12/18/2015

UrbanTransportChallenges

THEGEOGRAPHYOFTRANSPORTSYSTEMS
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Home>Contents>Chapter6>Concept4

UrbanTransportChallenges
Author:Dr.JeanPaulRodrigue

1.UrbanTransportationattheCrossroads
Citiesarelocationshavingahighlevelofaccumulationandconcentrationofeconomicactivities
andarecomplexspatialstructuresthataresupportedbytransportsystems.Thelargerthecity,
thegreateritscomplexityandthepotentialfordisruptions,particularlywhenthiscomplexityis
noteffectivelymanaged.Themostimportanttransportproblemsareoftenrelatedtourbanareas
andtakeplacewhentransportsystems,foravarietyofreasons,cannotsatisfythenumerous
requirementsofurbanmobility.Urbanproductivityishighlydependentontheefficiencyofits
transportsystemtomovelabor,consumersandfreightbetweenmultipleoriginsand
destinations.Additionally,importanttransportterminalssuchasports,airports,andrailyardsare
locatedwithinurbanareas,contributingtoaspecificarrayofproblems.Someproblemsare
ancient,likecongestion(whichplaguedcitiessuchasRome),whileothersarenewlikeurban
freightdistributionorenvironmentalimpacts.Amongthemostnotableurbantransportproblems
are:
Trafficcongestionandparkingdifficulties.Congestionisoneofthemostprevalenttransport
problemsinlargeurbanagglomerations,usuallyaboveathresholdofabout1million
inhabitants.Itisparticularlylinkedwithmotorizationandthediffusionoftheautomobile,
whichhasincreasedthedemandfortransportinfrastructures.However,thesupplyof
infrastructureshasoftennotbeenabletokeepupwiththegrowthofmobility.Sincevehicles
spendthemajorityofthetimeparked,motorizationhasexpandedthedemandforparking
space,whichhascreatedspaceconsumptionproblemsparticularlyincentralareas;the
spatialimprintofparkedvehiclesissignificant.Congestionandparkingarealsointerrelated
sincelookingforaparkingspace(called"cruising")createsadditionaldelaysandimpairslocal
circulation.Incentralareasoflargecitiescruisingmayaccountformorethan10%ofthelocal
circulationasdriverscanspend20minuteslookingforaparkingspot.Thispracticeisoften
judgedmoreeconomicallyeffectivethanusingapayingoffstreetparkingfacilityasthetime
spentlookingforafree(orlowcost)parkingspaceascompensatedbythemonetarysavings.
Also,manydeliveryvehicleswillsimplydoubleparkattheclosestpossiblespottounload
theircargo.
Longercommuting.Onparwithcongestionpeoplearespendinganincreasingamountof
timecommutingbetweentheirresidenceandworkplace.Animportantfactorbehindthis
trendisrelatedtoresidentialaffordabilityashousinglocatedfurtherawayfromcentralareas
(wheremostoftheemploymentremains)ismoreaffordable.Therefore,commutersare
tradingtimeforhousingaffordability.However,longcommutingislinkedwithseveralsocial
problems,suchasisolation,aswellaspoorerhealth(obesity).
Publictransportinadequacy.Manypublictransitsystems,orpartsofthem,areeitherover
orunderused.Duringpeakhours,crowdednesscreatesdiscomfortforusersasthesystem
copeswithatemporarysurgeindemand.Lowridershipmakesmanyservicesfinancially
unsustainable,particularlyinsuburbanareas.Inspiteofsignificantsubsidiesandcross
financing(e.g.tolls)almosteverypublictransitsystemscannotgeneratesufficientincometo
coveritsoperatingandcapitalcosts.Whileinthepastdeficitsweredeemedacceptable
becauseoftheessentialservicepublictransitwasprovidingforurbanmobility,itsfinancial
burdenisincreasinglycontroversial.
Difficultiesfornonmotorizedtransport.Thesedifficultiesareeithertheoutcomeofintense
traffic,wherethemobilityofpedestrians,bicyclesandvehiclesisimpaired,butalsobecause
ofablatantlackofconsiderationforpedestriansandbicyclesinthephysicaldesignof
infrastructuresandfacilities.
https://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch6en/conc6en/ch6c4en.html

THIRDEDITION
JeanPaulRodrigue(2013),
NewYork:Routledge,416
pages.
ISBN9780415822541

RelatedTopics
Transportationandthe
UrbanForm
UrbanLandUseand
Transportation
UrbanMobility
CityLogistics
Transportationand
Sustainability

Media

CentralBusinessDistrictMonthly
ParkingRate

ParkinginaPublicPark,Brussels

LandAreaConsumedbytheCar
inSelectedCountries

PercentageofHouseholdsby
NumberofVehicles

GeographicalParadoxesbehind
UrbanTransportProblems

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Lossofpublicspace.Themajorityofroadsarepubliclyownedandfreeofaccess.Increased
traffichasadverseimpactsonpublicactivitieswhichoncecrowdedthestreetssuchas
markets,agoras,paradesandprocessions,games,andcommunityinteractions.Thesehave
graduallydisappearedtobereplacedbyautomobiles.Inmanycases,theseactivitieshave
shiftedtoshoppingmallswhileinothercases,theyhavebeenabandonedaltogether.Traffic
flowsinfluencethelifeandinteractionsofresidentsandtheirusageofstreetspace.More
trafficimpedessocialinteractionsandstreetactivities.Peopletendtowalkandcycleless
whentrafficishigh.
Highmaintenancecosts.Citieswithanagingoftheirtransportinfrastructurearefacing
growingmaintenancecostsaswellaspressurestoupgradetomoremoderninfrastructure.In
additiontotheinvolvedcosts,maintenanceandrepairactivitiescreatecirculation
disruptions.Delayedmaintenanceisrathercommonsinceitconveysthebenefitofkeeping
currentcostslow,butattheexpenseofhigherfuturecostsandonsomeoccasiontheriskof
infrastructurefailure.Themoreextensivetheroadandhighwaynetwork,thehigherthe
maintenancecostandthefinancialburden.
Environmentalimpactsandenergyconsumption.Pollution,includingnoise,generatedby
circulationhasbecomeaseriousimpedimenttothequalityoflifeandeventhehealthof
urbanpopulations.Further,energyconsumptionbyurbantransportationhasdramatically
increasedandsothedependencyonpetroleum.Yet,peakoilconsiderationsareincreasingly
linkedwithpeakmobilityexpectationswherehighenergypricesinciteashifttowardsmore
efficientandsustainableformsofurbantransportation,namelypublictransit.
Accidentsandsafety.Growingtrafficinurbanareasislinkedwithagrowingnumberof
accidentsandfatalities,especiallyindevelopingcountries.Accidentsaccountforasignificant
shareofrecurringdelays.Astrafficincreases,peoplefeellesssafetousethestreets.
Landconsumption.Theterritorialimprintoftransportationissignificant,particularlyforthe
automobile.Between30and60%ofametropolitanareamaybedevotedtotransportation,
anoutcomeoftheoverrelianceonsomeformsofurbantransportation.Yet,thisland
consumptionalsounderlinesthestrategicimportanceoftransportationintheeconomicand
socialwelfareofcities.
Freightdistribution.Globalizationandthematerializationoftheeconomyhaveresultedin
growingquantitiesoffreightmovingwithincities.Asfreighttrafficcommonlyshares
infrastructureswiththecirculationofpassengers,themobilityoffreightinurbanareashas
becomeincreasinglyproblematic.Citylogisticsstrategiescanbeestablishedtomitigatethe
varietyofchallengesfacedbyurbanfreightdistribution.
Manydimensionstotheurbantransportchallengearelinkedwiththedominanceofthe
automobile.

CityLogisticsandLandUse

FactorsContributingtothe
GrowthofDriving

LevelsofAutomobileDependency

IndicatorsofAutomobile
Dependency

HometoWorkTripsModes,
UnitedStates

AnnualVehicleMilesTraveledin
theUnitedStatesandYearover
YearChanges

ViciousCircleofCongestion

2.AutomobileDependency
Automobileuseisobviouslyrelatedtoavarietyofadvantagessuchasondemandmobility,
comfort,status,speed,andconvenience.Theseadvantagesjointlyillustratewhyautomobile
ownershipcontinuestogrowworldwide,especiallyinurbanareas.Whengiventhechoiceandthe
opportunity,mostindividualswillpreferusinganautomobile.Severalfactorsinfluencethe
growthofthetotalvehiclefleet,suchassustainedeconomicgrowth(increaseinincomeand
qualityoflife),complexindividualurbanmovementpatterns(manyhouseholdshavemorethan
oneautomobile),moreleisuretimeandsuburbanization.Therefore,risingautomobilemobility
canbeperceivedasapositiveconsequenceofeconomicdevelopment.Theacutegrowthinthe
totalnumberofvehiclesalsogivesrisetocongestionatpeaktraffichoursonmajor
thoroughfares,inbusinessdistrictsandoftenthroughoutthemetropolitanarea.
Citiesareimportantgeneratorsandattractorsofmovements,whichhavecreatedasetof
geographicalparadoxesthatareselfreinforcing.Forinstance,specializationleadstoadditional
transportdemandswhileagglomerationleadstocongestion.Overtime,astateofautomobile
dependencyhasemergedwhichresultsinadiminutionintheroleofothermodes,thereby
limitingstillfurtheralternativestourbanmobility.Inadditiontothefactorscontributingtothe
growthofdriving,twomajorfactorscontributingtoautomobiledependencyare:
Underpricingandconsumerchoices.Mostroadinfrastructuresaresubsidizedastheyare
consideredapublicservice.Consequently,driversdonotbearthefullcostofautomobileuse.
Likethe"TragedyoftheCommons",whenaresourceisfreeofaccess(road),ittendstobe
overusedandabused(congestion).Thisisalsoreflectedinconsumerchoice,where
automobileownershipisasymbolofstatus,freedomandprestige,especiallyindeveloping
https://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch6en/conc6en/ch6c4en.html

BackwardPropagationofaTraffic
Jam

100MostCongestedHighway
IntersectionsintheUnitedStates,
2006

AverageNumberofHoursof
DelayperMotorCommuterper
Year,SelectedAmericanCities

RoadwayCongestionIndexper
Year,SelectedAmericanCities
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countries.Singlehomeownershipalsoreinforcesautomobiledependency.
Planningandinvestmentpractices.Planningandtheensuingallocationofpublicfundsaim
towardsimprovingroadandparkingfacilitiesinanongoingattempttoavoidcongestion.
Othertransportationalternativestendtobedisregarded.Inmanycases,zoningregulations
imposeminimumstandardsofroadandparkingservicesanddefactoimposearegulated
automobiledependency.
Thereareseverallevelsofautomobiledependency,rangingfromlowtoacute,withtheir
correspondinglandusepatternsandalternativestomobility.Amongthemostrelevantindicators
ofautomobiledependencyarethelevelofvehicleownership,percapitamotorvehiclemileage
andtheproportionoftotalcommutingtripsmadeusinganautomobile.Asituationofhigh
automobiledependencyisreachedwhenmorethanthreequartersofcommutingtripsaredone
usingtheautomobile.FortheUnitedStates,thisproportionhasremainedaround88%overthe
recentdecades.Automobiledependencyisalsoservedbyaculturalandcommercialsystem
promotingtheautomobileasasymbolofstatusandpersonalfreedom,namelythroughintense
advertisingandenticementstopurchasenewautomobiles.Notsurprisingly,manydeveloping
countriesperceivemotorizationasaconditionfordevelopment.Evenifthetermautomobile
dependencyisoftennegativelyperceivedandfavoredbymarketdistortionssuchastheprovision
ofroads,itsoutcomereflectsthechoiceofindividualswhoseetheautomobilemoreasan
advantagethananinconvenience.
Thesecondhalfofthe20thcenturysawtheadaptationofmanycitiesinNorthAmericaand
Europetoautomobilecirculation.Motorizedtransportationwasseenasapowerfulsymbolof
modernityanddevelopment.Highwayswereconstructed,streetswereenlarged,andparkinglots
weresetoftendisruptingtheexistingurbanfabricwiththecreationofmotorizedcities.However,
fromthe1980s,motorizationstartedtobeseenmorenegativelyandseveralcitiesimplemented
policiestolimitautomobilecirculation,atleastinspecificareas,byasetofstrategiesincluding:
Dissuasion.Althoughautomobilecirculationispermitted,itisimpededbyregulationsand
physicalplanning.Forinstance,parkingspacecanbeseverelylimitedandspeedbumps
placedtoforcespeedreduction.
Prohibitionofdowntowncirculation.Duringmostofthedaythedowntownareaisclosedto
automobilecirculationbutdeliveriesarepermittedduringthenight.Suchstrategiesareoften
undertakentoprotectthecharacterandthephysicalinfrastructuresofanhistoricalcity.They
dohowever,likemostpolicies,haveunintendedconsequences.Ifmobilityisrestrainedin
certainlocationsorduringcertaintimeperiods,peoplewillsimplygoelsewhere(longer
movements)ordefertheirmobilityforanothertime(moremovements).
Tolls.Imposingtollsforparkingandentry(congestionpricing)tosomepartsofthecityhas
beenastrategybeingconsideredseriouslyinmanyareaasitconfersthepotentialadvantage
ofcongestionmitigationandrevenuegeneration.Mostevidenceunderlineshoweverthat
driversarewillingtobearadditionaltollcostsfortheconvenienceofusingacar,especially
forcommutingsinceitislinkedwiththeirmainsourceofincome.
Tentativesolutionshavebeenputforthsuchastransportplanningmeasures(synchronizedtraffic
lights,regulatedparking),limitedvehicletrafficinselectedareas,thepromotionofbicyclepaths
andpublictransit.InMexicoCity,vehicleuseisprohibitedaccordingtolicenseplatenumbersand
thedate(evenuneven).Affluentfamilieshavesolvedthisissuebypurchasingasecondvehicle,
thusworseningtheexistingsituation.Singaporeistheonlycountryintheworldwhichhas
successfullycontrolledtheamountandgrowthrateofitsvehiclefleetbyimposingaheavytax
burdenandpurchasingpermitsonautomobileowners.Suchacommandbasedapproachis
unlikelytobepossibleinothercontexts.
Thereisagrowingbodyofevidenceunderliningthatapeaklevelofcarmobilityisunfolding,at
leastindevelopedcountries.Higherenergyprices,congestionandthegeneralagingofthe
populationareallcountervailingforcestocardependency.Forinstance,since2006theamountof
vehiclemilestraveledintheUnitedStateshaspeaked,aprocessassociatedwithhigherenergy
pricesandastrongrecession.Therearemanyalternativestoautomobiledependencysuchas
intermodality(combiningtheadvantagesofindividualandcollectivetransport),carpooling
(strengthenedbypolicyandregulationbytheUSgovernment)ornonmotorizedtransportation
(walkingandcycling).Thesealternativescanonlybepartiallyimplementedastheautomobile
remainsontheshortandmediumtermstheprimechoiceforprovidingurbanmobility.

3.Congestion
https://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch6en/conc6en/ch6c4en.html

CitySizeandRoadwayCongestion
Index,UnitedStates

AverageDailyCommutingTime,
EuropeanandNorthAmerican
Countries

UrbanDensityandDrivingSpeed,
SelectedGlobalCities

ParkingAccumulationbyLand
UsebyTimeoftheDay

MajorSourcesofRecurringand
NonRecurringCongestion

RecurringCongestion

AverageHourlyTrafficonGeorge
WashingtonBridge,2002

HometoWorkCommuteProfile,
UnitedStates

BicyclePool,Paris,France

TransitUseandCarOwnershipin
SelectedCities,1993

LargestSubwaySystemsinthe
WorldbyAnnualRidership

EstimatedRidershipofthe
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UrbanTransportChallenges

Congestionoccurswhentransportdemandexceedstransportsupplyataspecific
pointintimeandinaspecificsectionofthetransportsystem.Undersuch
circumstances,eachvehicleimpairsthemobilityofothers.
Congestioncanbeperceivedasanunavoidableconsequenceoftheusageofscarcetransport
resources,particularlyiftheyarenotpriced.Thelastdecadeshaveseentheextensionofroadsin
urbanareas,mostofthemfreeofaccess.Thoseinfrastructuresweredesignedforspeedandhigh
capacity,butthegrowthofurbancirculationoccurredataratehigherthanoftenexpected.
Investmentscamefromdiverselevelsofgovernmentwithaviewtoprovideaccessibilitytocities
andregions.Therewerestrongincentivesfortheexpansionofroadtransportationbyproviding
highlevelsoftransportsupply.Thishascreatedaviciouscircleofcongestionwhichsupportsthe
constructionofadditionalroadcapacityandautomobiledependency.Urbancongestionmainly
concernstwodomainsofcirculation,oftensharingthesameinfrastructures:
Passengers.Inmanyregionsoftheworldincomeshavesignificantlyincreasedtothepoint
thatoneautomobileperhouseholdormoreiscommon.Accesstoanautomobileconveys
flexibilityintermsofthechoiceoforigin,destinationandtraveltime.Theautomobileis
favoredattheexpenseofothermodesformosttrips,includingcommuting.Forinstance,
automobilesaccountforthebulkofcommutingtripsintheUnitedStates.Themajorityof
automobilerelatedcongestionistheoutcomeoftimepreferencesintheusageofvehicles
(duringcommutinghours)aswellasasubstantialamountofspacerequiredtoparkvehicles.
About95%ofthetimeanautomobileisidle.
Freight.Severalindustrieshaveshiftedtheirtransportneedstotrucking,therebyincreasing
theusageofroadinfrastructure.Sincecitiesarethemaindestinationsforfreightflows
(eitherforconsumptionorfortransfertootherlocations)truckingaddstofurthercongestion
inurbanareas.The"lastmile"problemremainsparticularlyprevalentforfreightdistribution
inurbanareas.Congestioniscommonlylinkedwithadropinthefrequencyofdeliveriestying
additionalcapacitytoinsureasimilarlevelofservice.

WorldsLargestPublicTransit
Systems,1998

TripsbyPublicTransportinthe
UnitedStates

FareboxRecoveryRatio,Selected
TransitSystems

TransitFarefortheNewYorkCity
Subway,1904(inflationadjusted)

SpatialStructureChallengesof
UrbanTransit

Itisimportanttounderlinethatcongestioninurbanareasisdominantlycausedbycommuting
patternsandlittlebytruckmovements.Onaverage,infrastructureprovisionwasnotabletokeep
upwiththegrowthinthenumberofvehicles,evenmorewiththetotalnumberofvehicleskm.
Duringinfrastructureimprovementandconstruction,capacityimpairment(feweravailablelanes,
closedsections,etc.)favorscongestion.Importanttraveldelaysoccurwhenthecapacitylimitis
reachedorexceeded,whichisthecaseofalmostallmetropolitanareas.Inthelargestcitiessuch
asLondon,roadtrafficisactuallyslowerthanitwas100yearsago.Marginaldelaysarethus
increasinganddrivingspeedbecomesproblematicasthelevelofpopulationdensityincreases.
Onceapopulationthresholdofabout1millionisreached,citiesstarttoexperiencerecurring
congestionproblems.Thisobservationmustbenuancedbynumerousfactorsrelatedtotheurban
setting,modalpreferencesandthequalityofexistingurbantransportinfrastructures.
Largecitieshavebecomecongestedmostoftheday,andcongestionwasgettingmoreacutein
the1990sand2000sandthenleveledoffinmanycases.Forinstance,averagecartravelspeeds
havesubstantiallydeclinedinChina,withmanycitiesexperiencinganaveragedrivingspeedof
lessthan20km/hrwithcardensityexceeding200carsperkmofroad,afigurecomparableto
manydevelopedcountries.Anotherimportantconsiderationconcernsparking,whichconsumes
largeamountsofspaceandprovideslimitedeconomicbenefit.Inautomobiledependentcities,
thiscanbeveryconstrainingaseacheconomicactivityhastoprovideanamountofparkingspace
proportionaltotheirlevelofactivity.Parkinghasbecomealandusethatgreatlyinflatesthe
demandforurbanland.
Urbanmobilityalsorevealscongestionpatterns.Dailytripscanbeeithermandatory
(workplacehome)orvoluntary(shopping,leisure,visits).Theformerisoftenperformedwithin
fixedscheduleswhilethelattercomplieswithvariableanddiscretionaryschedules.
Correspondingly,congestioncomesintwomajorforms:
Recurrentcongestion.Theconsequenceoffactorsthatcauseregulardemandsurgesonthe
transportationsystem,suchascommuting,shoppingorweekendtrips.However,even
recurrentcongestioncanhaveunforeseenimpactsintermsofitsdurationandseverity.
Mandatorytripsaremainlyresponsibleforthepeaksincirculationflows,implyingthatabout
halfthecongestioninurbanareasisrecurringatspecifictimesofthedayandonspecific
segmentsofthetransportsystem.
Nonrecurrentcongestion.Theotherhalfofcongestioniscausedbyrandomeventssuchas
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accidentsandunusualweatherconditions(rain,snowstorms,etc.),whichareunexpected
andunplanned.Nonrecurrentcongestionislinkedtothepresenceandeffectivenessof
incidentresponsestrategies.Asfarasaccidentsareconcerned,theirrandomnessis
influencedbytheleveloftrafficasthehigherthetrafficonspecificroadsegmentsthehigher
theprobabilityofaccidents.
Behavioralandresponsetimeeffectsarealsoimportantasinasystemrunningclosetocapacity,
simplybreakingsuddenlymaytriggerwhatcanbeknownasabackwardtravelingwave.Itimplies
thatasvehiclesareforcedtostop,thebottleneckmovesupthelocationitinitiallytookplaceat,
oftenleavingdriverspuzzledaboutitscause.Thespatialconvergenceoftrafficcausesasurcharge
ontransportinfrastructuresuptothepointwherecongestioncanleadtothetotalimmobilization
oftraffic.Notonlydoesthemassiveuseoftheautomobilehaveanimpactontrafficcirculation
andcongestion,butitalsoleadstothedeclineinpublictransitefficiencywhenbotharesharing
thesameroads.

4.MitigatingCongestion
Insomeareas,theautomobileistheonlymodeforwhichinfrastructuresareprovided.This
implieslesscapacityforusingalternativemodessuchtransit,walkingandcycling.Atsomelevels
ofdensity,nopublicinfrastructureinvestmentcanbejustifiedintermsofeconomicreturns.
Longercommutingtripsintermsofaveragetraveltime,theresultoffragmentedlandusesand
congestionlevelsareasignificanttrend.Convergenceoftrafficatmajorhighwaysthatservevast
lowdensityareaswithhighlevelsofautomobileownershipandlowlevelsofautomobile
occupancy.Theresultisenergy(fuel)wastedduringcongestion(additionaltime)and
supplementarycommutingdistances.Inautomobiledependentcities,afewmeasurescanhelp
alleviatecongestiontosomeextent:
Rampmetering.Controllingtheaccesstoacongestedhighwaybylettingautomobilesinone
atatimeinsteadofingroups.Theoutcomeisalowerdisruptiononhighwaytrafficflows.
Trafficsignalsynchronization.Tuningthetrafficsignalstothetimeanddirectionoftraffic
flows.Thisisparticularlyeffectiveifthesignalscanbeadjustedonanhourlybasistoreflect
changesincommutingpatterns.
Incidentmanagement.Makingsurethatvehiclesinvolvedinaccidentsormechanicalfailures
areremovedasquicklyaspossiblefromtheroad.Sinceaccidentonaverageaccount
between20and30%ofallthecausesofcongestion,thisstrategyisparticularlyimportant.
Carownershiprestrictions.Severalcitiesandcountries(e.g.Singapore)havequotasinthe
numberoflicenseplatesthatcanbeissuedorrequirehighlicensingfees.Topurchasea
vehicleanindividualthusmustfirstsecurethroughanauctionalicense.
Carpooling.Concernstwoissues.Thefirstandmostcommonisanindividualproviding
ridershiptopeople(oftencoworkers)havingasimilarorigin,destinationandcommuting
time.Twoormorevehicletripscanthusbecombinedintoone.Thesecondinvolvesapoolof
vehicles(mostlycars,butalsobicycles)thatcanbeleasedforshortdurationswhenmobility
isrequired.Adequatemeasuresmustbetakensothatsupplyanddemandareeffectively
matched.
HOVlanes.HighOccupancyVehicle(HOV)lanesinsurethatvehicleswith2ormore
passengers(buses,taxis,vans,carpool,etc.)haveexclusiveaccesstoalesscongestedlane,
particularlyduringpeakhours.
Congestionpricing.Avarietyofmeasuresaimedatimposingchargesonspecificsegmentsor
regionsofthetransportsystem,mainlyasatoll.Thechargescanalsochangeduringtheday
toreflectcongestionlevelssothatdriversareincitedtoconsiderothertimeperiodsorother
modes.
Parkingmanagement.Removingparkingorfreeparkingspacescanbeaneffective
dissuasiontoolsinceitreducescruisingandenablesthosewillingtopaytoaccessanarea
(e.g.forashortshoppingstop).
Publictransit.Offeringalternativestodrivingthatcansignificantlyimproveefficiency,
notablyifitcirculatesonitsowninfrastructure(subway,lightrail,busesonreservedlanes,
etc.)andiswellintegratedwithinacity'sdevelopmentplans.However,publictransithasits
ownsetofissues(seenextsection).
Nonmotorizedtransportation.Sincethegreatmajorityofurbantripsareovershort
distances,nonmotorizedmodes,particularlywalkingandcycling,haveanimportantrollto
playinsupportingurbanmobility.Theprovisionofadequateinfrastructure,suchas
sidewalks,isoftenalowpriorityasnonmotorizedtransportationisoftenperceivedasnot
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moderninspiteoftheimportantroleitneedstoassumeinurbanareas.
Allthesemeasuresonlypartiallyaddresstheissueofcongestion,astheyalleviate,butdonot
solvetheproblem.Fundamentally,congestionremainsafailureatreconcilingmobilitydemands
andacutesupplyconstraints.

5.TheUrbanTransitChallenge
Ascitiescontinuetobecomemoredispersed,thecostofbuildingandoperatingpublic
transportationsystemsincreases.Forinstance,asof2012about184urbanagglomerationshave
asubwaysystem,thegreatmajorityofthembeingindevelopedcountries.Furthermore,
dispersedresidentialpatternscharacteristicofautomobiledependentcitiesmakespublic
transportationsystemslessconvenienttosupporturbanmobility.Inmanycitiesadditional
investmentsinpublictransitdidnotresultinsignificantadditionalridership.Unplannedand
uncoordinatedlanddevelopmenthasledtorapidexpansionoftheurbanperiphery.Residents,by
selectinghousinginoutlyingareas,restricttheirpotentialaccesstopublictransportation.Over
investment(wheninvestmentsdonotappeartoimplysignificantbenefits)andunderinvestment
(whenthereisasubstantialunmetdemand)inpublictransitarebothcomplexchallenges.
Urbantransitisoftenperceivedasthemostefficienttransportationmodeforurbanareas,
notablylargecities.However,surveysrevealastagnationofpublictransitsystems,especiallyin
NorthAmerica.Theeconomicrelevanceofpublictransitisbeingquestioned.Mosturbantransit
developmentshadlittle,ifanyimpactstoalleviatecongestioninspiteofmountingcostsand
heavysubsidies.Thisparadoxispartiallyexplainedbythespatialstructureofcontemporarycities
whichareorientedalongservicingtheneedsoftheindividual,notnecessarilytheneedsofthe
collectivity.Thus,theautomobileremainsthepreferredmodeofurbantransportation.In
addition,publictransitispubliclyowned,implyingthatitisapoliticallymotivatedservicethat
provideslimitedeconomicreturns.Evenintransitorientedcities,transitsystemsdepend
massivelyongovernmentsubsidies.Littleornocompetitionispermittedaswagesandfaresare
regulated,undermininganypriceadjustmentstochangesinridership.Thus,publictransitoften
servesthepurposeofasocialfunction("publicservice")asitprovidesaccessibilityandsocial
equity,butwithlimitedrelationshipswitheconomicactivities.Amongthemostdifficult
challengesfacingurbantransitare:
Decentralization.Publictransitsystemsarenotdesignedtoservicelowdensityandscattered
urbanareasthatareincreasinglydominatingthelandscape.Thegreaterthedecentralization
ofurbanactivities,themoredifficultandexpensiveitbecomestoserveurbanareaswith
publictransit.Additionally,decentralizationpromoteslongdistancetripsontransitsystems
causinghigheroperatingcostsandrevenueissuesforflatfaretransitsystems.
Fixity.Theinfrastructuresofseveralpublictransitsystems,notablyrailandsubwaysystems
arefixed,whilecitiesaredynamicalentities,evenifthepaceofchangecantakedecades.
Thisimpliesthattravelpatternstendtochangeandthatatransitsystembuiltforservicinga
specificpatternmayeventuallyface"spatialobsolescence".
Connectivity.Publictransitsystemsareoftenindependentfromothermodesandterminals.
Itisconsequentlydifficulttotransferpassengersfromonesystemtotheother.Thisleadsto
aparadoxbetweenthepreferenceofriderstohavedirectconnectionsandtheneedto
provideacostefficientservicenetworkthatinvolvestransfers.
Competition.Inviewofcheapandubiquitousroadtransportsystems,publictransitfaced
strongcompetitionandlossridershipinrelativetermsandinsomecasesinabsoluteterms.
Thehigherthelevelofautomobiledependency,themoreinappropriatethepublictransit
levelofservice.Thepublicservicebeingofferedissimplyoutpacedbytheconvenienceofthe
automobile.However,changesinenergypricesarelikelytoimposeanewequilibriuminthis
relationship.
Financingandfarestructures.Historically,mostpublictransitsystemshaveabandoneda
distancebasedfarestructureforasimplerflatfaresystem.Thishadtheunintended
consequenceofdiscouragingshorttripsforwhichmosttransitsystemsarewellsuitedfor,
andencouraginglongertripsthattendtobemorecostlyperuserthanthefaresthey
generate.Informationsystemsofferthepossibilityfortransitsystemstomovebacktoa
moreequitabledistancebasedfarestructure,particularlywiththeusageofsmartcardsthat
enabletochargeaccordingtothepointofentryandexitwithinthepublictransitsystem.
Legacycosts.Mostpublictransitsystemsemployunionizedlaborthathaveconsistentlyused
strikes(orthethreatofastrike)andtheacutedisruptionstheycreateasleverageto
negotiatefavorablecontracts,includinghealthandretirementbenefits.Sincepublictransitis
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UrbanTransportChallenges

subsidizedthesecostswerenotwellreflectedinthefaresystems.Inmanytransitsystems,
additionalsubsidieswentintocompensationortocoverpastdebt,andnotnecessarilyinto
performanceimprovementsoradditionalinfrastructure.Asmostgovernmentsarefacing
stringentbudgetaryconstraintsbecauseofunsustainablesocialwelfarecommitments,public
transitagenciesarebeingforcedtoreassesstheirbudgetsthroughanunpopularmixof
higherfares,deferredmaintenanceandthebreakingoflaborcontracts.Theeraofpublic
transitasawelfareagencyprovidingcompensationandbenefitswellabovethequalifications
andtheproductivityofitslabormaybedrawingtoanend.
Thereareindicationsthatpublictransitisreassessingitsroleinsocietieswithhighlevelsof
automobiledependency.Theriseinpetroleumpricessince2006hasincreasedthecostofvehicle
ownershipandoperation.Ayoungergenerationisperceivingtheautomobileasalessattractive
propositionthanthepriorgenerationsandismorewillingtousepublictransitandliveinhigher
densityareas.Electronicfaresystemsarealsomakingtheutilizationofpublictransitmore
convenient.Arecenttrendconcernstheusageofincentives,suchaspointsystems(e.g.airmiles
withpurchaseofamonthlypass)tofurtherpromotetheuseofpublictransitandtoinfluence
consumerbehavior.Yet,evidenceunderlinesthattheinflationadjustedcostofusingpublic
transitisincreasing,implyingthatthecostadvantageofusingpublictransitinsteadofthe
automobileisnotchanging.
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