timers:
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OFF delay timers are maintained as ON for a fixed time of delay period before turning off.
TOF is used to denote OFF-delay.
Pulse Timers:
Pulse timer switches is another type of Timer which comes either ON or OFF for a fixed period of time
as a function of pulses.
TP is used to denote Pulse Timers
Cascaded Timers:
Cascading means more elements are linked together to form a system.
The cascading timers are linked together to give longer delay times which is easily achieved than just
one timer.
ON OFF Cycle Timer:
Timers producing an output for some period and no output for some period and an output for some
period.
The timer is designed to switch an output for T sec and off for another T second
One Shot Timers:

One shot timers produces an output for a fixed length of some initiation input.
4.4 INTERNAL RELAY:
An internal relay behaves like relays with their associated contacts, buy they are not actual relays whose
simulations are controlled by the PLC software.
Internal relays can be very useful in the implementation of switching sequences.
They are often used when there are programs with multiple input conditions.
They are also known as Auxiliary relays or markers.
In using an internal relays, it has to be activated on one rung of a program and then its output used to
operate switching contacts on another rung of a program.
4.5 COUNTERS:
Counters are used to count a specified number of contact operations.
Types of Counters:
Up Counters
Down Counters
Up Counters:
Up counters count up from the zero to pre set value
The events are added until the pre set value is reached
When the counter reaches the set value, its contacts change state
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Down Counters:
Down counters count down from the pre set value to zero
The events are subtracted until the pre set value is reached
When the counter reaches the Zero value, its contacts change state
SHIFT REGISTER:
A shift register is an electronic storage device that allows the stored bits of one relay to get
shifted into another relay.
4.6 DATA HANDLING:
The steps involved in data handling with a PLC system are
Moving data from one memory location to another
Comparison of Magnitudes of data
Arithmetic operations
Data conversion
Data Handling
Source
Destination
Instruction
Address
Address
Data Movement:
Instruction
: MOV
Function
: To copy a value from one address to another
Program:
LD X400
MOV
D1
D2
When there is an input to X400,
The data moves from the designated source address to the designated destination address.
The data transfer might move a constant into a data register
Data Comparison:
The data comparison instruction gets the PLC to compare two data values.
It compare a pre set value (1) to the input value (2)
= or EQU
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> or GRT
< or LEQ
or <> or NEQ
> or GEQ
For data comparison the typical instruction will contain the data transfer instruction to compare the
data from source address and designation address
It is required to sound an alarm if a sensor indicates a temperature above 90C and remain sounding
until the temperature falls below 75C.
For this, the ladder diagram is shown above.
The input temperature data is inputted to the source address and the destination address contains the set
value.
When the temperature rises 90C or higher, the data value in the source address becomes
>the destination address value and there is an output to the alarm which latches the input
When the temperature falls to 75C or lower, the data value in the source address becomes < the
destination address value and there is an output to the relay which then
opens the contacts and so switches the alarm off.
Data Arithmetic Operations:
PLCs are offered with the ability to carry out the arithmetic operations such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication and division only.
They cannot carry out exponential functions.
Addition and subtraction operations are used to alter the value of data held in data registers.
Multiplications are used to multiply some input before adding to or subtracting it from another.
Code Conversions:
All the internal operations in the CPU of a PLC are carried out through binary numbers.
Most PLCs provide BCD-to-binary and binary-to-BCD conversion for use.
When a decimal (input) signal is given, BCD conversion is used.
Similarly, when a decimal output is required, Decimal conversion is used.
The data at the source address is in BCD and converted to binary and placed at the destination address.
4.7 SELECTION OF PLCS
The selection process of PLC for a particular task depends on the following factors.
Capacity of Input and Output
No. of Inputs and Outputs
Types of Inputs and Outputs
Size of memory required I,
Speed and Power required of the CPU
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UNIT V DESIGN OF MECHATRONICS SYSTEM
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5.1 STAGES IN DESIGNING MECHATRONIC SYSTEMS:

The design of mechatronic systems can be divided into a number of stages.
The Need:
The design process starts with the need of a customer.
By adequate market research and knowledge, the potential needs of a customer can be clearly identified.
In some cases, company may create a market need but failures are more in this area.
Hence, market research technology is necessary.
Analysis of the Problem:
This is the first stage and also the critical stage in the design process.
After knowing the customer need, analysis should be done to know the true nature of the problem.
To define the problem accurately, analysis should be done carefully
Preparation of a Specification:
The second stage of the mechatronic process involves in the preparation of a specification
The specification must be given to understand the requirements and the functions to be met.
The specification gives mass dimensions, types, accuracy, power requirements, load, praying
environments, velocity, speed, life etc.
Conceptualization:
The possible solution should be generated for each of the functions required
It is generated by verifying the old problems or some newly developed techniques may be used
Optimization:
This stage involves in a selection of a best solution for the problem
Optimization is defined as a technique in which a best solution is selected among a
group of solutions to solve a problem.
The various possible solutions are evaluated and the most suitable solution is selected.
Detail Design:
Once optimizing a solution is completed, the detail design of that solution is developed.
This may require a production of prototype etc.
Mechanical layout is to be made whether physically all component can be
accommodated.
Also whether components are accessible for replacement / maintenance are to be checked.
The selected design or solution is then translated into working drawings, circuit diagrams,
etc. So that the item can be made.
Drawings also include the manufacturing tolerances for each component.
5.2 POSSIBLE DESIGN SOLUTIONS:

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Wind Screen Wiper Motor:

Wind screen wiper is a device which is used to clear from the front glass of the vehicles, during rainy
season.
In consists of an arm which oscillates back and forth in an arc like a wind screen wiper.
Mechanical Solution:
It works like a four bar mechanism, when the crank rotates, the arm 1 rotates.
This makes the arm 2 to oscillate the arm 3.
Mechatronics Approach:
The mechatronics approach uses a stepper motor with microprocessor for controlling it.
The input to the stepper is required to cause it to rotate a number of steps in one direction and then
reverse to rotate the same number of steps in other direction.
Transistors are used as a switch for controlling the stepper motor.
To start and rotate the motor, the coils of the stepper motor are to be energised in a proper sequence.
Stepper motor can be operated in two configurations.
Full step Configuration
Half step Configuration
5.3 CASE STUDIES IN MECHATRONIC SYSTEMS:
5.4 A Pick and Place Robot:
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The robot has three axes and about these three axes only motion occurs.
The following movements are required for this robot
Clockwise and Anti-clockwise rotation of the robot unit on its base
Horizontal Linear movement of the arm to extend or contraction
Up and down movement of the arm and
Open or close movement of the gripper
The above movements are accomplished by the use of pneumatic cylinders operated by solenoid controlled
values with limit switches.
The limit switches are used to indicate when a motion is completed.
The clockwise rotation of the robot unit can be obtained from a piston and cylinder arrangement during its
extension and that of counter clockwise during its retraction.
The upward and downward movement of the arm can be obtained from a piston and cylinder arrangement
during the extension and retraction of a piston respectively.
Similarly, the gripper can be opened or closed by the piston in a linear cylinder during its extension.
The micro controller used to control the solenoid values and hence the movements of the robot unit.
The type of microcontroller used in M68C11.
A software program is used to control the robot.
Eight C port lies PC0 PC7, are used to sense the position of eight separate limit switches used for eight
different robotic movements.
Also one line from port D is used to start or stop the robot operation.
The switch in its one position will provide +5V (a logic high signal), to the corresponding port lines and
the switch in another position will provide 0V (a logic low
signal), to the port lines.
So the two positions of a switch will provide either a logic high or logic low to the
corresponding PC0 PC7, and PD, lines.
Eight part B lines (PB0 PB7) are used to control eight different movement. These are Base CW, Base
CEW, Arm extends, Arm retract, Arm up, Arm down Gripper close and
Gripper open of the robot.
PB0, is connected to the Triacoptoisolator through a resistor.
TRIAC isolator consists of LED and TRIAC.
For example, when the base has to rotate in clockwise direction, a high signal is sent through line
PB0
The diode is forward biased and the TRIAC optoisolation operates, regulating the supply to the
solenoid value which in turn operated the piston rod of the pneumatic cylinder.
The base clockwise continues the rotation till it reader the position of second limit switch
5.4 Automatic Car Park System:
Consider the coin-operated car park system with barriers.
The main requirement of the system is that, the in-barrier is to be opened to allow the car inside if
correct money (coin) is inserted in the collection box.
The out barrier is to be opened to allow the car outside, if the car is detected at the car park side of
the barrier.
The automatic car park barrier along with the mechanism to lift and lower it
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When the current flows through the solenoid A & the piston in the cylinder extends to move upward and
causes the barrier to rotate about its pivot and thus the barrier raises to
allow the car inside.
When the current flows through the solenoid A ceases, the spring on the solenoid valve makes the contacts
to open and thus makes the valve to its original position.
When the current flows through solenoid B, the piston in the cylinder moves downward end causes the
barrier to get down.
Limit switches are used to detect when the barrier is down and also when fully up.
This control can be controlled by PLC
X400
coin operated switch at entrance to car park
X401
switch activated when entrance barrier is out
X402
switch activated when entrance barrier is down
X403
switch activated when car at exit barrier
X404
switch activated when exit barrier is -up
X405
switch activated when exit barrier is down
Y430
solenoid on valve A for entrance barrier
Y43 1
solenoid on valve B for entrance barrier
Y432
solenoid on valve A for exit barrier
Y433
solenoid on valve B for exit barrier
Six inputs (X400 to X405) is required for the PLC to sense the six limit switch position namely coinoperated switch, entrance barrier up switch, down switch, car at exit barrier
switch, exit barrier up switch, Exit barrier down switch
Whenever, a switch is operated, 0V signal is provided to the corresponding inputs and otherwise +24v
signal is provided to the inputs. Four outputs (Y430 to Y433) are
required to operate the two solenoid valves A and B.
Program:
LD
X400
OR
Y430
ANI
M100
ANI
Y431
OUT Y430
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X401
OUT T450
K
10
LD
T450
OUT M100
LD
M100
OR
Y431
ANI
X402
ANI
Y430
OUT Y431
LD
X403
OR
Y432
ANI
M101
ANI
Y433
OUT Y432
LD
X404
OUT T451
K
10
LD
T45 1
OUT M101
LD
M101
OR
Y433
ANI
X405
ANI
Y432
OUT Y433
END
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Assume a 10 sec delay for the car is to come inside the barrier and to go outside the barrier.
These time delays provided by T450 and T451 energising their Internal relays respectively.
5.7 Engine Management System:
Engine management system is now-a-days, used in many of the modem cars
This car includes many electronic control systems such as microcontrollers for the control of various
engine factors.
The main objective of the system is to ensure that the engine is operated at its optimum settings.
The engine management system of a car is responsible for managing the ignition and fuelling
requirements of the engine.
The power and speed of the engine are controlled by varying the ignition timing and the Air fue1
mixture.
In modern cars, this is done by microprocessor.
To control the ignition delay, the crank shaft drives a distribution which makes electrical contacts for
each spark plug in turn and a timing wheel.
This timing wheel generates pulses - to indicate the crankshaft position.
The microprocessor then adjusts the timing at which high voltage pulses are sent to the distributor so
that they occur at right moments of time.
To control the amount of air-fuel mixture entering into a cylinder during the suction stroke, the
microprocessor varies the time for which a solenoid is activated to the inlet
valve on the basis of inputs received by the engine temperature and the throttle position.
The amount of fuel to be injected into the air stream can be determined on input from a sensor of the
mass rate of air, or computed from other measurements.
The microprocessor then gives as output to control of fuel inject valve.
The system hence consists of number of sensor for observing vehicle speed, Engine temperature, oil
and fuel pressure, air flow etc.,
These sensors supplies input signals to the microprocessor after suitable signal conditioning and
provides output signals via drivers to actuate corresponding actuators.
Engine Speed Sensors:
The Engine speed sensor is an inductive type sensor used to measure or sense the engine speed.
It consists of a coil and a sensor wheel.
When the teeth of the wheel pass through the sensor, the inductance of the coil changes.
This change in inductance produces an oscillating voltage.
Engine Temperature Sensor:
The engine temperature sensor is used to sense the temperature of the engine.
It is usually a thermistor or a thermocouple.
The thermocouple consists of a bimetallic strip or a thermistor whose resistance changes when there
is a variation in temperature of the engine.
Hot wire Anemometer:
Hot wire anemometer is used as amass airflow rate sensor in which a heated wire gets cooled when
air passes across it.
The amount of coding depends on the mass flow rate.
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Oxygen Sensor:
The oxygen sensor is usually a closed end tube made of zirconium oxide with porous platinum
electrodes on the inner and outer surfaces.
When the temperature is above 300C the sensor become permeable to oxygen ions so that melt age
will be produced between the electrodes.
The various drivers such as fuel injection drivers, ignition coil drivers solenoid drivers and are used
to actuate actuators according to the signal by various sensors.
Analog signals are converted into digital signals by using ADC and are sensed by various sensors
which in turn sent to the microcontroller.
The microcontroller compares these input values with the set points stored in its memory and it
issues control signals to the corresponding our drivers.
The output signals are converted into analogue signal by using ADC.
The transient protection circuit prevents any sudden surge a rise or far in the power supply in the
power supply to the micro controller.
A+12V voltage regulator is used to supply the dc voltage required for the microcontroller
operation.
Wireless Surveillance Balloon:
Surveillance generally refers to monitoring or observing a person or a group of people h m a certain
distance, frequently.
Surveillance equipment is typically used in warfare and/or in counter-insurgency operations to
monitor the activities of an enemy from a distance.
Surveillance equipment may also be used to monitor hazardous situations from a distance, such as
for example, as may be associated with chemical hazards, explosive
hazards, and the like, so as to provide advance information to personnel responsible for controlling
the hazards.
Other applications may include search and rescue missions, police operations, and homeland security
activities.
Elements of Wireless Surveillance Balloon:
Various essential elements of a wireless surveillance balloon are listed below:
Sensors:
Image sensors
Thermal sensors
Audio sensors
Location sensors
Altitude sensors
A compass
Motion sensors
Communication modules:
Located in the housing
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Communication modules transmit data collected by the sensors

An anchor line which may be adapted to anchor the deployable surveillance balloon to the housing
after deployment
A lighter-than-air (LTA) gas source which may be adapted to provide lighter than- air gas for
inflation of the surveillance balloon during and / or after deployment
Ancillary components which may facilitate the operation of the system, such as power sources, gas
lines, wires, control circuitry, databases, displays, regulators, latches,
springs, levers, gaskets, etc.
5.7 Applications of Wireless Surveillance Balloon:
Wireless surveillance balloon have been used for various applications like:
Border security (TARS) in military,
Enhancing battlefield situational awareness.
Coastal surveillance,
Platform for mounting telecommunication, television. radio transmitters and Broadband equipment
Aerial platform for scientific instrument testing,
Aerial platform for weather prediction instruments,
Terrestrial mapping
For holding up large-array radio- telescopes.
5.8 Autonomous Mobile Robot:
A fully autonomous mobile robot has the ability to:
Gain information about the environment
Work for an extended period without human intervention
Move either all or part of itself throughout its operating environment without human assistance
Avoid situations that are harmful to people, property, or itself unless those are part of its design
specifications.
Elements of Autonomous Mobile Robot:
Locomotion
Sensor perception
Knowledge representation
Planning
Autonomy
Collaboration
Locomotion:
Locomotion is the act of moving from place to place.
Locomotion relies on the physical interaction between the vehicle and its environment.
It is concerned with the interaction forces, along with the mechanisms and actuators that generate
them.
The different types of locomotion are:
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Legged Locomotion
Snake Locomotion
Free-Floating Motion
Wheeled Locomotion
Sensor Perception:
The robots have to sense their environment in order to navigate in it, detect hazards, and identify
goals.
Sensor fusion is an important capability, as no single sensor will be able to identify or classify all
aspects of the arenas.
The simulated victims are represented by a collection of different sensory signatures. They have
shape and colour characteristics.
Some simulated victims have motions such as waving, and some emit sounds such as low moans,
calls for help, or simple tapping.
All of the signals of life should be detected, identified, investigated further, and if confirmed as a
victim, the location should be mapped.
For obstacle detection, the sensors need to see far and only a logic response is required.
Common sensors used in mobile robots for detecting obstacles are the digital infra-red (IR) sensor.
Line tracing is normally required to distinguish between a white surface and a black one in order to
provide guidance by the demarcation.
For direction monitoring the obvious sensor to use is a compass, which echoes the bearing of the
mobile robot in real time.
Proximity sensors are used to sense the presence of an object close to a mechatronics device.
Knowledge Representation:
In the mobile robot applications, the robots are expected to communicate to humans the location of
victims and hazards.
They would be providing a map of the environment they have explored, with the simulated victim
and hazard location clearly identified.
The environment that the robots operate in is three-dimensions, hence they should be able to map in
three-dimensions.
The area may change dynamically during operation time
Planning:
The planning or behaviour generation elements of the robots build on the knowledge representation
and the sensing elements.
The robots must be able to navigate around obstacles, make progress in their mission take into
account time as a limiting resource, and make time critical decisions.
The planner should make use of an internal map generated by the robot and find alternative routes to
exit the arenas that may be quicker or avoid arm that have become
no longer traversable
Autonomy:
The robots are designed to operate with humans.
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The level of interaction may vary significantly, depending on the robot's design and
capabilities, or on the circumstances.
Robots may communicate back to humans to request decisions, but should provide the human
with meaningful communication of the situation.
The human should provide the robot with high level commands, such as "go to the room on the
left" rather that joystick the robot in that direction.
Collaboration:
The final element to be evaluated in the robot's overall capabilities is collaboration among teams of
robots.
Multiple robots, either homogeneous or heterogeneous in design and capabilities, should be able to
more quickly explore the area.
The issues to be examined are how effectively they maximize coverage given multiple robots,
whether redundancy is an advantage, and whether or how they communicate
among themselves to assign responsibilities.
The human may make the decisions about assignments for each robot a priority, but that would not
be as desirable as seeing the robots jointly decide how to attack the problem
when confronted in the field.
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TWO MARKS QUESTION WITH ANSWER

1. What are the key elements of Mechatronics system? [AU, April / May - 2010]
sensors and actuators
signals and conditioning
digital logic system
computer and display devices
software and data acquisition
2. Mention the functions of a Mechatronics system. [AU, May / June - 2013]
It allows to integrate the mechanical systems with micro electronics to obtain the process design
automation
It ensue the higher efficiency and reliability for the quality of products
3. What do you understand by signal conditioning? [AU, Nov / Dec - 2011]
A signal conditioning mans manipulating an analog signal in such a way that it meet the requirement
of the next stage for further processing.
4. Give an example for a transducer and state its transduction principle. [AU, Nov / Dec - 2012]
Transducers are device which converts an input of one form of energy into an output of another form
of energy.eg thermocouple
5. List any four types of sensors and mention their features. [AU, May / June - 2013]
1.based on power requirements
passive and active
2.based on the type of output
analog and digital
3.Based on sensing
primary and secondary
6. State the advantage of capacitive type proximity sensor. [AU, Nov / Dec - 2012]
capacitors are noiseless
high accuracy
high sensitivity
high resolution
7. What is RTD? State its applications. [AU, Nov / Dec - 2011]
It is sensor used to measure the temperature by correlating the resistance of the rtd element of
temperature
Application
a. precision process temperature control(textile, chemical ,food)
b. automatic temperature control(test chamber , oven temperature)
8. List down the type of proximity sensor . (nov/dec 2013)
optical encoders
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hall effects
capacitive sensors
proximity switches
9. Distinguish between position sensors and light sensors . (nov/dec 2013)
A position sensor is used to monitor the position of the throttle in an IC engine. Its located on the
spindle so that it can monitor the position of the throttle
The light sensors enables a robot to detect light . Its uses cadmium sulfosolenide
(cds)photoconductive photocell. The light sensor can give the robot vision and make it easier for it to
operate autonomously.
7. What are the elements of the closed loop control system?
The various elements of a closed loop control system are, a. Comparison element b. Control element
c. Correction element d. Process element e. Measurement element
8. What are the two types of feedback loop?
The two types of feed back loop are, a. Positive feed back loop b. Negative feed back loop. "The
feedback is said to be negative/positive feedback when the signal; which is feed back, subtracts/adds from
the input value. It is required to control a system. The control elements decide what action to take when it
receives an error signal"
9. What are the types of control elements?
There are two types of control elements. They are
a. Hard wired systems
b. Programmable systems
10. What are the main applications of mechatronics?
Washing machines, dish washers, micro ovens, cameras, camcorders, robots, automatic conveyors,
computer-controlled machines
11. Obtain the basic functions of control systems.
1. To minimize the error between the actual and desired output
2. To minimize the time response to load changes in the system
12. What are the types of control system?
Open loop system
Closed loop system
13. List down the requirements of control systems.
Stability
Accuracy
Response
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14. Give an example for open loop system and closed loop systems.
1. Closed loop system Automatic water level controller
2. open loop system - Electric fire
15. Compare open loop control system and closed loop control system.
Open loop systems
It is suitable where accurate positioning of the tools is not required
System is very simple
It is suitable for rough works
Error is not currently checked and rectified
Closed loop systems
The feedback signal controls the table position accurately
Is used almost in all automation process
Its not suitable for rough works
Error is currently checked and rectified
16.Write about the Mechatronics approach in a micro-processor controlled washing machine?
In the microprocessor-controlled washing machine, a mechanical system has become integrated
with electronic controls. As a consequence, a bulky mechanical system is replaced by a much more compact
microprocessor system, which is readily adjustable to give a greater variety of programs.
17. What is the larger scale application of Mechatronics?
A larger scale application of Mechatronics is a Flexible Manufacturing engineering System (FMS)
involving computer controlled machines, robots, automatic material conveying and overall supervisory
control.
18. List some of the applications of Mechatronics?
1. Home Appliances: Washing machine, Bread machines etc 2. Automobile: Electrical fuel injection,
Antilock brake system 3. Aircraft: Flight control, Navigation system 4. Automated Manufacturing
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UNIT-II
1.Name the control components in a hydraulic actuation system. [AU, Nov / Dec - 2012]
1.Hydraulic pumpsunit
2.control values
3.reciprocating or rotary unit
2. Write short notes on the working of a Ratchet and pawl mechanism. [AU, May / June - 2013]
A wheel provided with suitable shaped teeth, receiving an intermittent circular motion from an
oscillating member is called a Ratchet wheel. In a ratchet and pawl mechanism , the ratchet is based on a
wheel that has teeth cut out it and a pawl that follows as the wheel turns
3.List any four solid state switches. [AU, Nov / Dec - 2011]
Diodes, Transistors,(BJT,FET)and thyristors
4.Highlight the properties of a stepper motor. [AU, May / June - 2013]
1.Motor construction is simple and rugged
2. It has excellent position accuracy
3. It have high holding torque and they have property of being "self locking" when the rotor is
stationary
4. It having high torque at small angular velocities
5. What is a servo motor? [AU, Nov / Dec - 2012]
A servo motor is a rotary actuator that allows for precise control of angular position . It consists of a
motor coupled to a sensor for position feed back , through reduction gear box
6.compare hydraulic systems with pneumatic systems
s.no
1.
2.
Hydraulic system
It is used to controlling , transmitting and
harnessing power using pressured fluids
It is used in the concepts of dams, rivers
3.
It using incompressible fluid medium
4.
Pressure range is 80-100 psi
7.state the function of a control valve
Pneumatic system
It is used in pressurized gases to influence
mechanical movement
It is used inmining ,and general construction
.
It used compressible fluid medium
Pressure ranges 1000-5000psi
control valve is to direct , regulate the flow of fluid and regulate the pressure in various loading devices. It is
used for sensing , processing , controlling .
8. Define Actuator.
An actuator is an output device which performs useful works
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9. Classify actuator based on motion.

1. Linear motion
Single acting cylinder
Double acting cylinder
2. Rotary Motion
Air motors
Rotary actuators
3. Flow Control valve
10. When is cascade control Needed?
The need for cascade control will occur when a final control element experiences signal overlap i.e.
when a trip valve mechanism is still held down , but the output signal has to been used and requires removal
11. Write down the principles of cascade control.
A simple design procedure to determine the minimum number of groups in the circuit
Evolve separate supply bus for each group
Arrange selector valves to divert the supply to whichever is the active group
12. Mention the various components of a hydraulic system.
Motor
Filter
Pump
Pressure Regulator
Control Valve
Piston and cylinder
13. What is called a pneumatic system?
System using gas for power transmission are called pneumatic systems and industrial system are usually
based on air.
14. List down the components of pneumatic system.
Motor driven compressor
Air receiver
Directional control
Pneumatic cylinder
15. What is the purpose of using filters in the hydraulic systems?
Filters are used to prevent dirt or dust entering important elements of hydraulic system like valves,
seals, etc. Filters are used to remove very finer particles.
16. What are the types of pumps used as energy source in a hydraulic system?
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Centrifugal Pump(Hydrodynamic Pumps)

Positive displacement pump
a. Gear Pumps
b. Vane Pumps
c. Piston pumps
17. What are the factors to be considered for selecting compressors?
The type of air compressor is selected dependent on quality of air, pressure and cleanliness
18. List the features of synchronous motor.
It operates at a current speed from no load to full load
Power factor of the motor can be controlled easily
19. What is a stepper motor?
A stepper motor is a rotating machine which converts a DC voltage pulse into a series of discrete
rotational steps. Each step position is an equilibrium position without further excitation, this makes it ideally
suitable for the use with digital control
20. What are the factors to be considered for selecting solenoids?
a. The size of the mechanical load. b. The movement distance of plunger. c. The type of electrical
connections. d. The type of value of current and voltage.
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UNIT-III
1.What are the features of an operational amplifier? [AU, Nov / Dec - 2012]
1. the input current are almost zero
2.High gain, on the order of a million .
3.High input impedance , low output impedance
4.op-amp amplify dc and ac
2.Defineinertance
Fluid interance is due to fluid inertia such as the in a long pipe. It is defined as
I=pressure differential/Rate of change of flow rate
3. What are the steps involved in the operation of a digital controller? [AU, Nov / Dec - 2011]
The microprocessor is used to initiate the control mode to process the errors .it is decided by the
microprocessor program. The clock signal is used to synchronize the operation in the ADC,DAC and micro
processor
4. What do you mean by discrete process controllers? [AU, May / June - 2013]
The process controller which is used to produce discrete pieces of products is called discrete process
controllers
5.What are the various stages of operation of an adaptive control system? [AU, May / June - 2013
1. Non linearity system
4. estimation
7.computer control
2. Stability theory
5.optimization 8.Sampled systems
3. stochastic control
6. linear system 9.control design
6.Define the term electromechanical systems.

It is device used to transform electrical signal into rotational motion and vice versa
eg. potentiometers , motors, generators
7.What are the advantages and disadvantage of PID controller ?
It is used to eliminate the offset problem in P controller and to minimize the error by adjusting the
process control outputs
8. What is PI control? [AU, April / May 2011]
The output of the PI controller is proportional to the linear combination of input error and time
integral of input error
9. What are the various control modes in the mechatronics control systems? [AU, April / May - 2010]
1. Two step mode
2.proportional control mode
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3.integeral control mode

4. derivate control mode
5. proportional + integral
6. proportional + derivative
7. proportional integral derivate mode
10. Define steady state error
Its used to indicate the difference between the set value iput and the ouput after transients have died
away
11.list the application of digital system
1. computers
2.telephony
3.data processing
12. List the basic blocks of electrical systems
1. resistor
2. inductor
3. capacitor
13. What are the basic blocks of fluid system
1.hydralic system
2. Pneumatic system
14. What are the basic blocks of hydraulic systems.
1. hydraulic resistance
2. hydraulicintertance 3. hydraulic capacitance
15.What are basic blocks in pneumatic system
1. pneumatic resistance
2. pneumaticintertance 3. pneumatic capacitance
16. What are the basic building blocks of thermal system ?
1. resistance
2. capacitance
17. What is a block diagram ?
It is a diagrammatic representation of the flow of signal . It gives inter relationship between various
components
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UNIT-IV
1. What is a PLC? [AU, Nov / Dec - 2012,2013]
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A Programmable logic controller is a microprocessor based controller that uses a programmable

memory to store instruction and to implement functions such as logic , sequencing , timing, counting, and
arithmetic in order to control machines and process.
2. Write short notes on the basic arrangement of a PLC system. [AU, May / June - 2013]
1. central processing unit
2. programmer/monitor
3. input and output modules
3.What is an internal relay in PLC? [AU, Nov / Dec - 2012]
Most PLCs have an area of memory allocated for internal storage that are used to hold data, which
behave like relays. It can able to switch ON and Off . But this is for only internal purpose. This will not
exist in the real world
4.Define adaptive control. (nov/dec-11)
The control system which can adapt changes and it can change its parameters depending on the
situation .it is known as adaptive control system
5. What is Shift register? What is the data required for a shift register? [AU, Nov / Dec - 2011]
Shift register can be used where sequence of operation is required or movement or track the flow of
parts and information
It requires three inputs and the following information is to be provided
1.file-address of the bit array
2.control- addresss of control structure
3. bit address-address of source bit
4. length -number of bits in bit array
6. State the purpose of shift registers. [AU, May / June - 2013]
Shift register can be used where sequence of operation is required or movement or track the flow of
parts and information
7.What are shift register ? [nov/dec 2013]
The no of internal relays is grouped together that allows the shifting of bits serially through an array
in an orderly fashion called shift register. shift register are used where sequence of operation is required or
movement or track the flow of parts and information
8. What is main advantage of PLC?
PLCs have great advantage that it is possible to modify a control system without having to rewire
the connections to the input and output devices.
9. What are the features of PLC as a controller?
The features of PLC as a controller are,
a. They are rugged and designed to withstand vibrations, temperature, humidity and noise.
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b. The interfacing for inputs and outputs is inside the controller.

c. They are easily programmed and have an easily understood programming language.
10. Write about the architecture of a PLC?
It consists essentially of a central processing unit (CPU), memory and input/output circuitry. The
CPU controls and processes all the operations within the PLC. It is supplied with a clock with a frequency
between 1 and 8 MHz. It also has a bus system, memory and input/output units, a system ROM for
permanent storage, RAM for the users program and temporary buffers.
11. What is ladder programming?
The ladder programming involves each program task being specified as though a rung of a ladder.
Thus such a rung could specify that the state of switches A and B, the inputs, be examined and if A and B
are both closed then a solenoid, the output is energized .
12.List down the different types of timers .
1. on delay
2. off delay
3. retentive timer (RTO )
13.What is mean Retentive timer ?
Retentive on delay timer (RTO) will hold its accumulated value when timer rung goes false and will
continue timing where it left off when timer rungs goes true again
14. List down the general application of PLC for control.
1. control of a process motor , vibrating machine
2. Control of a two pneumatic piston
3. Detecting , sorting and packing unit
15. What are the factor to be considered for selecting plc .
1. system definition
2. choosing the input and output hardware
3. Analog input / output module
4. input and output timing consideration
UNIT -V
1.List down the various stages in mechatronic system design. [AU, May / June - 2013]
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1.need of design
2.analysis the problem
3.preparation of specification
4.generation of possible solution
5.selection of suitable solution
6.production of detailed design
7.production of working drawing
8.implementing of design
2. List the drawbacks of traditional design approach. [AU, Nov / Dec - 2012]
1.less flexible
2.less accurate
3.more complicate mechanism in design
4.it having more components and moving parts
3. Compare traditional and mechatronic design. [AU, May / June , - 2013 ]
s.no
1
Traditional approach
The cam operated rocker arm mechanism
control the valve operation. The rotation of
cam is based on the crank rotation
Mechatronics approach
The valve operation is controlled by the
signal received from electronic control
unit .The timing of valve operation is preprogrammed in the micro controller
The engine speed regulation is based on the The engine speed regulation is based on
governor controlled throttle valve. The
the input signal from speed sensor,
governor is actuated by the speed of the
temperature sensor and MAF sensor.
crack shaft. The speed control has no effect Based on the sensor information the
on the engine temperature and air flow
throttling valve is controlled by micro
controller
Spark timing of the spark plug is controlled Spark timing of the spark plug is
by the ignition coil and distributer at
controlled by the ignition coil that
constant pre-set interval
receives signals from the micro controller
through a timing sequence program
4.Name the sensors used in car Engine management system. [AU, Nov / Dec - 2011]
1. Air flow sensor
2. Ford type MAP sensor
3. Hall effect and AC excited sensors
5.Write the basic steps of the program to run a stepper motor?
steps1: advance astep by applying a data
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step 2: call time delay routine to complete steps

step3:repeat step 1,2until the required no of steps completed in forward direction
step 4: To reverse the direction of stepper motor , the same steps given above are repeated in the
reverse order of data
6.Distinguish between traditional approach and mechatronics design approach
s.no
1
Traditional approach
It is based on traditional mechanical
elements such as gear , spring , levers
More complicated mechanism and

moving components
Input through pre-stressing of string
Timing is less accurate
3
4
Mechatronics approach
It is based on mechanical, electronics ,
computer technology and control
engineering
less complicated mechanism and moving
components
Input through battery cell
Timing is more accurate
7.What is the role of opto isolator in robot control? [AU, Nov / Dec - 2012]
TRIAC opto isolator consists of LEDand TRIAC . If the input of the led is 1, it glows and activate
the TRIAC to conduct the current to the solenoid valve. otherwise TRIAC will not conduct the current to
the solenoid valve.
8. What is meant by Duty Cycle? [AU, Nov / Dec - 2011]
A duty cycle is the time that an entity spends in an active state as a fraction of the total time under
consideration .
9. What is mean by wireless surveillance balloon?
It is an Aerostats or Tethered balloons which carry surveillance cameras high up in the air to obtain a
broader perspective view of the target area.
10. What is an electronic engine management?
An electronic engine management system is made up of sensors , actuators, and
related wiring that is tied into a central processor called microprocessor or micro computer
11. List out the various sensors used in engine management system?
1. Throttle position sensor
2.EGO sensors
3.MAP sensors
4. temperature sensors
5. Engine position sensors
6.MAF sensors
7.knock sensor
73
T.KOUSALYA AP/ECE
2015-2016
ME2401-MECHATRONICS
IV/VII
12. List down the various Mechatronics elements in an automatic camera.

1. Auto focusing mechanism control
2. mirror drive
3.lens drive
4. lens position encoders
13. Automatic camera is a Mechatronics system - justify
A typical Mechatronics system should have some of the basic elements such a actuators , sensors ,
signal conditioning elements , digital logic systems. software display etc. As the automatic camera has all
those elements , it is considered s Mechatronics system .
14. Name the two barriers used in automatic car parking system and state its uses .
There are two barrier used namely in barrier and out barrier . IN barrier is used to open when the
correct money is inserted while out barrier open when the car is detected in front of it
15.list out the various application of the wireless surveillance balloons
1. border security in military
2. enhancing battlefield
3. coastal surveillance
4.terrestial mapping
74
T.KOUSALYA AP/ECE
2015-2016

Introduction of Mechatronics

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Introduction of Mechatronics

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ME2401-MECHATRONICS

SASURIE COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

This is to certify that the e-course material

OBJECTIVE: To understand the interdisciplinary applications of Electronics, Electrical, Mechanical and

Introduction to Mechatronics Systems Measurement Systems Control Systems Microprocessor based

Programmable Logic Controllers Basic Structure Input / Output Processing Programming

PROGRAMMABLE LOGIC CONTROLLER

Graphical displays provide visual feedback to users.

E.M.F (Electrical Parameter).

Single Conditioner function (Amplifier)

Small E.M.F value (From sensor)

Big E.M.F Value (Amplified).

L.E.D (or) Number on scale by pointer movement

Conditioned Signal (from signal conditioner)

Value of the quantity (Temperature)

1.3 CONTROL SYSTEM:

Elements of Closed Loop System:

System of Controlling Room Temperature

: Water level in the tank

: Initial setting of the float and lever position

: Difference between the actual & initial setting of the lever

: The pivoted lever

: The flap opening or closing the water supply

: The water level in the tank

: The floating ball and lever

Material of the object

Aluminium. 2mm to 500 mm in case of linear pot.

For high resolution, wire is made by using ceramic

Tempered phosphor bronze, beryllium copper or other

Strong, ductile and protected from surface corrosion by

enamelling or oxidation. Materials &e alloys

Resistivity of wire ranges from 0.4 m to 13 m

20 to 200K and for plastic 500 to 80K

Higher temperature coefficient of resistance than the

wire and so temperature changes have a greater effect

Fine Wire Gauges:

By Varying the Dielectric Constant:

1.11 FLUID SENSORS

FLUID PRESSURE SENSORS:

Tube Pressure Sensor:

The lower PVDF film has an alternating voltage

1.12 LIQUID FLOW SENSORS:

Resistance Temperature Detectors (RTDs):

is primarily a function of the junction temperature. The above said

2.2 DIRECTION CONTROL VALVES

2.8 STEPPER MOTOR.

Mathematical Model of a DC Motor

2.11 DC SERVO MOTOR

finding Laplace Transforms of equations

Eliminate If (s) from equations (4) and (5)Input = Ef(S)

ii.Armature Controlled D.C. Servo Motor

Shunt - Wound Generators

UNIT III SYSTEM MODELS AND CONTROLLERS BUILDING

3.2BUILDING BLOCKS OF ELECTRICAL SYSTEM:

3.3TYPES OF CONTROL MODES:

= 100 / Proportional Band

= Change in Output (s) / E(s)

Electronic Proportional Controller:

Example for Proportional Controller:

The Derivative Mode (D):

Proportional Plus Derivative Mode:

The Integral Mode (I):

Transfer Function =Kp +